Occupational Safety Management and Engineering: Workplace hazards 2-1

2 WORKPLACE HAZARDS
Hazards have existed from which accidents have come about from the earliest of times: falls from elevated
places, cuts from sharp objects, impacts from falling trees and rocks, fires, drowning, and similar primordial
events. Since the initiation, growth and benefits of tools people have been exposed more and more to increas-
ingly complex hazards in addition to the primordial ones that still take place, all causing accidents and inju-
ries.
Possibilities of accidents have been increasing not only in types but in magnitudes, especially in indus-
tries like chemical plants whose accidents affect entire areas and very large groups of people. Newly created
and discovered hazards and accidents as those in Bhopal (India) and nuclear power plants such as Chernobyl
(the Soviets) have increased apprehension regarding the safety and well-being of workers and the public be-
cause of failures and accidents.
2.1 Definition of hazard and related terms
The terminology used in OSH varies between countries, but generally speaking:

A hazard is something that can cause harm if not controlled.

The outcome is the harm that results from an uncontrolled hazard.

A risk is a combination of the likelihood of a particular outcome and the severity of the harm involved.

“Hazard”, “risk”, and “outcome” are used in other fields to describe e.g. environmental damage, or dam-
age to equipment. However, in the context of OSH, “outcome” generally describes the direct or indirect deg-
radation, temporary or permanent, of the physical, mental, or social well-being of workers. For example, re-
petitively carrying out manual handling of heavy objects is a hazard. The outcome would be a
musculoskeletal disorder. The risk can be expressed numerically, (e.g. a 0,5 or 50/50 chance of the outcome
occurring during a year), qualitatively as "high/medium/low", or using a more complicated classification
scheme.
The above terms are widely used but often in diverse ways. This section will be oriented towards occu-
pational (workplace) hazards. Therefore Box 2.1 contains clarification of the term “hazard” and its relation-
ships to other related terms often used in OSH [Hammer and Price 2001: 190].

Box 2.1: explanation of terms related to the term “hazard”

Hazard: condition with the potential of causing injury to personnel, damage to
equipment or structures, loss of material, or lessening of the ability to perform a
described function. When a hazard is present, the possibility exists of these ad-
verse effects occurring.

Danger: expresses a relative exposure to a hazard. A hazard may be present, but

there may be little danger because of the precautions taken.

A person working on a very high structure is subject to a hazard that he

could fall to his death. When he wears an anchored safety harness, the danger is
reduced but is still present since the harness might brake.
A high-voltage transformer bank, such as those in power transmission sys-
tems, has an inherent hazard of electrocuting someone as long as it is energized.
A high degree of hazard exists if the bank is unprotected in the middle of a busy,
inhabited area (Figure 2.1). The same hazard is present even when the trans-
formers are completely enclosed in a locked underground vault. However, there
is almost no danger to personnel. An above ground installation with a high fence
and locked gate has a danger level between these two.

Damage: severity of injury or the physical, functional, or monetary loss that

could result if control of hazard is lost (Figure 2.2).

An unprotected man falling from a steel beam 3 m above a concrete pave-

ment might suffer a sprained ankle or broken leg. He would be killed in a similar

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Occupational Safety Management and Engineering: Workplace hazards 2-2

fall from 90 m. The hazard (possibility) and danger (exposure) of falling are the
same. The difference is in the severity of damage that would result if a fall oc-
curred.

The same hazard of electrocuting an energized person:

transformer bank in power transmission system
High fence with
locked gate

Locked underground vault

Unprotected: Completely enclosed: Enclosed by a fence:

maximum danger almost no danger intermediate level of
to personnel to personnel danger to personnel

Figure 2.1 An illustration of the relation between the terms “hazard” and “danger”: a case of a protection of a trans-
former bank

Outcome or consequences
Hazard 1 Damage:
Hazard 2 Loss of Injury
Accident
M control Physical loss
Hazard n Functional loss
Monetary loss

Pre-accident time Moment of

Post-accident time
of exposure accident

Figure 2.2 Relation between terms “hazard”, “outcome”, “damage”

An occupational hazard is a situation which poses a level of threat to a worker consumer, or other indi-
vidual. The potential “targets” of hazard are

Life

Health

Property

Environment

Most hazards are dormant or potential, with only a theoretical risk of harm; however, once a hazard be-
comes “active”, it can create an emergency situation which can result in an accident.
A hazard is defined in the Federal Aviation Administration (US) Order 8040.4 as a “Condition, event, or
circumstance that could lead to or contribute to an unplanned or undesirable event.” [FAA 2009]. Seldom
does a single hazard cause an accident. More often, an accident occurs as the result of a sequence of causes.
A hazard analysis will consider system state, for example operating environment, as well as failures or mal-
functions.
2.2 Modes of a hazard
A hazard is usually used to describe a potentially harmful situation, although not usually the event itself -
once the accident has started it is classified as an emergency or accident. There are a number of modes for a
hazard, which include:

Dormant: the situation has the potential to be hazardous, but no people, property or environment is cur-
rently affected by this. For instance, a hillside way be unstable, with the potential for a landslide, but
there is nothing below or on the hillside which could be affected.

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Occupational Safety Management and Engineering: Workplace hazards 2-3

Potential (“armed”): the situation where the hazard is in the position to affect persons, property or envi-
ronment. This type of hazard is likely to require further risk assessment.

Active: the hazard is certain to cause harm, as no intervention is possible before the accident occurs.

Mitigated: a potential hazard has been identified, but actions have been taken in order to ensure it does
not become an accident. This may not be an absolute guarantee of no risk, but it is likely to have been
undertaken to significantly reduce the danger.
2.3 Causes of hazards
There are many causes of hazards, but they can broadly be termed in to:

Natural: natural hazards include anything which is caused by a natural process, and can include obvious
hazards such as volcanoes to smaller scale hazards such as loose rocks on a hillside.

Man-made: hazards created by humans, which includes a huge array of possibilities, probably too many
to list, as it includes long term (and sometimes disputed) effects such as global warming to immediate
hazards such as building sites.

Activity related: some hazards are created by the undertaking of a certain activity, and the cessation of
the activity will negate the risk. This includes hazards such as flying.
2.4 Risk-based classification of hazards
By its nature, a hazard involves something which could potentially be harmful to a person’s life, health,
property or to the environment. There are a number of methods of classifying a hazard, but most systems use
some variation on the factors of likelihood of the hazard turning into an accident (accident likelihood) and
the severity of the accident if it were to occur.
A common method is to score both likelihood and severity on a numerical scale (with the most likely
and most serious scoring highest) and multiplying one by the other in order to reach a comparative score.
Risk = Likelihood of occurrence × Seriousness of accident occurred (2.1)
This score can then be used to identify which hazards may need to be mitigated. A low score on likeli-
hood of occurrence may mean that the hazard is dormant, whereas a high score would indicate that it may be
an active hazard.
While in some cases the risk (2.1) can be eliminated, in most cases a certain degree of risk must be ac-
cepted. In order to quantify expected accident costs before the fact, the potential consequences of an acci-
dent, and the probability of occurrence must be considered. Assessment of risk is made by combining the
severity of consequence with the likelihood of occurrence in a matrix called also the risk matrix [e.g. Ayyub:
70]. Examples of these two components of risk are given in Tables 2.1 and 2.2. An example risk matrix is
shown in Fig 2.4. Risks that fall into the "unacceptable" or “high risk” category (e.g., high severity and high
probability) must be mitigated by some means to reduce the level of safety risk.
2.5 Common workplace hazard groups
Workplace hazards are often grouped into physical hazards, physical agents, chemical agents, biological
agents, and psychosocial issues.
2.5.1 Physical hazards
Physical hazards are mostly mechanical and electrical phenomena arising from the workplace environment
and are usually man-made and intrinsic to the work. Physical hazards include:

Slips and trips

Falls from height

Workplace transport

Dangerous machinery

Pressure vessels

Electricity

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Table 2.1 Severity definitions

Severity Definition
Catastrophic Results in multiple fatalities and/or loss of the system
Reduces the capability of the system or the operator ability to cope with adverse conditions to the
extent that there would be:

Large reduction in safety margin or functional capability
Hazardous
Crew physical distress/excessive workload such that operators cannot be relied upon to per-
form required tasks accurately or completely

Serious or fatal injury to small number of occupants of aircraft (except operators)

Fatal injury to ground personnel and/or general public
Reduces the capability of the system or the operators to cope with adverse operating conditions to
the extent that there would be:

Significant reduction in safety margin or functional capability

Significant increase in operator workload
Major
Conditions impairing operator efficiency or creating significant discomfort

Physical distress to occupants of aircraft (except operator)

including injuries

Major occupational illness and/or major environmental damage, and/or major property dam-
age
Does not significantly reduce system safety. Actions required by operators are well within their
capabilities. Include:

Slight reduction in safety margin or functional capabilities
Minor
Slight increase in workload such as routine flight plan changes

Some physical discomfort to occupants or aircraft (except operators)

Minor occupational illness and/or minor environmental damage, and/or minor property dam-
age
None Has no effect on safety

Table 2.2 Likelihood of occurrence

Likelihood Definition
Qualitative: Anticipated to occur one or more times during the entire system/operational life
Probable of an item.
Quantitative: Probability of occurrence per operational hour is greater than 1×10–5
Qualitative: Unlikely to occur to each item during its total life. May occur several times in
the life of an entire system or fleet.
Remote
Quantitative: Probability of occurrence per operational hour is less than 1×10–5, but greater
than 1×10–7
Qualitative: Not anticipated to occur to each item during its total life. May occur a few times
in the life of an entire system or fleet.
Extremely Remote
Quantitative: Probability of occurrence per operational hour is less than 1×10–7 but greater
than 1×10–9
Qualitative: So unlikely that it is not anticipated to occur during the entire operational life of
Extremely Improbable an entire system or fleet.
Quantitative: Probability of occurrence per operational hour is less than 1×10–9

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Occupational Safety Management and Engineering: Workplace hazards 2-5

Probable L M H H H

Likelihood Remote L L M H H

Extremely remote L L L M H

Extremely improbable L L L L M

None Minor Major Hazardous Catastrophic

Severity of consequences

Fig 2.4 Example of the risk matrix (H = high level of risk; M = medium level of risk; L = low level of risk)

2.5.2 Physical agents

Physical agents are physical phenomena which can have an adverse effect on the body. Physical agents in-
clude:

Noise

Vibration

Ionizing radiation

2.5.3 Chemical agents

Chemical agent means any chemical element or compound which presents a risk to the safety and health of
workers. Activity involving chemical agents means any work in which chemical agents are used. They can
be used in any process, including production, handling, storage, transport, or disposal. Chemical agents, in-
clude:

Solvents

Heavy metals

Asbestos

Many chemical agents are used in workplaces in specific processes, as cleaning compounds and in labo-
ratory work. The effects on the body can vary significantly. However, the main effects can be classified into
a number of clear-cut areas, namely chemical poisonings, occupational cancers, dermatitis and the effects of
gassing accidents. Dermatitis fundamentally implies inflammation of the skin and is the most common occu-
pational disease.

Safety fact*

Approximately two-thirds of all cancers are “voluntary” cancers caused by smoking and
bad diet. They are followed by endogenously caused cancers. Alcohol, causing 3% of all
fatal cancer cases, is as relevant as asbestos. Occupational tumours are predominantly
caused by asbestos. These tumours are responsible for approx. 4% of the total number of
fatal cancer cases. However, it should be realized that only a small fraction of the popu-
lation is exposed at the workplace to carcinogens, whereas about 50% of the population
smoke and everybody has a genetic risk.
*Bender and Eisenbarth [2007: 25]

2.5.4 Biological agents

A biological agent any micro-organism, cell culture or human endoparasite, including any which have been
genetically modified, which may cause any infection, allergy, toxicity or otherwise create a risk to human
health [EASHW 2003]. There are more than 1200 different kinds of biological agents. Biological agents in-
clude:

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Occupational Safety Management and Engineering: Workplace hazards 2-6

Prions

Microorganisms (viruses, bacteria and fungi)

Some unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes (for example parasites) and their associated toxins.

They have the ability to adversely affect human health in a variety of ways, ranging from allergic reactions
that are usually relatively mild, to serious medical conditions, even death. These organisms are ubiquitous in
the natural environment; they are found in water, soil, plants, and animals. Because many biological agents
reproduce rapidly and require minimal resources for preservation, they are a potential danger in a wide vari-
ety of occupational settings. Examples of biological agents are

Anthrax

Avian influenza

Botulism

Foodborne illness

Hantavirus

Legionnaires' disease

Molds and fungi

Pneumonic plague

Smallpox

Tularemia

Viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs)
2.5.5 Psychosocial issues
Psychosocial issues are those aspects of work design, and the organisation and management of work, and
their social and organisational contexts, which have the potential for causing psychological or physical harm
Clarce and Cooper [2004: 3]. Psychosocial issues include:

Work related stress, whose causal factors include excessive working time and overwork

Violence from outside the organisation

Bullying (sometimes called mobbing) which may include emotional, verbal, and sexual harassment

Safety fact*

It is estimated that about half of all work absences are related to occupational stress. The
costs associated with sickness absence are high, for example, the Confederation of Brit-
ish Industry estimates that in financial terms, sickness absence costs some £11 billion per
year in the United Kingdom, of which it has been estimated that about 40 per cent is due
to workplace stress. This amounts to approximately 2% to 3% of GDP, or £438 per em-
ployee per year.
*Clarce and Cooper [2004: 4]

There is increasing awareness that psychosocial issues pose a significant danger, which also needs to be
evaluated and controlled. Effective management of these issues should form part of a broader risk manage-
ment process.
2.6 Emerging hazards
New technologies, manufacturing processes, and disassembly techniques often bring with them newly
emerging occupational safety and health concerns. Recent examples include workplace use and production
of genetically modified organisms and nanotechnology. There is growing concern about exposure to various
toxins in the disassembly of electronic waste as well.

References

Ayyub, B. M. (2003). Risk Analysis in Engineering and Economics. Chapman & Hall/CRC.
Bender, H.F., Eisenbarth, P. (2007). Hazardous Chemicals. Control and Regulation in the European Market. Wein-
heirm: Wiley-VCH Verlag.
Clarce, S. and Cooper, C.L. (2004). Managing the Risk of Workplace Stress. London and New York. Routledge.

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Occupational Safety Management and Engineering: Workplace hazards 2-7

EASHW (2003). Biological agents. Facts, 41, European Agency for Safety and Health at Work. Bilbao.
FAA Order 8040.4 (2009) establishes FAA safety risk management policy. Retrieved September 2009 from:
http://www.faa.gov/library/manuals/aviation/risk_management/ss_handbook/media/app_g_1200.PDF
Hammer, W. (1989). Occupational Safety Management and Engineering. 4th ed. Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey 07632.

Examination questions

1 What is the difference between the terms “hazard” and “danger”?

2 What are the modes of hazard? List the modes and given at least one example of the hazard belonging to each
mode.
3 Define risk and provide a qualitative classification of likelihood of occurrence and severity of accidents.
4 How are occupational hazards classified according to their mode and causes?
5 List the five groups of common workplace hazards. Provide three examples from each group.

© E. R. Vaidogas, Lecture notes on OSH, VGTU, 2009