Applied research 

is research that is applied, accessing and using some part

of the research communities' (the academy's) accumulated theories,
knowledge, methods, and techniques, for a specific, often state, commercial,
or client driven purpose. Applied research is often opposed to pure
research in debates about research ideals, programs, and projects.

Although it is impossible to generalize completely, Applied Research deals

with practical problems and is generally empirical. Because applied research
resides in the messy real world, strict research protocols must often be
relaxed. For example, it may be impossible to use a random sample. Thus,
transparency in the methodology is critical. Implications for interpretation of
results brought about by relaxing a more or less strict cannon of
methodology should also be developed.

Basic research or fundamental research (sometimes pure research) is research carried out

to increase understanding of fundamental principles. Many times the end results have no direct
or immediate commercial benefits: basic research can be thought of as arising out of curiosity.
However, in the long term it is the basis for many commercial products and applied research.
Basic research is mainly carried out by universities.

Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about the human world. It focuses on refuting
or supporting theories that explain how this world operates, what makes things happen, why
social relations are a certain way, and why society changes. Basic research is the source of
most new scientific ideas and ways of thinking about the world. It can be exploratory,
descriptive, or explanatory; however, explanatory research is the most common. Basic research
generates new ideas, principles and theories, which may not be immediately utilized; though are
the foundations of modern progress and development in different fields. Today's computers
could not exist without the pure research in mathematics conducted over a century ago, for
which there was no known practical application at that time. Basic research rarely helps
practitioners directly with their everyday concerns. Nevertheless, it stimulates new ways of
thinking about deviance that have the potential to revolutionize and dramatically improve how
practitioners deal with a problem. A new idea or fundamental knowledge is not generated only
by basic research can build new knowledge. Nonetheless, basic research is essential for
nourishing the expansion of knowledge. Researchers at the center of the scientific community
conduct most of the basic research.

Experimental Research:

The word experimental research has a range of definitions. In the strict sense,
experimental research is what we call a true experiment.
This is an experiment where the researcher manipulates one variable,
and control/randomizes the rest of the variables. It has a control group,
the subjects have been randomly assigned between the groups, and the researcher
only tests one effect at a time. It is also important to know what variable(s) you want to
test and measure.

A very wide definition of experimental research, or a quasi experiment, is research

where the scientist actively influences something to observe the consequences. Most
experiments tend to fall in between the strict and the wide definition.

A rule of thumb is that physical sciences, such as physics, chemistry and geology tend
to define experiments more narrowly than social sciences, such as sociology and
psychology, which conduct experiments closer to the wider definition.

xperimental Research is often used where:

1. There is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect)

2. There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the
same effect)
3. The magnitude of the correlation is great.

Action research
Action research is a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals
working with others in teams or as part of a "community of practice" to improve the way they
address issues and solve problems. Action research is done simply by action, hence the name.
Action research can also be undertaken by larger organizations or institutions, assisted or
guided by professional researchers, with the aim of improving their strategies, practices, and
knowledge of the environments within which they practice. As designers and stakeholders,
researchers work with others to propose a new course of action to help their community improve
its work practices (Center for Collaborative Action Research). Kurt Lewin, then a professor
at MIT, first coined the term “action research” in about 1944. In his 1946 paper “Action Research
and Minority Problems” he described action research as “a comparative research on the
conditions and effects of various forms of social action and research leading to social action”
that uses “a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-
finding about the result of the action”.

Action research is an interactive inquiry process that balances problem solving actions
implemented in a collaborative context with data-driven collaborative analysis or research to
understand underlying causes enabling future predictions about personal and organizational
change (Reason & Bradbury, 2002). After six decades of action research development, many
methodologies have evolved that adjust the balance to focus more on the actions taken or more
on the research that results from the reflective understanding of the actions. This tension exists
between

1. those who are more driven by the researcher’s agenda and those more driven by
participants;
2. those who are motivated primarily by instrumental goal attainment and those motivated
primarily by the aim of personal, organizational, or societal transformation; and
3. 1st-, to 2nd-, to 3rd-person research, that is, my research on my own action, aimed
primarily at personal change; our research on our group (family/team), aimed primarily
at improving the group; and ‘scholarly’ research aimed primarily at theoretical
generalization and/or large scale change.

Action research challenges traditional social science, by moving beyond reflective knowledge
created by outside experts sampling variables to an active moment-to-moment theorizing, data
collecting, and inquiring occurring in the midst of emergent structure. “Knowledge is always
gained through action and for action. From this starting point, to question the validity of social
knowledge is to question, not how to develop a reflective science about action, but how to
develop genuinely well-informed action — how to conduct an action science” (Torbert 2002). In
short, performing action research is the same as performing an experiment, thus it is an
empirical process.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING AND RANDOMIZATION

Probability sampling is a sampling technique wherein the samples are gathered in a
process that gives all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected.

by Joan Joseph Castillo (2009)

In this sampling technique, the researcher must guarantee that every individual has an
equal opportunity for selection and this can be achieved if the researcher
utilizes randomization.

The advantage of using a random sample is the absence of

both systematic and sampling bias. If random selection was done properly, the sample
is therefore representative of the entire population.
The effect of this is a minimal or absent systematic bias which is the difference
between the results from the sample and the results from the population. Sampling
bias is also eliminated since the subjects are randomly chosen.

TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
Simple random sampling is the easiest form of probability sampling. All the researcher
needs to do is assure that all the members of the population are included in the list
and then randomly select the desired number of subjects.

There are a lot of methods to do this. It can be as mechanical as picking strips of paper
with names written on it from a hat while the researcher is blindfolded or it can be as
easy as using a computer software to do the random selection for you.

STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

Stratified random sampling is also known as proportional random sampling. This is a
probability sampling technique wherein the subjects are initially grouped into different
classifications such as age, socioeconomic status or gender.

Then, the researcher randomly selects the final list of subjects from the different
strata. It is important to note that all the strata must have no overlaps.

Researchers usually use stratified random sampling if they want to study a particular
subgroup within the population. It is also preferred over the simple random sampling
because it warrants more precise statistical outcomes.

SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING

Systematic random sampling can be likened to an arithmetic progression wherein the
difference between any two consecutive numbers is the same. Say for example you are
in a clinic and you have 100 patients.

1. The first thing you do is pick an integer that is less than the total number of the
population; this will be your first subject e.g. (3).
 2. Select another integer which will be the number of individuals between subjects
e.g. (5).
3. You subjects will be patients 3, 8, 13, 18, 23, and so on.

There is no clear advantage when using this technique.

CLUSTER RANDOM SAMPLING

Cluster random sampling is done when simple random sampling is almost impossible
because of the size of the population. Just imagine doing a simple random sampling
when the population in question is the entire population of Asia.

1. In cluster sampling, the research first identifies boundaries, in case of our

example; it can be countries within Asia.
2. The researcher randomly selects a number of identified areas. It is important
that all areas (countries) within the population be given equal chances of being
selected.
3. The researcher can either include all the individuals within the selected areas or
he can randomly select subjects from the identified areas.

MIXED/MULTI-STAGE RANDOM SAMPLING

This probability sampling technique involves a combination of two or more sampling
techniques enumerated above. In most of the complex researches done in the field or
in the lab, it is not suited to use just a single type of probability sampling.

Most of the researches are done in different stages with each stage applying a different
random sampling technique.

Read more: http://www.experiment-resources.com/probability-
sampling.html#ixzz1BZL5woH2

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a
process that does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being
selected.

by Joan Joseph Castillo (2009)

In any form of research, true random sampling is always difficult to achieve.

Most researchers are bounded by time, money and workforce and because of these
limitations, it is almost impossible to randomly sample the entire population and it is
often necessary to employ another sampling technique, the non-probability sampling
technique.

In contrast with probability sampling, non-probability sample is not a product of a

randomized selection processes. Subjects in a non-probability sample are usually
selected on the basis of their accessibility or by the purposive personal judgment of
the researcher.

The downside of this is that an unknown proportion of the entire population was not
sampled. This entails that the sample may or may not represent the entire population
accurately. Therefore, the results of the research cannot be used
in generalizations pertaining to the entire population.

TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
Convenience sampling is probably the most common of all sampling techniques. With
convenience sampling, the samples are selected because they are accessible to the
researcher. Subjects are chosen simply because they are easy to recruit. This technique
is considered easiest, cheapest and least time consuming.

CONSECUTIVE SAMPLING
Consecutive sampling is very similar to convenience sampling except that it seeks to
include ALL accessible subjects as part of the sample. This non-probability sampling
technique can be considered as the best of all non-probability samples because it
includes all subjects that are available that makes the sample a better representation
of the entire population.

QUOTA SAMPLING
Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher
ensures equal or proportionate representation of subjects depending on which trait is
considered as basis of the quota.

For example, if basis of the quota is college year level and the researcher needs equal
representation, with a sample size of 100, he must select 25 1st year students, another
25 2nd year students, 25 3rd year and 25 4th year students. The bases of the quota are
usually age, gender, education, race, religion and socioeconomic status.

JUDGMENTAL SAMPLING
Judgmental sampling is more commonly known as purposive sampling. In this type of
sampling, subjects are chosen to be part of the sample with a specific purpose in
mind. With judgmental sampling, the researcher believes that some subjects are more
fit for the research compared to other individuals. This is the reason why they are
purposively chosen as subjects.

SNOWBALL SAMPLING
Snowball sampling is usually done when there is a very small population size. In this
type of sampling, the researcher asks the initial subject to identify another potential
subject who also meets the criteria of the research. The downside of using a snowball
sample is that it is hardly representative of the population.

WHEN TO USE NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

 This type of sampling can be used when demonstrating that a particular trait
exists in the population.
 It can also be used when the researcher aims to do a qualitative, pilot or
exploratory study.
 It can be used when randomization is impossible like when the population is
almost limitless.
  It can be used when the research does not aim to generate results that will be
used to create generalizations pertaining to the entire population.
 It is also useful when the researcher has limited budget, time and workforce.
 This technique can also be used in an initial study which will be carried out
again using a randomized, probability sampling.

Read more: http://www.experiment-resources.com/non-probability-
sampling.html#ixzz1BZLF97Yb

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

Simple random sampling is one of the most popular types of random or probability
sampling.

by Joan Joseph Castillo (2009)

In this technique, each member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected as subject. The entire process of sampling is done in a single step with each
subject selected independently of the other members of the population.

There are many methods to proceed with simple random sampling. The most primitive
and mechanical would be the lottery method. Each member of the population is
assigned a unique number. Each number is placed in a bowl or a hat and mixed
thoroughly. The blind-folded researcher then picks numbered tags from the hat. All
the individuals bearing the numbers picked by the researcher are the subjects for the
study. Another way would be to let a computer do a random selection from your
population. For populations with a small number of members, it is advisable to use the
first method but if the population has many members, a computer-aided random
selection is preferred.

ADVANTAGES OF SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

One of the best things about simple random sampling is the ease of assembling the
sample. It is also considered as a fair way of selecting a sample from a given
population since every member is given equal opportunities of being selected.
Another key feature of simple random sampling is its representativeness of the
population. Theoretically, the only thing that can compromise its representativeness is
luck. If the sample is not representative of the population, the random variation is
called sampling error.

An unbiased random selection and a representative sample is important in drawing

conclusions from the results of a study. Remember that one of the goals of research is
to be able to make conclusions pertaining to the population from the results obtained
from a sample. Due to the representativeness of a sample obtained by simple random
sampling, it is reasonable to make generalizations from the results of the sample back
to the population.

DISADVANTAGES OF SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

One of the most obvious limitations of simple random sampling method is its need of
a complete list of all the members of the population. Please keep in mind that the list
of the population must be complete and up-to-date. This list is usually not available
for large populations. In cases as such, it is wiser to use other sampling techniques.

Read more: http://www.experiment-resources.com/simple-random-
sampling.html#ixzz1BZLJdQ00

ONVENIENCE SAMPLING
APPLIED TO RESEARCH
Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where subjects are
selected because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher.

by Joan Joseph Castillo (2009)

The subjects are selected just because they are easiest to recruit for the study and the
researcher did not consider selecting subjects that are representative of the entire
population.
In all forms of research, it would be ideal to test the entire population, but in most
cases, the population is just too large that it is impossible to include every individual.
This is the reason why most researchers rely on sampling techniques like convenience
sampling, the most common of all sampling techniques. Many researchers prefer this
sampling technique because it is fast, inexpensive, easy and the subjects are readily
available.

EXAMPLES
One of the most common examples of convenience sampling is using student
volunteers as subjects for the research. Another example is using subjects that are
selected from a clinic, a class or an institution that is easily accessible to the
researcher. A more concrete example is choosing five people from a class or choosing
the first five names from the list of patients.

In these examples, the researcher inadvertently excludes a great proportion of the

population. A convenience sample is either a collection of subjects that are accessible
or a self selection of individuals willing to participate which is exemplified by your
volunteers.

USES
Researchers use convenience sampling not just because it is easy to use, but because
it also has other research advantages.

In pilot studies, convenience sample is usually used because it allows the researcher to
obtain basic data and trends regarding his study without the complications of using
a randomized sample.

This sampling technique is also useful in documenting that a particular quality of a

substance or phenomenon occurs within a given sample. Such studies are also very
useful for detecting relationships among different phenomena.

CRITICISMS
The most obvious criticism about convenience sampling is sampling bias and that the
sample is not representative of the entire population. This may be the biggest
disadvantage when using a convenience sample because it leads to more problems and
criticisms.

Systematic bias stems from sampling bias. This refers to a constant difference between
the results from the sample and the theoretical results from the entire population. It is
not rare that the results from a study that uses a convenience sample differ
significantly with the results from the entire population. A consequence of having
systematic bias is obtaining skewed results.

Another significant criticism about using a convenience sample is the limitation

in generalization and inference making about the entire population. Since the sample
is not representative of the population, the results of the study cannot speak for the
entire population. This results to a low external validity of the study.

NOTES
When using convenience sampling, it is necessary to describe how your sample would
differ from an ideal sample that was randomly selected. It is also necessary to describe
the individuals who might be left out during the selection process or the individuals
who are overrepresented in the sample.

In connection to this, it is better if you can describe the possible effects of the people
who were left out or the subjects that are overrepresented to your results. This will
allow the readers of your research to get a good grasp of the sample that you
were testing. It will also enable them to estimate the possible difference between your
results and the results from the entire population.

Read more: http://www.experiment-resources.com/convenience-
sampling.html#ixzz1BZLQokHB

STRATIFIED SAMPLING METHOD

Stratified sampling is a probability sampling technique wherein the researcher divides
the entire population into different subgroups or strata, then randomly selects the final
subjects proportionally from the different strata.
 by Joan Joseph Castillo (2009)

It is important to note that the strata must be non-overlapping. Having overlapping

subgroups will grant some individuals higher chances of being selected as subject.
This completely negates the concept of stratified sampling as a type of probability
sampling.

Equally important is the fact that the researcher must use simple probability
sampling within the different strata.

The most common strata used in stratified random sampling are age, gender,
socioeconomic status, religion, nationality and educational attainment.

USES OF STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

 Stratified random sampling is used when the researcher wants to highlight a
specific subgroup within the population. This technique is useful in such
researches because it ensures the presence of the key subgroup within the
sample.
 Researchers also employ stratified random sampling when they want to observe
existing relationships between two or more subgroups. With a simple random
sampling technique, the researcher is not sure whether the subgroups that he
wants to observe are represented equally or proportionately within the sample.
 With stratified sampling, the researcher can representatively sample even the
smallest and most inaccessible subgroups in the population. This allows the
researcher to sample the rare extremes of the given population.
 With stratified sampling technique, you have a higher statistical precision
compared to simple random sampling. This is because the variability within the
subgroups is lower compared to the variations when dealing with the entire
population.

Because this technique has high statistical precision, it also means that it
requires a small sample size which can save a lot of time, money and effort of
the researchers.

TYPES OF STRATIFIED SAMPLING

PROPORTIONATE STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
The sample size of each stratum in this technique is proportionate to the population
size of the stratum when viewed against the entire population. This means that the
each stratum has the same sampling fraction.

For example, you have 3 strata with 100, 200 and 300 population sizes respectively.
And the researcher chose a sampling fraction of ½. Then, the researcher must
randomly sample 50, 100 and 150 subjects from each stratum respectively.

Startum A B C

Population Size 100 200 300

Sampling Fraction ½ ½ ½

Final Sample Size 50 100 150

The important thing to remember in this technique is to use the same sampling
fraction for each stratum regardless of the differences in population size of the strata.
It is much like assembling a smaller population that is specific to the relative
proportions of the subgroups within the population.

DISPROPORTIONATE STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

The only difference between proportionate and disproportionate stratified random
sampling is their sampling fractions. With disproportionate sampling, the different
strata have different sampling fractions.

The precision of this design is highly dependent on the sampling fraction allocation of
the researcher. If the researcher commits mistakes in allotting sampling fractions, a
stratum may either be overrepresented or underrepresented which will result in
skewed results.

Read more: http://www.experiment-resources.com/stratified-
sampling.html#ixzz1BZLVCcVb
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Systematic sampling is a random sampling technique which is frequently chosen by
researchers for its simplicity and its periodic quality.

by Joan Joseph Castillo (2009)

In systematic random sampling, the researcher first randomly picks the first item or
subject from the population. Then, the researcher will select each n'th subject from the
list.

The procedure involved in systematic random sampling is very easy and can be done
manually and the results are representative of the population unless certain
characteristics of the population are repeated for every n'th individual which is highly
unlikely.

The process of obtaining the systematic sample is much like an arithmetic progression.

1. Starting number:
The researcher selects an integer that must be less than the total number of
individuals in the population. This integer will correspond to the first subject.
2. Interval:
The researcher picks another integer which will serve as the constant difference
between any two consecutive numbers in the progression.

The integer is typically selected so that the researcher obtains the correct
sample size

For example, the researcher has a population total of 100 individuals and need 12
subjects. He first picks his starting number, 5.

Then the researcher picks his interval, 8. The members of his sample will be
individuals 5, 13, 21, 29, 37, 45, 53, 61, 69, 77, 85, 97.

Other researchers use a modified systematic random sampling technique wherein they
first identify the needed sample size. Then, they divide the total number of the
population with the sample size to obtain the sampling fraction. The sampling fraction
is then used as the constant difference between subjects.
ADVANTAGES OF SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
 The main advantage of using systematic sampling over simple random
sampling is its simplicity. It allows the researcher to add a degree of system or
process into the random selection of subjects.
 Another advantage of systematic random sampling over simple random
sampling is the assurance that the population will be evenly sampled. There
exists a chance in simple random sampling that allows a clustered selection of
subjects. This is systematically eliminated in systematic sampling.

DISADVANTAGE OF SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

 The process of selection can interact with a hidden periodic trait within the
population. If the sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the trait,
the sampling technique will no longer be random and representativeness of the
sample is compromised.

NOTES
 Since systematic random sampling is a type of probability sampling, the
researcher must ensure that all the members of the population have equal
chances of being selected as the starting point or the initial subject.
 The researcher must be certain that the chosen constant interval between
subjects do not reflect a certain pattern of traits present in the population. If a
pattern in the population exists and it coincides with the interval set by the
researcher, randomness of the sampling technique is compromised.

Read more: http://www.experiment-resources.com/systematic-
sampling.html#ixzz1BZLb82TP

CLUSTER SAMPLING
In cluster sampling, instead of selecting all the subjects from the entire population
right off, the researcher takes several steps in gathering his sample population.
 by Joan Joseph Castillo (2009)

First, the researcher selects groups or clusters, and then from each cluster, the
researcher selects the individual subjects by either simple random or systematic
random sampling. The researcher can even opt to include the entire cluster and not
just a subset from it.

The most common cluster used in research is a geographical cluster. For example, a
researcher wants to survey academic performance of high school students in Spain.

1. He can divide the entire population (population of Spain) into different clusters
(cities).
2. Then the researcher selects a number of clusters depending on his research
through simple or systematic random sampling.
3. Then, from the selected clusters (randomly selected cities) the researcher can
either include all the high school students as subjects or he can select a number
of subjects from each cluster through simple or systematic random sampling.

The important thing to remember about this sampling technique is to give all the
clusters equal chances of being selected.

TYPES OF CLUSTER SAMPLE

ONE-STAGE CLUSTER SAMPLE
Recall the example given above; one-stage cluster sample occurs when the researcher
includes all the high school students from all the randomly selected clusters as sample.

TWO-STAGE CLUSTER SAMPLE

From the same example above, two-stage cluster sample is obtained when the
researcher only selects a number of students from each cluster by using simple or
systematic random sampling.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLUSTER SAMPLING AND STRATIFIED

SAMPLING
The main difference between cluster sampling and stratified sampling lies with the
inclusion of the cluster or strata.

In stratified random sampling, all the strata of the population is sampled while
in cluster sampling, the researcher only randomly selects a number of clusters from
the collection of clusters of the entire population. Therefore, only a number of clusters
are sampled, all the other clusters are left unrepresented.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CLUSTER SAMPLING

 This sampling technique is cheap, quick and easy. Instead of sampling an entire
country when using simple random sampling, the researcher can allocate his
limited resources to the few randomly selected clusters or areas when using
cluster samples.
 Related to the first advantage, the researcher can also increase his sample size
with this technique. Considering that the researcher will only have to take the
sample from a number of areas or clusters, he can then select more subjects
since they are more accessible.
 From all the different type of probability sampling, this technique is the least
representative of the population. The tendency of individuals within a cluster is
to have similar characteristics and with a cluster sample, there is a chance that
the researcher can have an overrepresented or underrepresented cluster which
can skew the results of the study.
 This is also a probability sampling technique with a possibility of high sampling
error. This is brought by the limited clusters included in the sample leaving off a
significant proportion of the population unsampled.

Read more: http://www.experiment-resources.com/cluster-
sampling.html#ixzz1BZLf1SDy

SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING METHOD

Sequential sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher
picks a single or a group of subjects in a given time interval, conducts his study,
analyzes the results then picks another group of subjects if needed and so on.
 by Joan Joseph Castillo (2010)

This sampling technique gives the researcher limitless chances of fine tuning his

research methods and gaining a vital insight into the study that he is currently
pursuing.

DIFFERENCE OF SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING FROM ALL OTHER

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
If we are to consider all the other sampling techniques in research, we will all come to
a conclusion that the experiment and the data analysis will either boil down to
accepting the null hypothesis or disproving the null hypothesis while accepting
the alternative hypothesis.

In sequential sampling technique, there exists another step, a third option. The
researcher can accept the null hypothesis, accept his alternative hypothesis, or select
another pool of subjects and conduct the experiment once again. This entails that the
researcher can obtain limitless number of subjects before finally making a decision
whether to accept his null or alternative hypothesis.

ADVANTAGES OF SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING

 The researcher has a limitless option when it comes to sample size and
sampling schedule. The sample size can be relatively small of excessively large
depending on the decision making of the researcher. Sampling schedule is also
completely dependent to the researcher since a second group of samples can
only be obtained after conducting the experiment to the initial group of
samples.
 As mentioned above, this sampling technique enables the researcher to fine-
tune his research methods and results analysis. Due to the repetitive nature of
this sampling method, minor changes and adjustments can be done during the
initial parts of the study to correct and hone the research method.
 There is very little effort in the part of the researcher when performing this
sampling technique. It is not expensive, not time consuming and not workforce
extensive.

DISADVANTAGES OF SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING

  This sampling method is hardly representative of the entire population. Its only
hope of approaching representativeness is when the researcher chose to use a
very large sample size significant enough to represent a big fraction of the
entire population.
 The sampling technique is also hardly randomized. This contributes to the very
little degree representativeness of the sampling technique.
 Due to the aforementioned disadvantages, results from this sampling technique
cannot be used to create conclusions and interpretations pertaining to the
entire population.

Read more: http://www.experiment-resources.com/sequential-
sampling.html#ixzz1BZM7QOlJ

DISPROPORTIONAL SAMPLING
Disproportional sampling is a probability sampling technique used to address the
difficulty researchers encounter with stratified samples of unequal sizes.

by Joan Joseph Castillo (2009)

This sampling method divides the population into subgroups or strata but employs a
sampling fraction that is not similar for all strata; some strata are oversampled relative
to others.

DISPROPORTIONAL VS. PROPORTIONAL SAMPLING

The main difference between the two sampling techniques is the proportion given to
each stratum with respect to other strata. In proportional sampling, each stratum has
the same sampling fraction while in disproportional sampling technique; the sampling
fraction of each stratum varies.

EXAMPLE OF DISPROPORTIONAL SAMPLE

Suppose, for example, a researcher desires to conduct a survey of all the students in a
given university with 10,000 students, 8,000 females and 2,000 males. His desired
sample size is only 1,000. Since the 1,000 subjects needed for the survey is 10% of the
entire population, sampling proportion suggests that 8/10 be female and 2/10 be
male. This would result in a sample composed of 800 females and 200 males. In this
case, the relatively small number of males in the sample probably would not provide
adequate representation for drawing conclusions from the said survey.

Disproportional sample technique will permit the researcher in the mentioned case
selection of students of adequate size from the two genders. Say for example, 500
males and 500 females can be selected to represent the population. This cannot be
considered random since the males had better chances of being selected as part of the
sample.

WHEN TO USE DISPROPORTIONAL SAMPLING

Disproportional sampling allows the researcher to give a larger representation to one
or more subgroups to avoid underrepresentation of the said strata. This applies to
populations with a very high strata population ratio.

DISADVANTAGES OF DISPROPORTIONAL SAMPLING

Even though the researcher can create an adequate size and representation with this
technique, it presents problems in data analysis since the characteristic of the
overrepresented group can skew the results. The way around this however is to give a
proportionally greater mathematical representation of the underrepresented group in
the analysis of the scores.

Generally, disproportional sample tend to be less accurate and reliable compared to a

stratified sample since mathematical adjustments are done during the analysis of the
data. This process increases the chance of encountering errors in data analysis. With
this possibility of encountering errors in analysis, it is less accurate in drawing
conclusions from the results of such studies.

Read more: http://www.experiment-resources.com/disproportional-
sampling.html#ixzz1BZMBp0OC

JUDGMENTAL SAMPLING
Judgmental sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where the researcher
selects units to be sampled based on their knowledge and professional judgment.

by Joan Joseph Castillo (2009)

This type of sampling technique is also known as purposive sampling and authoritative

sampling.

Purposive sampling is used in cases where the specialty of an authority can select a
more representative sample that can bring more accurate results than by using other
probability sampling techniques. The process involves nothing but purposely
handpicking individuals from the population based on the authority’s or the
researcher’s knowledge and judgment.

EXAMPLE OF JUDGMENTAL SAMPLING

In a study wherein a researcher wants to know what it takes to graduate summa cum
laude in college, the only people who can give the researcher first hand advise are the
individuals who graduated summa cum laude. With this very specific and very limited
pool of individuals that can be considered as a subject, the researcher must
use judgmental sampling.

WHEN TO USE JUDGMENTAL SAMPLING

Judgmental sampling design is usually used when a limited number of individuals
possess the trait of interest. It is the only viable sampling technique in obtaining
information from a very specific group of people. It is also possible to use judgmental
sampling if the researcher knows a reliable professional or authority that he thinks is
capable of assembling a representative sample.

SETBACKS OF JUDGMENTAL SAMPLING

The two main weaknesses of authoritative sampling are with the authority and in the
sampling process; both of which pertains to the reliability and the bias that
accompanies the sampling technique.
Unfortunately, there is usually no way to evaluate the reliability of the expert or the
authority. The best way to avoid sampling error brought by the expert is to choose the
best and most experienced authority in the field of interest.

When it comes to the sampling process, it is usually biased since

no randomization was used in obtaining the sample. It is also worth noting that the
members of the population did not have equal chances of being selected. The
consequence of this is the misrepresentation of the entire population which will then
limit generalizations of the results of the study.

Read more: http://www.experiment-resources.com/judgmental-
sampling.html#ixzz1BZMFByzH

SNOWBALL SAMPLING
(CHAIN REFERRAL SAMPLING)
Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling technique that is used by researchers
to identify potential subjects in studies where subjects are hard to locate.

by Joan Joseph Castillo (2009)

Researchers use this sampling method if the sample for the study is very rare or is
limited to a very small subgroup of the population. This type of sampling technique
works like chain referral. After observing the initial subject, the researcher asks for
assistance from the subject to help identify people with a similar trait of interest.

The process of snowball sampling is much like asking your subjects to nominate
another person with the same trait as your next subject. The researcher then observes
the nominated subjects and continues in the same way until the obtaining sufficient
number of subjects.

For example, if obtaining subjects for a study that wants to observe a rare disease, the
researcher may opt to use snowball sampling since it will be difficult to obtain
subjects. It is also possible that the patients with the same disease have a support
group; being able to observe one of the members as your initial subject will then lead
you to more subjects for the study.

TYPES OF SNOWBALL SAMPLING

 Linear Snowball Sampling

 Exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling

 Exponential Discriminative Snowball Sampling

ADVANTAGES OF SNOWBALL SAMPLING

 The chain referral process allows the researcher to reach populations that are
difficult to sample when using other sampling methods.
 The process is cheap, simple and cost-efficient.
 This sampling technique needs little planning and fewer workforce compared to
other sampling techniques.

DISADVANTAGES OF SNOWBALL SAMPLING

  The researcher has little control over the sampling method. The subjects that
the researcher can obtain rely mainly on the previous subjects that were
observed.
 Representativeness of the sample is not guaranteed. The researcher has no idea
of the true distribution of the population and of the sample.
 Sampling bias is also a fear of researchers when using this sampling technique.
Initial subjects tend to nominate people that they know well. Because of this, it
is highly possible that the subjects share the same traits and characteristics,
thus, it is possible that the sample that the researcher will obtain is only a small
subgroup of the entire population.

Read more: http://www.experiment-resources.com/snowball-
sampling.html#ixzz1BZMKmOdS

QUOTA SAMPLING APPLIED IN RESEARCH

Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the assembled
sample has the same proportions of individuals as the entire population with respect
to known characteristics, traits or focused phenomenon.

by Joan Joseph Castillo (2009)

In addition to this, the researcher must make sure that the composition of the final
sample to be used in the study meets the research’s quota criteria.

STEP-BY-STEP QUOTA SAMPLING

 The first step in non-probability quota sampling is to divide the population into
exclusive subgroups.
 Then, the researcher must identify the proportions of these subgroups in the
population; this same proportion will be applied in the sampling process.
 Finally, the researcher selects subjects from the various subgroups while taking
into consideration the proportions noted in the previous step.
  The final step ensures that the sample is representative of the entire population.
It also allows the researcher to study traits and characteristics that are noted for
each subgroup.

EXAMPLE OF QUOTA SAMPLES

In a study wherein the researcher likes to compare the academic performance of the
different high school class levels, its relationship with gender and socioeconomic
status, the researcher first identifies the subgroups.

Usually, the subgroups are the characteristics or variables of the study. The researcher
divides the entire population into class levels, intersected with gender and
socioeconomic status. Then, he takes note of the proportions of these subgroups in
the entire population and then samples each subgroup accordingly.

WHEN TO USE QUOTA SAMPLES

 The main reason why researchers choose quota samples is that it allows the
researchers to sample a subgroup that is of great interest to the study. If a
study aims to investigate a trait or a characteristic of a certain subgroup, this
type of sampling is the ideal technique.
 Quota sampling also allows the researchers to observe relationships between
subgroups. In some studies, traits of a certain subgroup interact with other
traits of another subgroup. In such cases, it is also necessary for the researcher
to use this type of sampling technique.

DISADVANTAGES OF QUOTA SAMPLES

It may appear that this type of sampling technique is totally representative of the
population. In some cases it is not. Keep in mind that only the selected traits of the
population were taken into account in forming the subgroups.

In the process of sampling these subgroups, other traits in the sample may be
overrepresented. In a study that considers gender, socioeconomic status and religion
as the basis of the subgroups, the final sample may have skewed representation of
age, race, educational attainment, marital status and a lot more.
Read more: http://www.experiment-resources.com/quota-
sampling.html#ixzz1BZMOPDD2

PILOT STUDY
A pilot study is a standard scientific tool for 'soft' research, allowing scientists to
conduct a preliminary analysis before committing to a full-blown study or experiment.

Read more: http://www.experiment-resources.com/pilot-study.html#ixzz1BZMZWZJR

A small chemistry experiment in a college laboratory, for example, costs very little, and
mistakes or validity problems easily rectified. At the other end of the scale, a medical
experiment taking samples from thousands of people from across the world is
expensive, often running into the millions of dollars.

Finding out that there was a problem with the equipment or with the statistics used is
unacceptable, and there will be dire consequences.

A field research project in the Amazon Basin costs a lot of time and money, so finding
out that the electronics used do not function in the humid and warm conditions is too
late.

To test the feasibility, equipment and methods, researchers will often use a pilot study,
a small-scale rehearsal of the larger research design. Generally, the pilot study
technique specifically refers to a smaller scale version of the experiment, although
equipment tests are an increasingly important part of this sub-group of experiments.

For example, the medical researchers may conduct a smaller survey upon a hundred

people, to check that the protocols are fine.

The Amazon Researchers may perform an experiment, in similar conditions, sending a

small team either to the Amazon to test the procedures, or by using something like the
tropical bio-dome at the Eden Project.
Pilot studies are also excellent for training inexperienced researchers, allowing them to
make mistakes without fear of losing their job or failing the assignment.

Logistical and financial estimates can be extrapolated from the pilot study, and
the research question, and the project can be streamlined to reduce wastage of
resources and time.

Pilots can be an important part of attracting grants for research as the results can be

placed before the funding body.

Generally, most funding bodies see research as an investment, so are not going to dole
out money unless they are certain that there is a chance of a financial return.

Unfortunately, and paper reporting the preliminary pilot study, especially if problems
were reported, is often stigmatized and sidelined. This is unfair, and punishes
researchers for being methodical, so these attitudes are under a period of re-
evaluation.

Discouraging researchers from reporting methodological errors, as found in pilot

studies, means that later researchers may make the same mistakes.

The other major problem is deciding whether the results from the pilot study can be
included in the final results and analysis, a procedure that varies wildly between
disciplines.

Pilots are rapidly becoming an essential pre-cursor to many research projects,

especially when universities are constantly striving to reduce costs. Whilst there are
weaknesses, they are extremely useful for driving procedures in an age increasingly
dominated by technology, much of it untested under field conditions.

Read more: http://www.experiment-resources.com/pilot-study.html#ixzz1BZMcyldE