Chapter 5-Metal Casting Processes-Part 2

1/14/2011
Classification of Shape Casting Processes
1
J.A. Schey, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, 2000, Fig. 7-12
Shape Casting Processes:

Expendable Mould, Permanent Pattern Processes
Sand Casting Mold Features
FIGURE 5.10 Schematic illustration of a typical sand mold

showing various features.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian • Schmid 2
© 2008, Pearson Education
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Sand Casting Process Steps
FIGURE 5.16 Schematic illustration of the sequence of operations in sand casting.

(See next slide for details.)
Sand Casting Process Steps

FIGURE 5.16 The sequence of operations in sand casting:
(a) A mechanical drawing of the part, used to create patterns.
(b-c) Patterns mounted on plates equipped with pins for alignment. Note the
presence of core prints designed to hold the core in place.
(d-e) Core boxes produce core halves, which are pasted together. The cores
will be used to produce the hollow area of the part shown in (a).
(f) The cope half of the mold is assembled by securing the cope pattern
plate to the flask with aligning pins, and attaching inserts to form the
sprue and risers.
(g) The flask is rammed with sand and the plate and inserts are removed.
(h) The drag half is produced in a similar manner.
(j) The core is set in place within the drag cavity.
(k) The mold is closed by placing the cope on top of the drag and securing
the assembly with pins and weights applied to hold the cope down.
(l) After the metal solidifies, the casting is removed from the mold.
(m) The sprue and risers are cut off and recycled, and the casting is cleaned,
inspected, and heat treated (when necessary).
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The Roles of Sands & Binders
• Sand is usually SiO2 based , but zircon, aluminum

silcate, chromite, olibvite, etc., are used
• Mustt have
M h uniform
if permeability
bilit tto allow
ll air
i iin th
the
mold to escape during filling
• Must have a binder strong enough to hold the mold
cavity shape during handling & filling, withstand the
metallostatic pressure and resist mold erosion during
filling
• The binder must be sufficiently weaken by the metal
heat to allow shrinkage of the casting and easy
removal of the sand after casting
5
Types of Binders
Green Sand : cheapest, 6-8% bentonite (clay) and 2-3%
water.
Sodium Silicate: 3-5% sodium silicate+H2O (waterglass) is
then then purged with CO2 to give a Na2CO3 bond which is
stronger for larger castings and cores. Also know as CO2
process
Oil Sands: vegetable oils and some cereal flour are baked at
250°C. This gives a stronger bond for cores.
Resin-bonded sands: thermosetting polymers for stronger
bonds for cores
Vacuum-molding: thin plastic sheets are placed over clean,
dry sand in cope and drag and a vacuum is drawn. This
keeps the sand in place until pouring, draws the air out of
the mold cavity during casting and the loose sand is easily
removed after casting. 6
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Compaction of the Sand around the Pattern
Compaction of the sand around the pattern

must be done carefully to ensure uniform
permeability and strength
strength. Methods include:
• By hand
• Ramming
• Jolting
• Sand Slingers
• Impact Molding
7
Mould Feeding
Turbulence Top Pouring
(Poor)
Cold
Mould Shuts
Occluded Erosion
Gas Pores
Bottom Pouring
(Best) 8
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Sand Casting Feeding System
Orderly and quiescent distribution of melt to a mold cavity requires a

well-designed rigging (sprue, runner & gating) system.
9
Temperature Distribution in a Casting
FIGURE 5.11 Temperature distribution at the mold wall and liquid-

metal interface during solidification of metals in casting.
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Solidification Time and Slush Casting

Chvorinov’s Rule:
where 1.5 < n < 2
FIGURE 5.12 Solidified skin on a steel casting; the remaining molten metal
is poured out at the times indicated in the figure. Hollow ornamental and
decorative objects are made by a process called slush casting, which is
based on this principle. Source: After H.F. Taylor, J. Wulff, and M.C.
Flemings.
Comparison of Shapes with Same Volume
Shape Area Volume (V/A) (V/A)2
Cube 6 1 0.167 0.028
Cylinder 5.54 1 0.181 0.033
Sphere 4.84 1 0.207 0.043
•Parts of the casting with small V/A will solidify more quickly.
•The runners and gates must be designed with this in mind

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Reducing Shrinkage & Microporosity Defects

Using Chills and Risers
(a) Microposity & shrinkage cavities can be avoided using b) blind risers, c) chills and
d) tapered sections and porous ceramic pencils in the blind riser.
13
Fluidity
Fluidity is an semi-empircal measure of how far a molten alloy can flow down a
narrow passage before solidification chokes off and stops further filling
filling. It is
determined for example using a: a) spiral, b) plate or c) vacuum tests.
Best Worst
Pure metals & Dendritic solidification Innoculated melts 14
Eutectics J.A. Schey, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, 2000, Figs. 7-6 & 8
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Foundry Alloys
• are selected for their
good castability (fluidity),
i.e., eutectics with short
freezing ranges or other
microstructures that
cannot tolerate
deformation
• generally have poor

ductility and are meant to
be cast into their final
shape without
subsequent deformation
15
J.A. Schey, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, 2000, Figs. 7-6 & 8
Typical Applications & Characteristics of Foundry Alloys

TABLE 5.3

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Properties & Applications of Cast Irons

TABLE 5.4

Properties of Nonferrous Foundry Alloys

TABLE 5.5

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Shell--Molding Process
Shell
FIGURE 5.17 Schematic illustration of the shell-molding process,

also called the dump-box technique.
Plaster of Paris and Ceramic

Mold Manufacture
FIGURE 5.18 Sequence of operations in making a ceramic mold.

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Vacuum--Casting Process
Vacuum
FIGURE 5.19 Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note

that the mold has a bottom gate. (a) before and (b) after immersion of the
mold into the molten metal. Source: After R. Blackburn.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Sand Casting
Advantages Disadvantages
• Inexpensive
p mould • Cost pper ppart is higher
g
• Complex geometry • Labor intensive
• All alloys • Slower production rate
• Unlimited size • Rough surface finish
• Economical in low • Loose tolerances
quantities
• Requires relatively thick
walls (>3 mm)
22
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Expendable Mould & Pattern Processes:

Processes:
Evaporative Pattern (Lost Foam) Casting
Polystyrene Ceramic
pattern Slurry
FIGURE 5.20 Schematic illustration of the expendable-pattern casting

process, also known as lost-foam or evaporative-pattern casting.
Lost--Foam Casting of Engine Blocks

Lost
FIGURE 5.40 (a) An engine block for a 60-hp 3-cylinder marine engine,
produced by the lost-foam casting process; (b) a robot pouring molten
aluminum into a flask containing a polystyrene pattern. In the pressurized
lost-foam process, the flask is then pressurized to 150 psi (1000 kPa).
Source: Courtesy of Mercury Marine
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Investment Casting
FIGURE 5.21 Schematic illustration of investment casting (lost wax

process). Castings by this method can be made with very fine detail and
from a variety of metals. Source: Steel Founders' Society of America.
Rotor Microstructure
FIGURE 5.22 Microstructure of a rotor that has been investment

cast (top) and conventionally cast (bottom). Source: Advanced
Materials and Processes, October 1990, p. 25. ASM International.
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Advantages & Disadvantages of Investment Casting
• Good dimensional • Long production cycle
accuracy leads to high cost per part
• Relatively inexpensive • Mold is not reusable
mold
• Rapid production rates
possible
p
• Complex shapes
• Very high temp
materials - Titanium
27
Permanent Mould Casting Processes:

Processes:
Pressure Casting
FIGURE 5.23 The pressure casting process, utilizing graphite molds

for the production of steel railroad wheels. Source: Griffin Wheel
Division of Amsted Industries Incorporated.
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Hot--Chamber Die Casting

Hot
FIGURE 5.24 Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die-casting process.

Cold--Chamber Die Casting

Cold
FIGURE 5.25 Schematic illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process.

These machines are large compared to the size of the casting, because high
forces are required to keep the two halves of the die closed under pressure.
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Advantages & Disadvantages of Die Casting
• High production rates • High tooling cost
possible, with high level
possible
of automation • Long lead times (months)
• Very thin walls possible • Limited size (<12 kg)
(0.5 mm for Mg die • Limited in alloys (low
casting) temperature only), e.g.,
• Good surface finish Zn, Al, Mg foundry alloys
• Economical in large
quantities
• Better control of mould
temperatures
31
Centrifugal Casting
FIGURE 5.26 Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process. Pipes,

cylinder liners, and similarly shaped hollow parts can be cast by this process.

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Semicentrifugal Casting
FIGURE 5.27 (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process.

Wheels with spokes can be cast by this process. (b) Schematic illustration of
casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at the periphery of the machine,
and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal forces.

Squeeze--Casting
Squeeze
FIGURE 5.28 Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process.

This process combines the advantages of casting and forging.

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Turbine Blade Casting
FIGURE 5.29 Methods of casting turbine blades: (a) directional

solidification; (b) method to produce a single-crystal blade; and (c) a
single-crystal blade with the constriction portion still attached. Source:
(a) and (b) After B.H. Kear, (c) Courtesy of ASM International.
Crystal Growing
FIGURE 5.30 Two methods of crystal growing: (a) crystal pulling

(Czochralski process) and (b) floating-zone method. Crystal growing is
especially important in the semiconductor industry. (c) A single-crystal silicon
ingot produced by the Czochralski process. Source: Courtesy of Intel Corp.
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Melt--Spinning Process
Melt
FIGURE 5.31 (a) Schematic illustration of the melt-spinning process to

produce thin strips of amorphous metal. (b) Photograph of nickel-alloy
production through melt-spinning. Source: Courtesy of Siemens AG.

Volume of Metals Cast by Various

Shape Casting Processes
• Sand casting - 60%

• Investment casting - 7%
• Die casting – 9%
• Permanent mould casting – 11%
• Centrifugal
C t if l casting
ti – 7%
• Shell mould casting – 6%
38
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General Characteristics of Casting Processes

TABLE 5.2
1 worst,
5 best.
1 worst, 5 best.

Casting Processes Comparison

TABLE 5.8

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Economics of Casting Processes
FIGURE 5.39 Economic comparison of making a part by two different casting processes.
Note that because of the high cost of equipment, die casting is economical mainly for
large production runs. Source: The North American Die Casting Association.

Defects in Castings
• Metallic Projections – flash at the parting lines
• Cavities – blowholes, pinholes, gas porosity,
shrinkage cavities….,
• Di
Discontinuities
ti iti – cold
ld or h
hott cracks,
k cold
ld shuts…
h t
• Surface defects – surface folds, laps, scars,
checking..,
• Incomplete casting – misruns, insufficient metal or
superheat…
• Incorrect Dimensions –warping, incorrect
shrinkage allowance in pattern…
• Inclusions – gas, intermetallics, oxides & slag
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Using Internal & External Chills to prevent

Solidification Porosity
FIGURE 5.35 Various types of (a) internal and (b) external chills (dark
areas at corners), used in castings to eliminate porosity caused by
shrinkage. Chills are placed in regions where there is a larger volume of
metal, as shown in (c).
Designing for Casting
• All castings require draft angles (0.5-2°) so the pattern can be removed from the mould
or the casting can be removed from the mould.
• Avoid large flat/plane areas and surfaces that will warp and experience solidification
shrinkage porosity. Use staggered ribs and serrations
• Include allowance for shrinkage, i.e., patternmaker’s shrinkage allowance is typically
10 to 20 mm/m on all dimensions
• Include machining allowances, e.g., 2-5 mm for small and up to 25 mm for large
castings
• The design should aim to simplify casting, e.g.,: a) & c) undercuts require extra cores
44
and b) & d) can be eliminated
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Elimination of Stress Concentrations

and Solidification Porosity in Castings
FIGURE 5.37 (a) Suggested design modifications to avoid defects in castings.

Note that sharp corners are avoided to reduce stress concentrations; (b, c, d)
examples of designs showing the importance of maintaining uniform cross-
sections in castings to avoid hot spots and shrinkage cavities.
Design Modifications for Casting
FIGURE 5.38 Suggested design modifications to avoid defects in castings.

Source: Courtesy of The North American Die Casting Association.
23

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Chapter 5-Metal Casting Processes-Part 2

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1/14/2011

Classification of Shape Casting Processes

Shape Casting Processes:

FIGURE 5.10 Schematic illustration of a typical sand mold

Sand Casting Process Steps

FIGURE 5.16 Schematic illustration of the sequence of operations in sand casting.

Sand Casting Process Steps

The Roles of Sands & Binders

• Sand is usually SiO2 based , but zircon, aluminum

Compaction of the Sand around the Pattern

Compaction of the sand around the pattern

Sand Casting Feeding System

Orderly and quiescent distribution of melt to a mold cavity requires a

Temperature Distribution in a Casting

FIGURE 5.11 Temperature distribution at the mold wall and liquid-

Solidification Time and Slush Casting

where 1.5 < n < 2

Comparison of Shapes with Same Volume

Shape Area Volume (V/A) (V/A)2

Cube 6 1 0.167 0.028

Cylinder 5.54 1 0.181 0.033

Sphere 4.84 1 0.207 0.043

•The runners and gates must be designed with this in mind

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Reducing Shrinkage & Microporosity Defects

• generally have poor

Typical Applications & Characteristics of Foundry Alloys

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Properties & Applications of Cast Irons

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Properties of Nonferrous Foundry Alloys

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 5.17 Schematic illustration of the shell-molding process,

Plaster of Paris and Ceramic

FIGURE 5.18 Sequence of operations in making a ceramic mold.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 5.19 Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note

Advantages & Disadvantages of Sand Casting

Expendable Mould & Pattern Processes:

FIGURE 5.20 Schematic illustration of the expendable-pattern casting

Lost--Foam Casting of Engine Blocks

FIGURE 5.21 Schematic illustration of investment casting (lost wax

FIGURE 5.22 Microstructure of a rotor that has been investment

Advantages & Disadvantages of Investment Casting

Permanent Mould Casting Processes:

FIGURE 5.23 The pressure casting process, utilizing graphite molds

Hot--Chamber Die Casting

FIGURE 5.24 Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die-casting process.

Cold--Chamber Die Casting

FIGURE 5.25 Schematic illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Die Casting

FIGURE 5.26 Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process. Pipes,

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 5.27 (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 5.28 Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Turbine Blade Casting

FIGURE 5.29 Methods of casting turbine blades: (a) directional

FIGURE 5.30 Two methods of crystal growing: (a) crystal pulling

FIGURE 5.31 (a) Schematic illustration of the melt-spinning process to

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.