2 Diffusion and Current Flow

2.1 The Diffusion Process

The second principal mechanism of current flow in semiconductors is diffusion. If the
concentration of free charge carriers at a particular location in a semiconductor is higher than at
other surrounding locations, then the atomic forces which prevail cause the carriers to migrate
away from the region of higher concentration towards those of lower concentration. This process
is known as diffusion and gives rise to a current known as a diffusion current. This is illustrated
in Fig. 2.1 and Fig. 2.2, which shows the changing concentration of carriers with time after a
quantity of carriers has been released at a location.

Note that the movement of carriers is always in the direction of decreasing concentration.
The diffusion of carriers will continue as long as the concentration gradient is maintained. The
resulting current will flow in a direction, which depends on the direction of the concentration
gradient and the charge on the carrier.

2.2 Diffusion Current

The rate at which diffusion takes place determines the charge flux density due to diffusion.
This depends on

dn dp
,
dx dx the carrier concentration gradients,

− q, + q the charge on the carriers,

Dn , D p the diffusion coefficients

The diffusion coefficients are a measure of the relative ease with which the carriers can move
within the concentration gradients. The dimensions of these coefficients are cm2s-1 (area/unit
time).

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 Fig. 2.1 The Process of Diffusion

t = t0

t1 > t0

t2 > t1

t3 > t2
t4 > t3

distance

Fig. 2.2 Changes in Carrier Concentration with Time During Diffusion

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 n n
t = t1 t = t2 > t1

Carrier flow Carrier flow

x x
Fig. 2.3 Change in Concentration Gradient with Diffusion

The charge flux density for diffusion is then

dn dn
J n diff = - q . D n . - = qD n for electrons
dx dx
dp dp
J p diff = +q . D p . - = − qD p for holes
dx dx
The negative signs in front of the concentration gradients above account for the fact that
the carriers move in the direction of decreasing concentration. Note that if the concentration
gradients for both holes and electrons are in the same direction, then both types of carrier will be
travelling in the same direction and the charge flows will tend to cancel each other. If, on the
other hand, the gradients are in opposite directions, then the flows of opposite sign will tend to
add together.
For a piece of homogeneous semiconductor of uniform cross-sectional area, A, the total
diffusion current due to both electrons and holes in the positive x direction is given as:

dn dp
I diff = J n diff A + J p diff A = A q (D n − Dp )
dx dx
The polarity of the gradients will determine the direction of flow of individual carriers and,
hence, the overall diffusion current.

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2.6 The Einstein Relation
The diffusion coefficient is related to the mobility of the carriers by the Einstein Relation:

Dn kT kT
= ∴ D n = μn = μn VT for electrons
μ n
q q

Dp kT kT
= ∴ D p = μp = μp VT for holes
μ p
q q
kT
where VT = = 26mV @ 300°K is known as the thermal voltage. The Thermal Voltage is
q
the potential difference in an electric field through which an electron with a charge of magnitude
q must accelerate to gain the same amount of energy as it has due to temperature kT.

2.7 Carrier Injection, Diffusion and Charge Continuity

Consider a length of homogeneous n-type semiconductor of uniform cross-sectional area, A, as
shown in Fig. 2.4. Under equilibrium conditions, the concentration of majority carriers is
determined by the doping concentration. If excess minority charge carriers are injected into the
semiconductor from an external source, this equilibrium is disturbed as the excess minority
carriers injected begin to recombine with the majority carriers present. This gives rise to changes
in the charge concentration within the material.
The rate of change of carrier concentration depends on the rate of injection of excess
carriers and the rate of recombination in the volume.
Notation: for electrons
Total carrier concentration: n

Equilibrium carrier concentration: n0

Excess Carrier Concentration: n’

so that:

Excess Carriers n' = n − n 0

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 excess minority
carriers
recombine with A
majority carriers uniform
inside volume of cross
semiconductor section

charge flux
density
becomes a
function of
Jn (x) distance into
excess minority material
carriers injected
from external
source

Fig 2.4 Excess Charge Carriers Injected into a Semiconductor

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If there is no electric field across the semiconductor and the material is homogeneous and
uniform, then the injected minority carriers will move by diffusion only in the x direction.
The law governing this process is known as the Diffusion Equation which for one dimension is
given as:

∂n' (x) ∂ 2 n' (x) n' (x)

= Dn −
∂t ∂x 2
τn
where τn is the average carrier lifetime before recombination. If the supply of minority carriers
into the material can be maintained by some external means, then this will support the
recombination process and eventually a steady-state condition will be reached and the
∂n' (x)
concentration of charge within the volume will reach a stable value so that =0
∂t
Under these conditions…

∂ 2 n' (x) n' (x)

=
∂x 2
D nτ n
The minority carriers will penetrate a distance, Ln, on average into the volume before
recombining. This distance is related to the average carrier lifetime through the diffusion
coefficient so that

Dn τn = Ln
2

which then gives:

∂ 2 n' (x) 1
= 2 n' (x)
∂x 2
Ln for steady-state diffusion

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This is a second-order differential equation which has a general solution of the form:

-x +x
n' (x) = Ae Ln
+ Be Ln

Since recombination can only reduce the free carrier concentration in the semiconductor there is
no growth term so that B = 0. Hence the solution is:

− Lx
n' (x) = n' (x = 0)e n

where n’(x = 0) is the quantity of excess minority carriers injected into the material at x = 0
The profile of the minority carrier concentration across the material into which they are injected
has an exponential form as shown in Fig. 2.5.

Note also that if a thin slice of the semiconductor is taken, most of the injected carriers pass
through the slice and emerge at the other side but some have recombined.

n(x)
n(x = 0) Thin slice

n’(x = 0)

n0
Ln

distance x

Fig. 2.5 Profile of Minority Carrier Concentration through the Semiconductor