Christopher David Heanan 51888549.

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Ancient Egypt
The story of ancient Egypt has survived for thousands of
years. Egypt was one of the greatest civilizations of the
past. The monuments and tombs of their Pharaohs
continue to stand intact today, some 4,000 years later!

Towards the end of the fourth millennium BC several

independent city-states were unified to form a single state,
marking the beginning of over 3,000 years of pharaonic
civilisation in the Nile Valley. Fertile earth left behind after
the yearly Nile flood provided the basis for Egypt’s
agricultural prosperity, a key factor in the longevity of the
civilisation.

Impressive monuments were erected in the name of

kings, from monumental temples for the gods to the
pyramids marking the burials of rulers.

Texts preserved on papyrus help reveal the complex

administration of the country, but also include magical,
medical and mathematical works and poetry. Pottery
vessels and a variety of tools and agricultural equipment hint at the day-to-day lives of ancient
Egyptians.

Egypt did endure several periods of foreign domination, by Palestinian, Nubian, Persian, Greek and
Roman rulers. Yet throughout, temples to the Egyptian gods continued to be built in the traditional
style and aspects of Egyptian religion spread throughout the ancient world.

By the fourth century AD, Christianity had become the dominant religion along the Nile, with Islam first
introduced in the seventh century AD.

Early Settlement
The early people who settled along the Nile River banded together into two main groups, Lower and
Upper Egypt.

Lower Egypt
Lower Egypt was located around the mouth of Nile River in the northern region, near the
Mediterranean Sea, which due to its proximity had a milder climate than Upper Egypt with
less extreme temperatures and more rainfall. Lower Egypt was known as Ta-Mehu which
means "land of papyrus." The capital was Memphis and its patron Goddess was the cobra
goddess Wadjet. Their king wore a Red Crown, known as Deshret; its symbols were the
papyrus and the bee.

Upper Egypt
The other group lived near the mountains to the South. The northern section of Upper Egypt is
sometimes known as Middle Egypt. Upper Egypt was known as Ta Shemau which means
"the land of reeds." For most of pharaonic Egypt's history, Thebes was the administrative
centre of Upper Egypt. After its devastation by the Assyrians its importance declined and

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the city of Ptolemais took over the role of capital of Upper Egypt. Its patron deity was the vulture
goddess Nekhbet. Their king wore a White Crown, referred to as the Hedjet.

As with the Red Crown, no White Crown has survived either, and it is hence unknown how it was
constructed and what materials were used. Felt or leather have been suggested, but this is purely
speculative. The fact that no crown has ever been found, even in relatively intact tombs (such as that
of king Tutankhamun) might suggest that the crown was passed from one regent to the next, much as
in present day monarchies.

These two groups had much in common. They spoke the same language. They worshipped the same
gods. They had the same culture. But, they did not get along. They were always fighting.

Around 3000 BCE, King Menes (also known as King Namer and theorised to be
successor of the king scorpion) ruled Upper Egypt. He conquered Lower Egypt.
These two groups continued to fight. One day, King Menes had an idea. If the
colour of a crown was so important, why not invent a new crown?! King Menes
created the Double Crown of Egypt (Pschent), a mix of white and red. His idea
worked. Both Lower and Upper Egypt respected the Double Crown. They called
their land "The Two Lands". Over time, The Two Lands became known as Egypt.

Gifts of the Nile

The ancient Egyptians enjoyed many natural barriers. There were deserts to the east and west of the
Nile River, and mountains to the south. This isolated the ancient Egyptians and allowed them to
develop a truly distinctive culture.

The Nile is the world's longest river. It is over 4000 miles long! It is shaped like the lotus flower so
often seen in ancient Egyptian art. Each spring, water would run off the mountains and the Nile would
flood. As the flood waters receded, black rich fertile soil was left behind. The ancient Egyptian called
this rich soil The Gift of the Nile.

Fertile soil for crops was not the Nile's only gift. The Nile gave the ancient Egyptians many gifts.
Thanks to the Nile, these ancient people had fresh water for drinking and bathing. The Nile supported
transportation (using boats made with papyrus) and trade. It provided materials for building, for
making cloth for clothes, and even for making paper - made from the wild papyrus weed, that grew
along the shores of the Nile. It was because of the rich resources and trade why the Egyptian
settlements formed all along the Nile; very few colonies were not along these banks.

Because of the annual flooding of the Nile, the ancient Egyptians enjoyed a high standard of living
compared to other ancient civilizations. Without the Nile, Egypt would be a desert.

Kingdoms
Egypt's ancient history covers a huge block of time. Looking at all this history, archaeologists noticed
something very interesting. They realized that much Egypt's ancient history could be divided into three
blocks of time. In each block, all of the pharaohs behaved in a certain way.

Scientists have named these blocks "The Old Kingdom", "The Middle Kingdom", and "The New
Kingdom".

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The Old Kingdom (2700 BCE-2200 BCE)

Pharaohs had absolute power and were considered gods on earth. But that's not why this kingdom is
nicknamed "The Pyramid Age". Pharaohs were buried in pyramids only during this time period in
history. After building a few pyramids, at great expense to the state, it occurred to pharaohs that
pyramids were rather easy to spot, and thus, much easier to rob than a hidden tomb. Things changed
during the middle kingdom.

The Middle Kingdom (2100 BCE-1800 BCE)

The middle kingdom was Egypt's Golden Age. Trade flourished, arts and literature flourished. Egypt
built strong armies to defend herself against her neighbours. During the time period of the middle
kingdom, pharaohs were expected to be good kings and wise rulers. And pharaohs were buried in
hidden tombs, all over the place. Most probably, there are tombs yet to be discovered because they
were hidden so well.

The New Kingdom (1500 BCE-1000 BCE)

The new kingdom was Egypt's expansion period. Egypt expanded her borders through military
conquest and became a world power. During the time period of the new kingdom, pharaohs were all
powerful, and pharaohs were all buried in the same geographic area called the Valley of the Kings.

Government Officials
Several million people lived in ancient Egypt. The pharaoh owned everything. More importantly, he
was in charge of everything. To help him do a good job, he had helpers. Some helpers were members
of the royal family. Others were people who had worked their way up the government ladder. Each
pharaoh had an organized army, a police force, and a huge number of ministers and government
officials to assist him.

The ancient Egyptians loved titles. Government officials gave themselves all kinds of titles. But in
ancient Egypt, the only title that mattered besides the title of Pharaoh was that of Vizier. The Vizier
was Pharaoh's right hand man. Everyone reported to the official above them. The top officials
reported to the Vizier. The Vizier reported to the Pharaoh every day on what was happening all over
Egypt.

The Vizier was also the judge of the high court. If you had a problem and it was not solved in the local
courts, or in the provincial courts, you could bring your problem in front of the Vizier on a first come,
first served basis. It was dangerous. The Vizier's decision was final. You could end up in more trouble
than you started with. But the Vizier tried to be fair. He had to explain aloud the reason for his decision
in each case so that everyone who came to court that day could hear those reasons.

This system of government worked successfully in ancient Egypt for hundreds and hundreds of years.

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Hieroglyphics
Over 5000 years ago, the ancient Egyptians wrote things down using a picture writing called
hieroglyphics. The people who did the actual writing were called scribes.

The scribes had a problem. The ancient Egyptians wrote everything down,
absolutely everything! Although hieroglyphics were very pretty, it took time
to write in pictures. Scribes needed a faster way to write things down. They
created a new form of writing called Demotic script. The new scribes did
not study the old language of hieroglyphics. They could write much more
rapidly with some of the new scripts they created.

Hundreds of years later, archaeologists discovered beautiful hieroglyphic

writing on the walls of ancient Egyptian pyramids and tombs. The
archaeologists had a problem. They knew hieroglyphics had meanings.
Although lots of archaeologists could read Demotic script, there was no one left in the world who
remembered what the ancient hieroglyphics meant. No one could read the hieroglyphic messages. It
was most frustrating!

It was not until quite recently, a mere 200 years ago, that a stone was found in
Egypt. This stone had the same short story written on it in Greek, in Demotic, and
in hieroglyphics. Scientists could read Greek. Scientists could read Demotic. And
now, scientists could begin to read hieroglyphics. They named this stone the
Rosetta Stone. Today, the Rosetta Stone is on display for everyone to see.
Currently, it makes its home in the famous British Museum in London.

Hieroglyphics to Alphabet
A B C D E F

G H I J K L

M N O P Q R

S T U V W X

Y Z

http://www.rom.on.ca/programs/activities/egypt/activities/translator/main.php

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Mathematical Symbols
The Egyptians invented a decimal system. They used 7 different symbols.

 1 was represented by a single stroke.

 10 was shown by drawing one hobble.
 100 was shown with a drawing one coil of rope.
 1,000 was represented by a drawing of one lotus plant.
 10,000 was shown as one finger.
 100,000 was represented by a drawing of one frog. (A hieroglyphic of six frogs in a row would
mean 600,000)
 1,000,000 was represented by the figure of a god with raised arms

The conventions for reading and writing numbers is quite simple; the higher number is always written
in front of the lower number and where there is more than one row of numbers the reader should start
at the top.

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Daily Life
The ancient Egyptians were fascinating people, and thanks to the movies, are often misunderstood.
The ancient Egyptians were not in love with death, but with life! They enjoyed their life to the fullest.
They worked very hard, but saved time to enjoy family, friends, music, parties, swimming, fishing,
hunting, sailing, and especially their children, all of which were very important to the ancient
Egyptians.

In ancient Egypt, children were the heart of the family. If a couple could not have a child, they adopted
a child. Children were taught to be kind and honest, to respect their parents, to help with the family
business, and to care for the elder members of their family.

It was important that children learn to be caring. The ancient Egyptians believed in "ma'at" - order and
justice. They spent a lifetime trying to be fair and just at all times. The ancient Egyptians believed that
you could only reach your afterlife if your heart was light. The only way your heart would be light is if
you had spent a lifetime being kind and honest. Anyone and everyone, from the pharaoh on down,
who made a mistake or lost their temper made up for it by doing good deeds to balance the scale.

Egyptian Women
In ancient Egypt, if a man asked a woman to marry him, she could say no. Women were not equal
with men, but they had considerably more rights than did women in other ancient civilizations.

One of their rights was the right to decide if they wished to marry or not. A woman in ancient Egypt
could not be forced into marriage. Those who did marry usually married quite young, around age 12-
14. Once married, a woman's first duty was to be a good wife and mother. Children were very
important to the ancient Egyptians.

Along with raising the children and running the household, women were free to get a paid job outside
the home, if they wanted one. They could run a business. They could own, buy, and sell property.
They could make a will and leave their personal goods to whomever they chose, including their
daughters. If they broke the law, they had to go to court and defend themselves from the charge, just
like everyone else.

One of the biggest rights a woman had was the right of divorce. If a woman was unhappy with her
marriage, she could get a divorce, and then remarry someone else or remain single. To be granted a
divorce, a woman needed to present a good reason in a court of law. If her divorce was granted, she
gained custody of the children, along with all of her original offering, if one was brought to the
marriage - or its equivalent worth - plus one-third of her husband's wealth. This was done so that she
could raise her children comfortably. She also took with her any property she personally owned,
including property that had been willed to her during her marriage.

Men could also get a divorce, but, if granted, women still gained custody of her children, her original
dowry, and a big chunk of his wealth.

Homes
The ancient Egyptians built homes of sun-dried bricks, made of mud and straw. To make the bricks,
the ancient Egyptians invented brick moulds. A mix of mud and straw was placed into the moulds.
Then, the moulds were left out in the sun to dry. The desert heat dried the bricks for them. They could

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make a huge number of bricks easily. Their homes were huge. Homes had flat roofs. People often sat
outside on their roofs in the evening to watch the sunset and catch the evening breeze.

Nobles lived in huge villas along the Nile. Some were front with white limestone, which made the walls
sparkle. A few homes were even built with stone. But stone was difficult to cut and use. Most homes
were made of sun dried brick. Each villa had 25-30 rooms. Most rooms had a purpose. Some were
guest rooms, some were bathrooms!

Homes had front and back doors. Each door

was built about 4 feet off the ground to reduce
the amount of sand and dust. Each door was
reached by a ramp. Ramps led from one level
to another inside the house.

A peasant's home was tiny by comparison.

Still, it was very nice. Each peasant family had
their own home. When you opened the door,
you entered a courtyard. Inside the courtyard,
a ramp led up to the front door of the house.
Some homes had two stories, some had three
or more. Ramps were used to move from level
to level. One ramp led up to the flat roof.
People often slept on their roofs. It was cooler
and quite lovely sleeping under the stars.

Some peasants’ homes were huge, especially

in the country. Nobody cared how big you built your home as long as you did it yourself in your own
spare time. Since bricks were easy to make, and materials needed to make the bricks were freely
found along the shores of the Nile, it was really up to each individual how big of a home they wished
to have, especially in the country.

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Animals – Wild & Domestic

The ancient Egyptians had many pets including monkeys and baboons. Some ancient Egyptians
taught their pets to toss down fruit from the trees. Probably the most popular pet was a dog.

Cats
Cats were special! Nearly all ancient Egyptian homes had a cat. But cats were not pets. The ancient
Egyptians believed that cats had magical powers. They believed cats protected their homes and
children from danger. They kept a cat for protection.

Cats did keep down the rat population and they did chase away snakes. Cats were much more
important to the ancient Egyptians than that. You can see examples of the cat in their art, pictured in
positions of respect and honour.

You were in big trouble if you hurt a cat in ancient Egypt. Your punishment could be death!

Crocodiles
Rich nobles kept crocodiles in pools as ornamental additions to their homes. Temple priests kept
crocodiles in the temples. They were dressed in jewels, and roamed freely. They were not caged. It
must have been quite dangerous, but the crocodile was special to the ancient Egyptians.

Their beloved god Sobek was the god with a crocodile head. He was the god who controlled water
and marshes. The Nile was water. Everything in ancient Egypt depended upon the Nile. The waters of
the Nile provided an easy route for trade. The Nile provided fish and other food to eat. Crops grew
easily in the rich soil left behind by the annual flooding of the Nile.

Scarab Beetle
The scarab beetle is a real beetle, a common beetle. To the ancient Egyptians, this common beetle
symbolized hope and the restoration of life. They used the design of a scarab beetle in many ways.

Seals were created in the shape of a scarab and used to stamp documents. Artists made scarab
jewellery using precious gems and painted clay. The same design was used to make good luck
charms and amulets to ward off evil.

In ancient Egypt, scarab jewellery, good luck charms, and amulets

were often given as gifts. An inscription was often added with the
name of the owner and perhaps a motto or a message, like, "good
luck in your new job".

Scarabs came in many designs including winged scarabs. The

colours were rich and beautiful. Blue symbolized the Nile River.
Red symbolized Ra. There were touches of yellow for the desert
and sun. Green was used to emphasis growth. Over time, the scarab became a sacred symbol.

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Temples
Temples were the heart of the community. Kids went to school at the temple. The women came every
day with temple offerings of food and goods they had made. They stayed to chat and to market. The
temples acted as hotels for important visitors from other towns. Grain was stored in the temples so
that it could be shared with whoever needed it.

People prayed to the temple gods for whatever they needed. If their request was not granted, they
might give the temple statue a whack with a sturdy reed to let the temple god know how they felt
about it. For the most part, the ancient Egyptians were not afraid of their gods at all.

Fun
The ancient Egyptians worked very hard, but they always kept a portion of their day available to relax
and play. One of their favourite leisure activities was to create their grave goods - things they would
put in their tomb someday. Grave goods were everything from jewellery to clothing to little statues of
workers.

Creating grave goods was a big part of ancient Egyptian leisure time. They created grave goods their
whole lives. But that is not the only thing they did with their leisure time. They also liked to take family
outings to see how the construction of their tomb was progressing. Now, this might sound as if the
Ancient Egyptians were in love with death. But that is not so. They were in love with life. They loved
life so much; they wanted it to go on forever. They believed in an afterlife. The afterlife was a real
place.

Other leisure activities included writing poetry, sailing, hunting, fishing, and playing a game called
Senet.

Jobs
Important jobs in ancient Egypt included soldiers, scribes, artists, and peasants. Most jobs were
inherited. If your father was a farmer, so were you.

Anyone, however, could learn to be a scribe if they had the talent. Learning to be a scribe was a
complicated process. Scribes went to scribe school. Most who attended did not pass the course.

In ancient Egypt, everything was written down, especially lists. Scribes were in high demand. Good
scribes could work their way up, all the way to Pharaoh's court.

Craftsmen & Artists

Craftsmen were appreciated rather than respected in ancient Egypt. Craftsmen did not sign their
work. But their work was appreciated. A craftsman with skill usually enjoyed a very comfortable
lifestyle. Although their work was not signed, word did get around.

The Egyptians had a unique way of drawing people. They drew heads, eyes, legs and feet positioned
as if you were looking at them from the side. But they drew the shoulders and the chest as if you were
looking at them from the front. Men were usually drawn with dark colours. Women were usually drawn
with light colours.

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Deities
Some images of ancient Egyptian gods and goddesses show them as if they were humans. Ptah of
Memphis, for example, is usually shown as a man wrapped in mummy clothes, his hands outside the
wrappings, grasping sceptres. But other gods, such as Horus, Thoth and Sakhmet, are usually shown
with a human body and the head of a bird or an animal. Egyptian gods can also appear in purely
animal form, as Horus can be shown as a hawk. From the earliest times in Egypt, some deities were
honoured or worshipped in the form of animals.

In the distant past, particular animals may have been chosen to embody, to stand for, the powers of a
god. A bull represented power, aggression, masculinity, fertility; these could be the attributes of
kingship. A hawk, who soars high above the world of humans, seeming to expend no energy in his
long hours aloft, and who - far seeing, -can swoop in an instant to capture his prey in sharp talons,
became a symbol of kingship. The cow's large eyes with long lashes and her generally quiet
demeanour suggested a gentle aspect of feminine beauty. Her gift of milk, which could sustain a
human child, became of symbol of love and sustenance.

Glossary of Gods and Goddesses

The following section contains a survey of the more important animal manifestations of divine power.

Ammit
In ancient Egyptian religion, Ammit (also spelled Ammut and Ahemait, meaning Devourer or Bone
Eater) was a female demon with a body that was part lion, hippopotamus and crocodile. A funerary
deity, Ammit lived near the scales of justice in Duat, the Egyptian underworld. In the Hall of Two
Truths, Anubis weighed the heart of a person against Ma'at, the goddess of truth, who was sometimes
depicted symbolically as an ostrich feather.

Amun
Amun is mentioned in the Pyramid Texts, but was not a prominent god during the Age of the
Pyramids. His name means 'the hidden one' and he was a god of the atmosphere. Later in Egyptian
history, he would become the main god of the empire.

Anty
Anty was a hawk god of Upper Egypt. He is shown as a hawk sitting on a crescent moon, or in a boat.
He became associated with other hawk-gods, such as Sokar.

Anubis
This jackal-headed god looked after the dead, and was in charge of the important task of
mummification. Anubis can appear as either a black canine with long sharp ears, or as a man with a
canine head. The black colour of Anubis is not natural to jackals or to the wild dogs of Egypt; it may
refer to the discoloration of a body after death and during mummification. The black colour also refers
to the rich dark soil of Egypt, from which new growth came every year; in similar manner, the dead
would come to new life after burial. Dogs, as animal companions, were present in Egypt from the very
beginning. Sometimes dogs were buried with their masters. It may have given the Egyptians comfort
to think of such an animal as guarding the cemeteries, protecting the dead.

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Atum
Self-created creator of the Universe. Alone in Nun (nothingness) he created Shu and Tefnut, air and
moisture. His name means 'the complete one.' Atum is usually shown as a king. He can symbolize the
setting sun.

Babi
Babi is a deity shown in Baboon form. Babi is ferocious, even blood-thirsty, unlike the usually calm
and reasonable Thoth who also appears as a baboon.

Bastet
Cats are very useful animals in a country that depends on grain. The cat's hunting instincts were
honoured by the Ancient Egyptians, but so was the cat's gentler side as a warm and loving mother to
her kittens. Bastet can be shown as a woman with a feline head. There are disagreements among
zoologists as to when these animals first began to live with humans along the Nile, and about which
feline became the Egyptian pet. Cats do not appear as household pets during the Age of the
Pyramids, though they were very popular animal companions in later times.

Bat
Ancient goddess shown with the horns of a buffalo or cow. Her face appears on the Narmer palette,
showing an early association with kingship. Her character and powers were absorbed by Hathor.

Geb
God of Earth, grandson of Atum, husband of Nut. He is often shown as a man reclining on the earth
under a starry sky. The goose is his sacred animal.

Hapy
God of the annual Nile flood, the Inundation. Shown as a human man with a crown of plants, and
heavy pendulous breasts and a paunch, he symbolized abundance and fertility.

Hathor
Hathor as the royal goddess, her name means 'House of Horus." Her image could take the form of a
cow, a woman with a cow's head, or a woman wearing the horns of a cow. As a motherly cow, she
gave the king her divine milk, and protected him as a cow protects her calf. She was the goddess of
love, music, singing, and dance. She was one of the most important deities in the Age of the
Pyramids, and her popularity continued to the end of Egyptian civilization. In the early economy of
Egypt, cows were wealth. A herd of cattle was a beautiful sight because it represented wealth in the
form of food, milk, hides, and work, as oxen pulled the ploughs of farmers. Cattle dung was a valuable
fertilizer and had many uses in building.

Heket
Frog-headed goddess of childbirth. Frogs, who produce vast numbers of tadpoles, were popular as
amulets to ensure fertility.

Heh
Shown as a kneeling man grasping two palm ribs, Heh is the personification of eternity. His image
was popular as an amulet, wishing the wearer 'millions of years.'

Horus
This god is shown as a falcon, or as a man with the head of a falcon. In Egyptian, his name is Her -
the distant one. Like the good king who sees everything in his kingdom, the hawk is noted for his

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sharp vision. The sudden stoop of the hawk, as he leaves the distant sky to attack and capture his
prey, is like the quick and decisive action of a king in defense of his country.

Horus is one of the oldest gods of the Egyptians. In the days when powerful leaders were fighting to
make one nation out of smaller settlements, the early rulers were called Followers of Horus. On the
Narmer palette, the King is shown with a falcon whose one human arm holds a rope that passes
through the nose of a defeated rival.

Originally, there were at least two gods called Horus. One is the fifth child of Nut and Geb, Horus the
Elder, and the other is the son of Isis and Osiris. Over time, their stories and attributes came together.
An old story tells of how Osiris, king of Egypt, was murdered by his brother, Seth. Seth was very
strong and powerful. He took over the country, and ruled well. Isis, the wife of Osiris, hid the child she
had born, and raised him in secret. When Horus grew up, he claimed his father's throne. Seth and
Horus struggled for the kingship, but in the end Horus' claim, as son of the previous king, was
recognized by a court of all the gods, and Horus became king.

In Ancient Egypt, each king was Horus. When a king died, Egyptians said that the falcon had flown to
Heaven and united with the Sun Disk. The next king then became Horus. Like the Hawk, the king was
a fighter, a warrior. This is why Horus, when shown as a hawk-headed man, wears an armored
breast-plate.

Isis
Sister and wife of Osiris, mother of Horus. Isis is the brightest star in the sky. This star disappears
behind the sun for seventy days, and then reappears to announce the annual Nile flood. Isis was thus
identified with the waters of the Nile that bring dry, dead land back to life. When her husband, King
Osiris, was murdered, she found his decomposing body, bound it together with linen strips, and used
her magic to bring him back to life in a limited way.

Besides performing the first mummification, Isis was known for her wild dedication to her son, Horus.
She upheld his right to rule Egypt against the claims of her powerful brother, Seth. With determination,
cunning, and a little magic, she was able to ensure that her son succeeded to the throne of his father.
The story of Isis and Osiris, a love story, a story of triumph over death, and the victory of good and
right over brute force, became the most popular of Egyptian myths. Thousands of years after the last
pyramids were built, Cleopatra VII, the last great queen of Egypt, identified herself with Isis, devoted
wife and mother. The cult of Isis survived the occupation of Egypt by the Roman Empire, and
remained a powerful religion until the rise of Christianity and Islam.

Khnum
The full name of Khufu, builder of the Great Pyramid, was Khnum-khufu - the god Khnum protects
him. Khnum, as god of the Nile cataract, controlled the annual flood of Egypt. He is shown as a man
with the head of a ram, or as a ram. He creates human life by moulding each of us on a potter's
wheel. His role as creator may reflect the procreative power and strength of the ram.

Maat
Goddess of order, truth, justice, and balance. As the daughter of Atum, she was one of the first forces
in the created universe, and helped to bring order out of chaos. Each Egyptian king was duty bound to
honour and promote order and justice.

Min
Male fertility god and protector of the mines in the Eastern desert. He is one of the oldest attested
Egyptian gods. He is shown as an ithyphallic man with a crown of two plumes, his right arm raised to
support the royal flagellum.

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Neith
Goddess of the North of Egypt, protector of the king. One of the oldest declared Egyptian deities; her
characteristic headgear became the 'red crown' of the kings of Egypt. From the dawn of history in
Egypt, powerful women formed their names with hers: Neith-hotep (Neith is content) was the wife of
Aha, first king of the First Dynasty; the wife of King Djet, and mother of King Den was named Meret-
Neith (beloved of Neith). Neith may have been originally a goddess of hunting, but warfare was also in
her sphere. She was a goddess of the living world, of power and politics. Her emblem appears to be
two arrows crossed behind a shield. In early examples, though, the shield can clearly be seen to be
two elaterid or 'click' beetles, end to end, with arrows crossed behind them. Long after the Pyramid
Age, a story was written crediting her with the creation of the universe.

Nekhbet
Vulture-goddess of Upper Egypt. Nekhbet is a mother goddess who protects the king. She represents
the White Crown of Upper Egypt, which she sometimes wears. By the Fifth Dynasty, she became
associated with royal women; the king's great royal wife wears a vulture headdress.

Nephthys
Daughter of Nut and Geb, sister of Isis, Osiris and Seth. She joined Isis in her search for the body of
Osiris, and mourned over his corpse with her. Her name means owner of the palace; she represents
the palace itself. A late legend makes her the mother of Anubis.

Nut
The personification of the sky. Nut is honoured as a mother goddess. She was the wife of Geb, and
daughter of Shu and Tefnut. her five children are Osiris and Isis, Nephthys and Seth, and Horus the
Elder.

Osiris
God of the Dead. Osiris is almost always depicted as a man wrapped in mummy-cloths, his hands
protruding from the wrappings to grasp scepters, and a crown on his head. His face can be green,
black, or gold. He is a god of agriculture, for his death and resurrection are like those of a seed, cast
in to the dark earth, motionless. New life breaks through its husk to push its way to the surface of the
earth as a green shoot. Osiris came to prominence in the Fifth Dynasty. He became one of the most
important of Egyptian gods because he symbolized the triumph of life over death.

In early times, the dead King was associated with Osiris, but in later times in Egypt, every person
could join Osiris in the Afterlife, where he ruled as King of the Underworld, Duat. He judged the dead,
and let no evil person enjoy the pleasures of eternal life. Ptah: Ancient creator-god of Memphis. Ptah
is shown as a man wearing a skull-cap, dressed in a tight-fitting robe that may be mummy-wrappings.
His hands protrude from the wrappings to grasp scepters. He was the patron of craftsmen.

Ra
The chief cult centre of Ra was Heliopolis where he was the local sun god Atum. Through Atum, or as
Atum-Ra he was also seen as the first being and the originator of the Ennead, consisting of Shu and
Tefnut, Geb and Nut, Osiris, Set, Isis and Nephthys. He took on many of the attributes and even the
names of other gods as Egyptian myths evolved. A good example of this is the god Ra and Amun
merging to become Amun-Ra or Ra and Horus combining to become Ra-Harakhte.

To the Egyptians, the sun represented light, warmth, and growth. This made the sun deity very
important and the sun was seen as the ruler of all that he created. The sun disk was either seen as
the body or eye of Ra. Ra was thought to travel on two solar boats called the Mandjet (the Boat of
Millions of Years), or morning boat and the Mesektet, or evening boat. These boats took him on his

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journey through the sky and the underworld. The Mesektet or Night boat would carry Ra through the
underworld back towards the east in preparation for his rebirth at sunrise.

Sakhmet
The name of this goddess means the powerful one. She was the daughter of the sun-god, Ra, and the
wife of Ptah. She is shown with the head of a lioness and the body of a woman, suggesting her great
force and power, and her sometimes dangerous nature. She could both bring plagues and protect
people from them. In the Age of the Pyramids, Sakhmet was sometimes shown embracing the king,
breathing divine life into his nostrils.

Seth
God of the desert, storm, and chaos. Seth is a strong god whose angry power is part of kingship.
Later legends stress his murder of his brother Osiris and his struggle with his nephew Horus over who
should be king. The ancient Egyptians believed that both the forces of Law and Order, represented by
Horus, and the power of chaos symbolized by Seth, were necessary for kingship. Another way of
spelling the name of this god is Sutekh.

Sobek
Shown as a crocodile or a man with crocodile head, Sobek symbolized swift action and violence, and
in these aspects could be a god of kingship. He was the son of Neith. Lakes, riverbanks, and swamps
were his particular haunts. Ancient Egyptians travelled the Nile for trade, fished in it, and used its
waters to irrigate their fields. The crocodiles who lived in the water were a constant presence and
danger.

Tefnut
Goddess of moisture. Daughter of Atum, wife of Shu. She is one of the goddesses who can be called
The Eye of Re. She can be shown as a woman with the head of a lion.

Thoth
A moon god, who was also the god of scribes and writing. As god of scribes, he is associated with
justice and truth. As god of wisdom, he inspired scribes and priests. He can be shown as a man with
the head of an Ibis. The powerful wings of this bird could carry a king over the celestial river into the
Afterlife. Thoth usually wears a crescent moon, supporting a full moon-disk on his head. Perhaps the
long beak of the Ibis reminded the Egyptians of the crescent moon, and it's white and black feathers
made them think of the patterns on the moon. Two animals were especially sacred to Thoth: the Ibis,
and the Baboon. A baboon, sitting up straight, can be an image of Thoth. In the Story of the Eye of
Ra, Thoth transformed himself into a baboon to follow an angry goddess into Nubia, and told her
stories until she returned to Egypt.

Wadjet
Cobra goddess of Lower Egypt. She is one of the king's protectors. It is she who rears up over his
brow on the royal crowns and headdresses.

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Funerals & Afterlife

The ancient Egyptians believed in an afterlife. The people believed that, after you died, life continued
in the land of the Two Fields.

In the beginning, only pharaohs could board Ra's boat and travel to the land of the Two Fields, and
dwell forever in the heavenly Nile. But the god Osiris changed that. Osiris opened the door to the
afterlife to everyone in ancient Egypt, provided his or her heart was light.

To keep your heart light, you had to spend a lifetime doing good deeds. Crime was very low in ancient
Egypt because everyone wanted to spend eternity in the heavenly world of the Two Fields, home of
the Afterlife.

Before you could board Ra's boat, you had to satisfy a few requirements.

The Weighting of the Hearth in the Hall of Maat

People in most ancient civilizations were afraid of their
gods. This was not true in ancient Egypt. The Egyptians
loved their gods. They had little fear and great wonder.

There was one exception, though - the god Ammut. Almost

everyone in ancient Egypt was afraid of Ammut! Ammut
was the Devourer. The ancient Egyptians believed if you
did something bad, your heart would be heavy, and the
god Ammut might suddenly appear and eat you up!

The god Ammut had a big part in the weighing of the heart
ceremony. When you died, the ancient Egyptians believed
you travelled to an afterlife, a heavenly place where you
spent eternity. You had to earn your way. There were
rules. To enter your afterlife, you had to have a light heart.
Light hearts were earned from a lifetime of doing good
deeds.

After you died, the ancient Egyptians believed your heart had to be weighed. It had to be lighter than
the feather of truth. To find out if your heart qualified for the trip to the afterlife, your spirit had to enter
the Hall of Maat.

The god Anubis weighed your heart. The god Thoth recorded the findings (In ancient Egypt,
everything was recorded and written down). If your heart was light, you passed the test and entered
your afterlife. BUT, if your heart was heavy because your deeds were dreadful, the god Ammut would
suddenly appear ... and eat you up!

Have Your Name Written Down...Somewhere

The ancient Egyptians believed that you had to have your name written down somewhere, so that you
would not disappear when you died.

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Cartouche
A cartouche was an oval circle with a name written in it, rather like a nameplate. In the early days of
ancient Egypt, a cartouche was attached to the coffins of kings and queens. As time went on, many
people hired an artist to create a cartouche for their own coffins. By attaching a cartouche to their
coffin, people made sure their name was written down in one place at least!

Obelisk
The pharaohs ordered monuments built so they would be remembered.
These monuments provided places to write their name down in a very
public way. Some monuments were temples. Others were obelisks.
Obelisks were made of stone, and often built in pairs. Each obelisk was at
least 70 feet tall and most were taller. Each was decorated with writing
telling of the great achievements of the person each obelisk honoured. This
information has told us a great deal about ancient Egyptian life.

Mummification - A Preserved Body

The first burials in the hot desert sands
led to natural mummification of the
whole body. Bodies placed in the hot
sand dehydrated because the hot sand
absorbed the water in the body. But
bodies buried in the desert sands were
at risk from wild animals. Munch
munch… If animals attacked the
bodies they would not be preserved
and would not reach the afterlife intact.

Later, placing the body in a coffin

meant that only the skeleton survived.
The whole body needed to be preserved for the afterlife.

Then the Egyptians learned how to artificially mummify the body before putting it
in the coffin.

 They artificially dehydrated the body and the internal organs

 They wrapped the body in linen bandages and placed it in a coffin
 The put the organs in canopic jars…
 And put the coffin, canopic jars and grave goods into the tomb.

This process was very expensive so over 95% of the population were buried in
the sand and ended up like the first natural sand-dried mummy.

The Process
The Egyptians did not understand what the brain was for. They needed to
take it out to preserve the body. The easiest way to do this was through
the nose with a hooked probe.

A small incision (cut) was made in the left side

of the body to remove the internal organs.

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They left the heart inside the body. It would be needed during the journey to the afterlife where it was
weighed against the feather of truth. They removed the other organs and dried them to preserve them
and were carefully stored in canopic jars. There were always four jars, representing the four sons of
the god Horus - four protective spirits - human, baboon, falcon, and jackal.

 Hapy the Baboon-head god looks after the lungs

 Qebehsenuef the falcon-headed god looks after the intestines
 Duamutef the jackal-headed god looks after the stomach
 Imsetythe human-headed god looks after the liver

They then washed the body with pleasant smelling liquids. The body was then covered it in natron
(natural salt) for 40 days. This dehydrated (dired out) the body and stopped it rotting.
This ensured the body was preserved. Once the body had dehydrated it was washed
again using perfumes and oils. The clean and dehydrated body was then carefully
wrapped in linen sheets and strips. The body was wrapped very carefully to look like
a human figure. This shape could be used in the afterlife if the person’s body itself
did not survive very well. Amulets were placed in the mummy wrappings. These
were like good luck charms and were used to protect the body.

The mummified body was placed in a coffin. This coffin could be shaped like a
human. The coffin could be painted or embellished with other decoration such as gold.

The family then took the coffin to the tomb. Funeral ceremonies were performed and the tomb was
sealed with the hope that the dead person would reach the afterlife.

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The ancient Egyptians believed that everyone had a soul. They called the soul by two names - the Ba
and the Ka. As the story goes, the Ba returned during the day to live with the family. The Ka flew off to
live in the afterlife, which was an actual place. At night, both the Ba and the Ka flew home to sleep in
the body in its tomb.

If something happened to your preserved body, or if your name was not written down somewhere, the
Ba and Ka would get lost. They would not be able to come home to your mummified body, and you
would disappear forever, no longer able to dwell happily in your afterlife.

Which all goes to explain why grave robbing was the most horrible crime in ancient Egypt. Grave
robbers not only stole someone's wealth, they stole their chance to live happily ever after in the
Egyptian afterlife. Punishment was swift and terrible for grave robbers caught robbing a grave.

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Tombs & Pyramids

Pyramids
The Great Pyramids continue to stand above all Egypt after being
built thousands of years ago. They symbolize Egypt’s past and
are still very important to Egypt’s citizens. They come in many
shapes and sizes and take many years to complete. They have a
long and fascinating history. The Great Pyramids of Egypt are a
reminder of Egyptian heritage.

Types of Pyramids
There are three types of pyramids:

True Pyramid
 The sides are polished and smoothed. The inside is made out
of plain stone, and the outside is limestone.

Bent Pyramid
 The bent pyramid is very smooth and has curved sides.
 The sides sign as brightly as the sun when the sun reflects
against.
 The bent pyramid is made of plain stone and limestone.

Stepped Pyramid
 The stepped pyramid has gigantic steps that go up to the top.
 The size most used for the pyramid is small.
 The stepped pyramid is made entirely out of stone.

The Great Pyramids were built in Ancient Egypt thousands of years

ago, in the Old Kingdom. Pyramids were constructed to house the
dead pharaohs and queens. The Great Pyramid was built in 30 years.
100,000 men worked on the pyramids for three or four months shifts.

Inside a Pyramid
Inside the pyramid, there are many tall, long passages covered with
beautiful tomb paintings. Many treasures and grave goods lay next to the
bodies in the coffins. The king, queen or whoever was buried there would
be in the lower chamber under the pyramid.

Construction of a Pyramid
There are three phases to building a pyramid. They are:

Preparing the site

 The first step is to level and clear the ground. This is very important because it determines the
stability of the pyramid.

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 Peasants plough the ground to clear it out grass, plants, weeds, top soil, and other removable
terrain. They keep digging until they hit solid bedrock.
 To accurately level the site, peasants cut grooves into the ground and fill them with water.
Then, they mark the water’s exact level and drain the water. Finally, they cut the ground down
to the mark and fill the grooves with rubble.
 The final step of Phase I is cutting the tomb, which will ultimately house the dead. The tomb
might also contain traps to prevent intruders from stealing things.

Building the Pyramid

 Peasants are needed to move bricks and stone from a storage yard to the construction site.
Bricklayers are also needed to lay the bricks and stone. Carpenters contribute their services
by building ramps around the pyramid for peasants to transport things.
 After peasants deliver supplies one load at a time, bricklayers laid the stones. The pyramids
are built layer by layer, so the construction may take many years.
 After the rest of the pyramid is built, a gold capstone is
placed on top.

The Finishing Touches

 The final phase is to smooth the sides of the pyramid.
Stonemasons do this by chipping away the limestone until
the sides are smooth. This makes the sides of the pyramid
reflect the light of the sun.

The Sphinx
It is thought that Pharaoh Khafre built the Sphinx in 2500 BC. But in an inscription in the Great
Pyramid dating from 600 BC said that Khafre’s father, Khufu, had done repairs on the Sphinx’s tail
and headdress. The Sphinx was carved out of bedrock from the Giza Plateau.

The Sphinx is now brown and colourless but it used to be

brightly painted with blue and yellow stripes. It had a dark red
face. Traces of the original paint can still be seen by one of
the ears. The paws of the Sphinx are 50 feet long, the entire
length is 240 feet, the Sphinx is 65 feet tall and the head is 30
feet long and 14 feet wide.

The Sphinx’s purpose is a mystery, but some think that it may

have been built to symbolically guard the Giza Plateau.
Others think it may have been a portrait of Pharaoh Khafre.

There are many stories about how the nose was lost. One of them was that it fell off when Napoleon’s
archaeologists were investigating it. Another is that the Marmeluke Army used the Sphinx for target
practice. The true story is that it was
removed by a Sufi (Muslim mystic)
who thought the Sphinx was a
blasphemous idol in the 8th century.

The Sphinx is located in Egypt on the

Giza Plateau. That’s 6 miles west of
Cairo. The Sphinx faces due east, not
very far from three pyramids. The
Great Pyramid of Khufu, Khafre and
Menkaura.

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A research team discovered evidence that the Sphinx has water erosions on it. Unlike the horizontal
wind and sand marks, they found vertical marks, as made by water. The erosion is heavier on upper
parts of the Sphinx. Most Egyptologists believed that the Sphinx was built in 2500 BC, but in 1991 a
scientist (Robert Schoch) found water erosions on the Sphinx; a few believers began to question it.
The Sphinx’s birthday may have to be pushed back to a much later date.

The Sphinx was covered with sand for most of its history. The first recorded clearing was in the 18th
century by a prince called Thutmose. He fell asleep and was awoken by the Sphinx. The Sphinx told
him that if he unburied him he would become king. So Thutmose unburied the Sphinx and then went
back to Egypt and killed his brother, as to become king.

The name Sphinx was first given to a Greek creature that had the head of a women and a body of a
lion and the wings of a bird. The creature was called a Sphinx because it comes from the Greek word
that means ‘to strangle’ or ‘to bind tightly’ and it had a habit of strangling their victims.

Valley of Kings
After building a few pyramids, at great expense to the state, it occurred to pharaohs that pyramids
were rather easy to spot, and thus, much easier to rob than a hidden tomb. A pharaohs’ tomb then
began to be buried in the desert, where the tombs were more remote and hidden. This then began to
be the custom with more and more pharaohs tombs buried in the area, and was the principal burial
place of the major royal figures of the Egyptian New Kingdom. The area then took the name the

Valley of the Kings. The valley is known to contain 63 tombs and chambers and is located on the west
bank of the Nile, opposite Thebes. The area has been a focus of archaeological and egyptological
exploration since the end of the eighteenth century, and its tombs and burials continue to stimulate
research and interest. In modern times the valley has become famous for the discovery of the tomb of
Tutankhamun, whose sarcophagus had miraculously been left completely intact.

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The Tomb of Tutankhamun

Tutankhamun was Pharaoh of Egypt in the 14th century BC, from 1333
BC to 1323 BC, during the period known as the New Kingdom.
Tutankhamun is perhaps best known to modern westerners as the only
pharaoh to have his intact, unplundered tomb discovered. However, he is
historically important as well.

Tutankamun's parentage is uncertain. An inscription calls him a king's

son, but it is debated which king was meant. Most scholars consider that
he was probably a son either of Amenhotep III (though probably not by his
Great Royal Wife Tiye), or of Amenhotep III's son Amenhotep IV (also
known as Akhenaton).

Tutankhamun, still a young boy and probably under the influence of two
older advisors, restored the old pantheon of gods and their temples,
granted the traditional privileges back to their priesthoods, and moved the
capital back to Thebes.

Tutankhamun died at the age of 18 of unknown causes. On his mummy

there is evidence of an injury to his head, which apparently had time to partially heal before his death.

Howard Carter (paid by Lord Carnarvon) discovered Tutankhamun's tomb on November 4, 1922 near
the entrance to the tomb of Ramses VI, setting off a renewed interest in the modern world in all things
Egyptian. After many weeks of careful excavation, on February 16, 1923 Carter opened the burial
chamber and first saw the sarcophagus of Tutankhamun. This tomb was unusual since it had
remained untouched by grave robbers and was full of artefacts.

Curse of Tutankhamun
For many years, rumours of a "curse" (probably fuelled by newspapers at the time of the discovery)
persisted, emphasizing the early death of some of those who had first entered the tomb. However, a
recent study of journals and death records indicates no statistical difference between the age of death
of those who entered the tomb and those on the expedition who did not. Indeed, most lived to past 70.

Book of the Dead

The Book of the Dead is not a book. It's a nickname for a bunch of different magical spells written
down in various ways by the ancient Egyptians.

Nearly all of the magical spells that have been discovered to date were written to help the ancient
Egyptian safely reach their Afterlife. Egyptologists have found about 200 different spells so far, most
written on piece of papyrus, some written on tomb walls.

Everyone in ancient Egypt wanted to safely reach the Afterlife. They believed the Afterlife was a real
place, and they believed magical spells would help them get there.

Wealthy Egyptians hired scribes to write down all their personal favourite spells on papyrus sheets.
Once prepared, this collection of spells was packed carefully away with their other grave goods, to be
placed in their tomb someday.

If you did not have a lot of money, you could buy a ready-made version that included several of the
most popular spells. A space was left on the sheet of papyrus for your name. That way, you not only
had several spells on hand to use, but you also had your name written down, which helped your spirit
find its way home each night to your tomb.

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If you would like to read some of these ancient spells and magical stories, click on the link below.
Once you get used to the style, you'll find it easy reading.

Grave Goods
The ancient Egyptians believed that if their heart was light from spending a lifetime doing good deed
that, after their death, they would climb in Ra's boat and travel to their afterlife. To the ancient
Egyptians, the afterlife was a real place, the land of Two Fields, a truly splendid place! People spent a
great deal of time making grave goods. Grave goods were all the things they wanted to bring with
them to the land of the Two Fields.

Nearly everybody made little statues as part of their grave goods. People in ancient Egypt fully
expected to be assigned jobs to do in their afterlife, just as they were assigned jobs to do in their daily
life. To the ancient Egyptians, it made perfect sense to create little statues that would do the work for
them. It was believed that when the deceased was called on to do their share of the work in the
afterlife, they could send their little workers instead. That would leave them free to sail the heavenly
Nile or visit with friends who had entered the afterlife.

They also made toys. They made beautiful clothing. They made jewellery, and anything else they
might need in the land of the Two Fields. Once made, their grave goods were packed carefully away
in big urns. After they died, the grave goods they had spent a lifetime preparing were buried with their
mummified body.

They ancient Egyptians had a great deal of fun preparing for their afterlife.

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Tall Tales
The Ancient Egyptians had many different ways of trying to obtain a divine intervention in their lives,
or to try to take a glance at the perils or fortunes the future might have in store for them.

Friday the 13th

Similar to Friday the 13th in western culture, the Ancient Egyptians had several days per year that
were considered unlucky. On such days, it was best not to undertake journeys, or to attempt to
harvest. Other days, however, were particularly benevolent.

This calendar may in part have been based on some sort of experience. For instance, the last days of
the year, just preceding the annual flooding of the Nile, were considered dangerous and unlucky days,
because of the hot weather and the many insects that caused sickness or even death.

Tall Tales #1
Dreams were another way to try to predict the future or to solve a problem. In a story about
Khaemwaset, one of the sons of the great king Ramesses II, it is told that the hero’s wife was unable
to get pregnant and bear children. During a dream, however, the desperate woman is visited by the
gods who tell her which potions and herbs to use to cure her problem. And indeed, after she follows
the divine advice, she gets pregnant and bears her husband a son!

Tall Tales #2
Legend has it that one could actively invoke the intervention of one or more gods. In the archives of
Deir el-Medina, the village of the craftsmen who built the royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings, a
particularly interesting account of a theft has been found.

One day, one of the craftsmen found that a little statuette was missing from his house and he
informed the local authorities. The resulting investigations, however, were unable to find the missing
statue, so the man turned to the god Amun and asked him to reveal the identity of the thief. The
statue of the god was then taken into procession through the village. Before each door, the statue was
asked whether the thief resided in that house.

Suddenly, before the door of one house, the divine statue moved, as if it were nodding, thus indicating
where the culprit was to be found. The accused man at first denied any involvement in the theft and
asked another god to prove his innocence. But instead of proving the alleged thief’s innocence, this
god too confirmed his guilt.

In the end, the man indicated by the gods was found guilty, the stolen object found, and finally
returned. This thief was lucky, though, for the gods normally punish hard those who invoke their
names falsely!

Tall Tales #3
One of the many texts I read when I was still a student, was found on a stela dated to the Ramesside
era. It was written for a man who describes himself as an outcast, living "like a dog in a temple",

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because he falsely swore an oath in the name of the god Ptah. The text ends with a warning to all
those who read the text to take guard of the gods and to never swear any false oaths using their
name.

So beware, you all, not to invoke the wrath of the gods by using their names with less than
honourable intent!

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Trivia
1. What did the ancient Egyptians call the star grouping we call the Big Dipper?
Answer: The Hippopotamus
2. Where did ancient Egyptian women place or wear perfume?
Answer: In wax cones on their heads
3. Used to make bread and beer, what was the major crop of ancient Egypt?
Answer: Barley
4. When the ancient Egyptians held a party, what did they call it?
Answer: A house of beer
5. What breed of dog was used as a hunting dog in ancient Egypt?
Answer: The greyhound
6. Name the only wind instrument in ancient Egypt.
Answer: The flute
7. The Christian cross was developed from what ancient Egyptian symbol?
Answer: Ankh
8. What was the most popular pet in ancient Egypt?
Answer: A cat
9. What did the ancient Egyptians believe would cure a toothache?
Answer: Fried mice!

Achievements and Inventions

 Systems of Irrigation and the Shaduf
 Obelisks
 Cartouche
 Flat Roofed Homes
 Pyramids
 Mummification
 Unique Gods and Goddesses
 Written Language
 Courts and Justice System
 Papyrus
 Book of the Dead

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