REGENT UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

TOPIC

CHANGING TECHNOLOGY AND THE ADMINISTRATOR

BY

SAMUEL BABAE ANSONG

2140205

A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL

SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF A BSc. (HONS) DEGREE (MANAGEMENT WITH
COMPUTING)
MARCH 2007

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 ABSTRACT

For a business to achieve its mission, it ought to be responsive to its environment, especially, its
technological influence once it leaves in a world of science where research is increasing, new
discoveries and developments in ways of executing tasks in businesses are evolving and high
speed of technological transfer, leading to a high rate of obsolescence.

An Administrator who is not informed and responsive to the changes in its business environment
can never achieve its mission.

Fast-Moving technologies are changing the rules of business for many institutions. New
management approaches are needed to better couple business strategy and technology, and to
offset the impact of short-term financial perspectives.

Advances in electronics are shortening product lifetimes for a wide range of consumer and
industrial products. Flexible manufacturing, factory automation, and new control systems are
changing the "set points" and historic rules of thumb throughout manufacturing.

Advances in software, particularly database systems and artificial intelligence, are increasing
productivity and creating many new products and markets in the rapidly growing service sector.
Even the boundaries between hitherto distinct market segments are becoming blurred as a result
of technological changes. Even when they were originally trained as technologist, is daunting.

Set against the context of declining…..competitiveness with an industry, many would argue that
it is a challenge which is often inadequately addressed.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is quiet natural that no academic research work of this nature could be successfully

accomplished without the least form of assistance and word of encouragement from any quarters.

To God be the Glory for the wonderful things He has done.

I would like to thank my Dad and Mum, Rev. Isaac Anane Babae and Mrs. Margaret Nyame

Babae respectively, for their moral and financial support.

I similarly wish to extend my deep gratitude to my Brothers and Sisters, Theophilus, Thomas,

Mark, Priscilla and Mame Grace for your spiritual support.

To Jemima Obeng, Edem Agbley and Mary Asiedu I say God bless you for being there when I

needed you most. I would not forget of Messrs Jerome Quayeson, Joseph Osei Bonsu, Hayford

Amegbe and the entire class (Regent University), I say thank you for your motivation, assistance

and suggestions, I am very grateful.

To my supervisor, Mrs. Glowen Kyei-Mensah, God bless you for your direction and assistance

in making this thesis a success.

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 DEDICATION

I dedicate this piece of work to my parents, Rev. & Mrs. Isaac

Anane Babae and the entire family

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 DECLARATION

I, Samuel Babae Ansong declare that, this work is the result of my own findings and information

obtained from other sources and have been acknowledged in the appropriate places in the text.

This work is therefore, my own and I am solely responsible for any errors.

Samuel Babae Ansong

Date

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Background

Throughout human history, technology has had a profound effect on human

development and on the progress of civilization. It took humans about two

million years to develop from nomads foraging for food in east central Africa

to agricultural settlers capable of augmenting their power with tools and

domestic animals.

The next several thousand years witnessed the wheel, the chariot, the water
wheel and mechanical implements. It was only less than two centuries ago
that, Steam engine and the factory system ushered in the start of the
Industrial Revolution. Energy generated from water and from mechanical,
electrical and nuclear sources enabled humans to achieve unprecedented
change in their way of life. Yet in no other time in history has technology
been as pervasive in human lives as it is today.

One of the great triumphs of modern technology is miniaturization. As the

computer industry never tires of reminding us, desktop computers pack
more processing power than the 1960s-era computers that filled entire
rooms. but the appeal of technology that is ever smaller and thinner isn't just
limited to pcs. everything from digital business card readers and portable
projectors to the latest flat computer monitors is popping up in small
businesses.

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To be sure, some of these devices prove their worth almost immediately.
Anyone who has traveled on a cross-country flight can testify to the value of
the all-purpose laptop computer/printer combination. Small businesses are
snapping up smaller products to accommodate cramped work spaces and
enable "virtual offices," taking information and technological tools anywhere
they are needed, be it to far-flung clients or on the subway for the morning
commute.

For some small enterprises, smaller technology can mean the difference
between staying put and moving to an entirely new office. In organizations,
Technology has made the automation of routine tasks, a commonplace.
Example, more and more people who work in companies processing orders
and tracking inventories are finding that their jobs are becoming
computerized. To an increasing extent, technology has invaded every
aspect of human endeavour. Government operations, global corporations,
private enterprises and individuals are highly dependent on technology for
their success. Increasingly, it is becoming important to have the skills,
knowledge, tools etc. to work with rather than against, technology.

The pace of technological change is becoming increasingly rapid and

administrators need to understand how technological developments might

affect their job function.

• New technologies can allow new goods and services to be offered to

consumers – telephone banking, mobile telecommunications, and new

drugs.

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 • New technology can allow existing products to be made more cheaply,

thereby widening their market through being able to charge lower

prices. In this way, more efficient aircraft have allowed new markets

for air travel to develop.

• Technological developments have allowed new methods of distributing

goods and service e.g. Bank ATM machines allow many banking

services to be made available at times and places which were

previously not economically possible.

• New opportunities for companies to communicate with their target

customers and other stakeholders have emerged, with many financial

services companies using computer databases to target potential

stakeholders and to maintain a dialogue with established customers.

The internet opens up new distribution opportunities for many

companies to explore.

Technology is simply a set of tools that help us work and manage or process

information. It is really a mind support tool set. Administrators are therefore

challenged to revise their old ways of managing an office as well as an entire

organization. They should rather keep abreast with technological updates.

1.1 Problem Statement

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“Science and Technology multiply around us. To an Increasing extent, they

dictate the languages in which we speak and think. Either we use those

languages or we remain mute”1.

We live in an era of breathtaking change and complexity. Because of

technology, our world is developing at a phenomenal speed. Technology’s

pace and scope of change are having profound effects on every human and

business institution. Twenty-five years ago, typewriters were one of the top

products as far as office set-up was concerned. Now it’s computers, fax

machines, internet and many more. Although we are invigorated by change,

administrators of today have difficulty grasping the full potential of the

advances at their fingertips.

Technology is one of the environmental factors that every administrator of a

business is tasked to analyze critically and if they want to succeed, they

have a role to play to ensure that, their businesses stay on track and ahead

of competition. In spite of the fact that technology is the most pervasive

force influencing human lives and businesses as a whole, it remains

mysterious to many people and its exact relevance and definition eludes

most of the public and many professionals.

Though the most valuable assets in business is not technology but rather the

mind, the mind should also be informed which in it sense, is a form of

1
J.G. Ballard

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technological update. This research is emanated from the grounds that, the

successes of organizations are increasingly dependent upon their leaders’

ability to properly manage and update resources in a world of rapidly

changing technology. Once there are new discoveries and developments in

the ways tasks are performed in an organization which has led to the high

rate of obsolescence in our machines, equipments, tools, skills and even

knowledge etc., there is therefore the need for the Administrator to

understand how technological developments might affect their business

curriculum and as such, the role they play in ensuring that their businesses

stay on track.

One factor of undeniable value is the education and training of human

resources needed for the ever changing technological organization. Leading

authorities in technology, business and government recognize that

technology can flow across organizational boundaries as well as across

borders of countries. Production facilities can also be moved from one

location to another in search of the optimal combination of resources. It is

people’s knowledge and managerial skills that will continue to be the most

valuable resource for the successes of organizations and technology has a

reflection in this scenario.

Technology could be in skill, knowledge, and tool etc. whereas, Business

curriculum includes; classes in Human Resource Management, Accounting,

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Finance, Marketing and perhaps Production and Operations Management. All

these classes have been affected in scope, one way or the other, by the

changing technology. Technology is therefore a vital factor that ought to be

looked at by an Administrator whose function basically, is to manage the

business curriculum of an entire business and sector.

1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH

As premised in the above problem statement, the role of the administrator

has been challenged by the changing technology. Consequently, the general

goal of this research is to know the Modern Administrator in the ever

changing technological environment. Specific objects of this research are to:

• Understand the role of the Administrator in an organization.

• Know technology and its impact on the classes of Business Curriculum.

• Understand the role of an effective Administrator during technological

change.

1.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The main instrument for data collection and analysis of this research would

be open and closed-ended questionnaires and interview schedule. Graphs

and charts would also be used to represent the outcomes of the analysis.

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The following Methods would be employed in achieving specific objective one

(1). Secondary source of information would be reviewed relating to the

objective and compare it with what is happening on the ground.

To achieve specific objective two (2), questionnaires will be distributed to

General and Departmental Managers of Companies. Lastly specific objective

three (3) will be achieved through structured interview with the

Administrators of success businesses.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 SCOPE OF TECHNOLOGY

Technology is the process by which humans modify nature to meet their

needs and wants. Most people, however, think of technology in terms of its

artifacts: computers and software, aircraft, pesticides, water-treatment

plants, birth-control pills, and microwave ovens, to name a few. But

technology is more than these tangible products. Tarek Khalil (2000)

However said, the knowledge, products, processes, tools, methods and

systems employed in the creation of goods or in providing services are

termed as technology,

Technology includes the entire infrastructure necessary for the design,

manufacture, operation, and repair of technological artifacts, from corporate

headquarters and engineering schools to manufacturing. In simple terms,

technology is the way we do things. Any means by which objectives are

accomplished.

It is common to think of technology in terms of hardware, such as machines,

computers or highly advanced electronic gadgets. Technology embraces a

lot more than just machines. Zeleny (1986) proposed that, any technology

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consists of three interdependent, codetermining and equally important

components:

Hardware: The physical structure and logical layout of the equipment or

machinery that is to be used to carry out the required tasks.

Software: The knowledge of how to use the hardware in order to carry out

the required tasks.

Brainware: The reasons for using the technology in a particular way. This

may also be referred to as the know-why.

In addition to the above three components, a fourth one must be considered

independently, for it encompasses all levels of technological achievements:

Know-how: The learned or acquired knowledge of or technical skill regarding

how to do things well. Know-how may be a result of experience, transfer of

knowledge, or hands-on practice. People acquire technical know-how by

receiving formal or informal education or training or by working closely with

an expert in a certain field.

2.1 LEVELS OF TECHNOLOGY

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There are many ways that technology manifests itself. Technology can be in

knowledge, as a tool, as a technique and as a cultural force.

2.1.1 Knowledge and Technology

We currently live in what truly can be termed the “knowledge age.”

Technology is knowledge applied to the creation of goods, provision of

services, and improvement of our stewardship of precious and finite

resources; on a negative note, it can also be applied for destructive

purposes. Whatever the application may be, advancement of technology

follows expansion of knowledge. Knowledge is not information, but it is

based on the amount of information available. Knowledge is all that has

been perceived or grasped by the mind from the range of information

available. The advances in information technology in the second half of the

twentieth century have expanded the amount of information available in the

world.

Pritchett (1994) reported that there has been more information produced in

the last 30 years than during the previous 5,000 years and that the

information supply available to us doubles every 5 years.

2.1.2Technology as a Tool

Technology can be most broadly defined as the material entities created by

the application of mental and physical effort to nature in order to achieve

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some value. In its most common use, technology refers to tools and

machines that may be used to help solve problems. In this use, technology

is a far-reaching term that may include both simple tools such as a wooden

spoon and complex tools such as a space station or the written sets of

procedures and maintenance manuals for it.

2.1.3 Technology as a Technique

In this use, technology is the current state of our knowledge of how to

combine resources to produce desired products to solve problems, fulfill

needs or satisfy wants. Technology in this sense includes technical methods,

skills, processes, technique tools and raw materials (example in such uses as

computer technology, construction technology or medical technology).

2.1.4 Technology as Cultural Force

It can be viewed as an activity that forms or changes culture (such as, in

manufacturing technology, infrastructure technology and space/travel

technology).

As a cultural activity, it predates both science and engineering, each of

which formalizes some aspects of technological endeavour. This is not to

imply that, technology is the only or the dominant culture forming activity.

Culture itself acts strongly upon and shapes the form and nature of

technology. However, due to the increasingly widespread use of ever more

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complex technologies and their frequently unintended consequences,

problems may arise in their use, many of which have been separately

studied. Such topics include, technological ethics, environmental effects,

technological by products and technological risk. The cultural force of

technology (example, as seen in the invention of writing) may be said to be

the driving force that sets us apart from other species.

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF TECHNOLOGY

Technology can be classified in several ways. These classifications are very

important in establishing a common vocabulary for ensuing discussion in our

next chapter.

2.2.1 New Technology

Any newly introduced or implemented technology that has an explicit impact

on the way a company produces products or provides services. One

example is an internet web site designed to market the company’s products.

Another example is new computer software introduced to develop

engineering drawings and thus replacing manual drafting. The technology

does not have to be new to the world, only to the company. It could have

been developed years ago and used by others, but it is classified as new

whenever introduced for the first time in a new situation.

2.2.2 Emerging Technology

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It is a technology that is not yet fully commercialized but will become so

within about five years. It may be currently in limited use but is expected to

evolve significantly. Examples of emerging technology include genetic

engineering, nanotechnology, superconductivity and the internet as a

replacement for the personal computer. Emerging technologies create new

industries and may make existing ones obsolete. They have the potential of

triggering large changes in institutions and in society itself.

2.2.3 High Technology

This refers to advanced or sophisticated technologies. High technologies are

utilized by a wide variety of industries having certain characteristics. A

company has high-tech if it fits the following description:

• It employs highly educated people. A large number of the employees

are scientists and engineers.

• Its technology is changing at a faster rate than that of other industries.

• It competes with technological innovation.

• It has high levels of research-and-development expenditure.

• It has the potential to use technology for rapid growth and its survival

is threatened by the emergence of competing technology.

2.2.4 Low Technology

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Refer to technologies that have permeated large segments of human

society. Low technologies are utilized by a wide variety of industries having

the following characteristics:

• They employ people with relatively low levels of education or skill.

• They use manual or semiautomatic operations.

• They have low levels of research expenditure (below industry

average).

• The technology base used is stable with little change.

• The products produced are mostly of the type that satisfies basic

human needs such as food, shelter, clothing and basic human services.

2.2.5 Medium Technology

Medium technology comprises a wide set of technologies that fall between

high and low technologies. It usually refers to mature technologies that are

more amenable than others to technology transfer. Examples of industries

in this category are consumer products and the automotive industry.

2.2.6 Appropriate Technology

The term appropriate technology is used to indicate a good match between

the technology utilized and the resources required for its optimal use. The

technology could be of any level, low, medium or high. It does not make

sense, for example, to use high technology when there is a lack of necessary

infrastructure or skilled personnel. This is a dilemma faced by many

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developing countries that want to transfer technology used in more

industrialized countries. They may push for the acquisition of high

technology in cases where a medium-level technology would be more

effective. Utilizing the appropriate level of technology could results in better

use of labour resources and better production efficiency.

2.3 Technology and Business

An organization can be thought of as a vehicle for introducing one or multiple

technologies to society. The goal is to achieve a set of objectives. The

technologies used can vary in level, from being very basic, on one end of the

scale, to being super-high technologies, on the other end.

2.4 Scope of Administration

According to Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (6th Edition), an

Administrator” is a person whose job is to manage and organise the public or

business affairs of a company or an institution or a person who is good at

organising things.”

Technology “is a scientific knowledge used in practical ways in industry, for

example in designing new machines.

2.4.1 MANAGEMENT

Management is not only an essential element of organised society, but also

an integral part of life. But what is management? How do we define it? How

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do we differentiate between good management and bad management? How

important is the management of resources? Perhaps, the late President of

the United States, John F. Kennedy, highlighted the importance of

management when he said, “The role of management in our society is

critical in human progress. It serves to identify a great need of our time; to

improve standards of living for all people through effective utilisation of

human material resources.”

Unfortunately, the role of management has always been taken for granted

and underemphasized. Technological advancements, level of production,

capital investment and other tangible elements have always been

emphasised as contributory factors towards economic growth, rather than

managerial skills (Administrable skills).

As Peter Ducker puts it; management is the crucial factor in economic and

social development. It was obvious that the economist’s traditional view of

development as a function of savings and capital Investment was not

adequate. Indeed, savings and capital investment do not produce

management and economic development. On the contrary, management

produces economic and social developments and with savings and capital

investment.

The era of effective management is currently receiving a lot of attention

because the organisations and their internal as well as external

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environments are becoming more complex. In this dynamic society,

management must be able to anticipate changes and their effect (impact)

and take appropriate measures to deal with these changes, which includes

most challenging external environment influences, technological changes.

2.4.2 Management As a technology

Management is the means by which the desired goals of an enterprise are

achieved. Management functions in an organization include planning,

organizing, staffing, motivating, and controlling activities of the organization.

Management as a field has a knowledge base and guiding principles.

Frederick Taylor, the “father of scientific management and industrial

engineering,” applied the scientific method to the art of management. After

Taylor, many management gurus contributed their valuable knowledge to

create ‘management technology. In effect, technology used to manage

organizations or certain functions should be the order of the day.

Kreitner defines management as follows, “Management is a problem solving

process of effectively achieving organisational objectives through the

efficient use of scarce resources in a changing environment.” This definition,

through comprehensive must be amended to include the goals being

achieved through the co-ordinated efforts of others. Some of the integral

elements of the above definition can be separated and analysed as follows;

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(a) Problem Solving Process: One of the most important functions of a

manager is to make decisions and solve problems. Some of the major

problems that the central management must continually face include

unpredictable economic trends, changing governmental regulations,

employee demands, resource shortages and a severe competition for

these resources, technical problems and technological changes among

others. There are other problems that are comparatively routine in nature

and can be solved by some tried and tested mechanisms. For example, a

change in production quality can be easily looked into and the process

changed, if necessary. On the other hand, an increase in employee

grievances or employee absenteeism or turnover may require carefully

studied unique solutions

(b) Organisational Objectives: All organisational have certain missions and

certain objectives for their very existence. Objectives are more specific in

nature. Basically, the organisational objectives are profit oriented and the

management must plan its activities along those lines. Additionally, it is

also the management responsibility to integrate the personal objectives of

its employees into organisational objectives. The personal objectives may

be higher remuneration, more challenging responsibilities and

participation in decision-making process.

(c) Efficiency: This can be defined as a technique of operations, which

results in achieving the objectives in an optimum and effective manner so

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 that the resources of time, talents, and capital are utilised fully and

without waste. Accordingly, a successful management would device

means that are not only effective in achieving the goals, but also are

efficient in utilising the resources.

(d) Scarce Resources: The resources of people, time, capital, raw materials

are all finite and limited. They are all scarce in nature and not

expandable. Additionally, there is a fierce competition for these

resources. Management is basically “ Trusteeship” of these resources and

hence must make conscious efforts to make the most out of these

resources.

(e) Changing Environment: The dynamics of environment is evidenced by

the tremendous and fast changes that have taken place in all areas in the

last 50 years. The advents of computers, and electronics have changed

the way in which the information is processed and handled for decision-

making purposes. The social standards have changed, styles have

changed, many laws have changed towards consumer protectionism,

technology has changed and the organisation have become much more

complex. Accordingly, management must be prepared to predict

accurately these changes and formulate ways to meet these new

challenges effectively.

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2.5 THE ROLE OF MANAGERS (ADMINISTRATORS) IN

ORGANISATIONS

According to Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (6th Edition) “a Manager is

a person whose job is to manage and organise the public or business affairs

of a company or an Institution. Also, it sees managers as a person who is

good at organising things.

A Manager’s job is highly crucial to the success of any organisation. The

more complex the organisation is, the more crucial is the manager’s role. It

is the administrator’s (manager’s) job to achieve the organisational goals

and objectives through the proper utilisation of its human and material

resources.

However, since humans can use the material resources of equipment,

capital, facilities, and information among others, the human resources are

the most valuable assets of any organisation. Accordingly, a manager must

be highly skilled in the art of optimally utilising the human resources. This

art is universal in nature. Also, managers must be trained in order to help

achieve the organisational goal successfully. Both top level and middle level

managers must be trained in all necessary skills to the benefit of the firm

and themselves. Some of the essential skills, which they must be trained in,

are;

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1. Technical Skills

This basically involves the knowledge, methods and techniques and the

ability to use these technique in performing a job effectively. For example,

accountants, engineers, programmers, among others, have technical skills in

their areas acquired through education and training. It is a special

knowledge and expertise, which is, used in day – to – day problems and

activities. Technical skills needed by managers and administrators to

understand some of the technical problems that might arise from time to

time

2. Human Skills

Human skill is the ability to work with other people amicably. It involves

patience, trust, and genuine involvement in interpersonal relationships. This

skill is necessary at all levels of management. The managers must create an

environment in which the workers work together as a team with a sense of

belonging and dedication. It helps the manager in effectively interacting

with others, which is truly conducive to high morale and necessary for

organisational success.

3. Analytical Skills

Effective and right decision-making is the most important function of

management. A wrong but crucial decision could make the difference

between success and failure. The right decision basically depends upon the

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correct analysis of the problem and the situation. Hence, a successful

manager must possess the analytical skill, involving the ability to logically,

objectively, and use scientific approaches to arrive at feasible and optimal

solutions.

4. Conceptual Skills

The conceptual skill is the ability to view the organisation as a whole, and as

a system comprised of various parts and sub-systems, integrated into a

single unit. The conceptual skills usually depend upon the organised

thinking process which deals with understanding of various functions of an

organisation, their interdependence, the relationship of the organisation with

the external environment and recognising the opportunities and challenges.

This is an extremely crucial skill necessary for successful operations of the

top management. The management must formulate objectives, policies and

strategies and must know how each part of the organisation contributes

towards the achievement of primary goals and how each part is interrelated

to each other.

2.6 MANAGERAL (ADMINISTERIAL) ROLE

According to Henry Mintzberg (1980), who has studied the role of Chief

Executive and has categorised these roles into three areas. These areas are

interpersonal relationship, information processing and disseminating, and

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 decision-making. Each of these areas are further sub-divided into various

role. These are:

A. Interpersonal Relationships

1. Manager’s role as a figurehead: Managers act as symbolic figureheads

performing social or legal obligations. These duties include greeting visitors,

signing legal documents, taking important customers to lunch, attending a

subordinate’s wedding or speaking at functions in schools and churches

among others.

2. Manager’s leadership role: Since manager is responsible for the

activities of his subordinates he must motivate them to perform better. He

must be an exemplary leader so that his subordinates follow his directions

and guidelines with respect and dedication.

3. Manager’s role as a liaison officer: In addition to their constant

contact with their own subordinates and peers, the managers must maintain

a network of outside contacts in order to assess the external environment of

competitions. This can be achieved by attending meetings, professional

conferences, personal phone calls through mails among others.

B. Information Processing

4. Manager’s role as a monitor: The managers are constantly monitoring

their environment, collecting and studying information regarding their

organisation and the outside environment affecting their organisation. This

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can be achieved by reading reports and periodicals and through personal

contacts.

5. Manager’s role as disseminator of Information: They transmit the

information regarding changes in policies or other matters to their

subordinates, their peers, and to other members of the organisation. This

can be done through memos, phone calls or group or individual meetings.

6. Manager’s role as a Spokesman: The manager has to be a spokesman

for his unit and represents his unit in either sending information to people or

making some demands on behalf of his unit. This can be done through

meetings and phone calls.

C. Decision Making

7. Manager’s role as an entrepreneur: The managers are constantly on

the look out for new ideas for product improvement or product addition.

They initiate feasibility studies, arrange for capital for new products if

necessary, and ask for suggestions from the employees for ways to improve

the organisation in any way. This can be achieved through suggestion

boxes, holding strategy meetings with project manager and Research and

Development personnel.

8. Manager’s role as a conflict handler: Managers are constantly

involved as arbitrators in solving differences among the subordinates or the

employees’ conflict with management. These conflicts may arise due to

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demands for higher pay or other benefits. These conflicts may involve

outside forces such as vendors increasing their prices or visits by

governmental inspectors. Managers try to resolve these problems and take

corrective actions.

9. Manager’s role as resource allocator: Managers make budgetary

allocations to different activities of the organisation. They assign personnel

to jobs, they allocate their own time to different activities and they allocate

funds for new equipment, advertising, pay raises among others.

10. Manager’s role as negotiator: they negotiate contracts with the

unions. The sales managers may negotiate prices with prime customers. The

purchasing managers may negotiate prices with the vendors.

2.7 MANAGERIAL FUNCTIONS

There are basically five primary functions of management. These are:

• Planning

• Organizing

• Staffing

• Directing

• Controlling

The controlling function comprises of coordinating, reporting and budgeting,

hence the controlling function can be broken into these three separate

functions. Based upon these seven functions, Luther Guelick coined the word

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“POSDCORB”, which generally represents the initials of these seven

functions. All the primary functions are explained and discussed fully in the

following pages and only a brief introduction to these functions is given here.

2.7.1 Planning

Planning is future oriented and determines an organization’s direction. It is a

rational and systematic way of making decisions today that will affect the

future of the company. It is a kind of organized foresight as well as corrective

hindsight .It involves the predicting of the future as well as attempting to

control the events. It involves the ability to foresee the effects of current

actions in the long run in the future.

Peter Drucker has defined planning as follows, the continuous process of

making present entrepreneurial decisions systematically and with best

possible knowledge of their futurity, organizing systematically the efforts

needed to carry out these decisions and measuring the results of these

decisions against the expectations through organized and systematic

feedback.

An effective planning programme incorporates the effect of both external as

well as internal factors. The external factors are shortages of resources, both

capital and material, general economic trend as far as interest rates and

inflation are concerned, dynamic technological advancements, increased

32
governmental regulation regarding community interests, unstable

international political environments etc. The internal factors that affect

planning are limited growth opportunities due to saturation requiring

diversification, changing patterns of work force, more complex organizational

structures, decentralization etc.

2.7.2 Organizing

Organizing requires a formal structure of authority and the direction and flow

of such authority through which work sub-divisions are defined, arranged and

co-ordinated so that each part relates to such other part in a united and

coherent manner so as to attain prescribed objectives. Thus the function of

organizing involves the determination of activities that need to be done in

order to reach the company goals, assigning these activities to the proper

personnel, and delegating the necessary authority to carry out these

activities in a coordinated and cohesive manner. It follows, therefore that

the function of organizing is concerned with:

a) Identifying the tasks that must be performed and grouping them

whenever necessary.

b) Assigning these tasks to the personnel while defining their authority

and responsibility.

c) Delegating this authority to these employees.

d) Establishing a relationship between authority and responsibility.

e) Co-ordinating these activities.

33
2.7.3 Staffing

Staffing is the function of hiring and retaining a suitable work-force for the

enterprise both at managerial as well as non managerial levels. It involves

the process of recruiting, training, developing, compensating and evaluating

employees, and maintaining this work-force with proper incentives and

motivations.

Since the human element is the most vital factor in the process of

management, it is important to recruit the right personnel. This function is

even more critically important since people differ in their intelligence,

knowledge, skills, experience, physical condition, age and attitudes, and this

complicates the function. Hence, management must understand, in addition

to the technical and operational competence, the sociological and

psychological structure of the work force.

2.7.4 Directing

Directing function is concerned with leadership, communication, motivation

and supervision so that the employees perform their activities in the most

efficient manner possible, in order to achieve the desired goals. The

leadership element involves issuing of instructions and guiding the

subordinates about procedures and methods. The communication must be

open both ways so that the information can be passed on to the

34
subordinates and the feedback received from them. Motivation is very

important, since highly motivated people show excellent performances with

less direction from superiors. Supervising subordinates would give

continuous progress reports as well as assure the superiors that the

directions are being properly carried out.

2.7.5 Controlling

The function of control consists of those activities that are undertaken to

ensure that the events do not deviate from the pre-arranged plans. The

activities consist of establishing standards for work performance, measuring

performance and comparing it to these set standards and taking corrective

actions as and when needed, to correct any deviations.

All these five functions of management are closely inter-related. However,

these functions are highly indistinguishable and virtually unrecognisable on

the job. It is necessary, though, to put each function separately into focus

and deal with accordingly.

2.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD MANAGER

Not all managers are successful. Those managers who are successful have

certain characteristics, which create a climate for success themselves and

their subordinates. Some of the more important personality traits of a

successful manager are:

35
2.8.1 Knowledge

The problems we deal with are generally complex and many faceted, and

hence a reasonable degree of knowledge is required so as to differentiate

between facts, inferences and hypothesis as well as speculations, and

process this information into useful data for decision-making purpose. To

have the knowledge about competitive markets, about technological

advancements and about social changes is very important for taking action.

2.8.2 Decisiveness

Decision making involves more than simply choosing the best alternative.

The skill to recognize and define the problem and if possible, to anticipate

problems before they get out of hand is equally important and desirable.

Making the right decision is important, to make the decision fast is equally

important for the success and growth of any company. A manager must be

fast to make decisions.

Many opportunities have been missed because of indecisiveness and taking

time in checking all the facts. A good manager should be able to make

decisions, even when partial data is available, so that his decision may be

based on analytical and intuitional judgement. A manager should possess

conceptual logical ability, intuitive and courageous judgement and ability to

36
analyze the problem by breaking it into parts and identifying the nature and

effect of each part.

a) Ability to handle conflict: A good manager is calm, able to listen, is

positively responsive to criticism and is able to handle conflicts and

differences in a constructive manner. In order to handle conflicts well,

a manager must be confident, self-assertive, fair and dominant. He

should be highly tolerant of stress and tension. This would require a

sound mind in a sound body. A good physical health generally

introduces drive, energy, and stability leading to ore balanced outlook.

b) Emotional stability: Emotional stability is the major ingredient for

effective leadership and an effective manager is always an effective

leader. It pertains to good adjustment to life, calm, cool, and calculated

reaction to undesirable situations and obstacles, and normal

acceptance of success as well as failure. Emotional stability often leads

to wrong and impulsive decisions with dire consequences. Accordingly,

a manager must be able to look and assess a problem with

detachment and objectivity. An emotionally stable manager, generally

has a happy family life and has a balanced outlook towards life and the

world.

37
2.9 MANAGERIAL (ADMINISTERIAL) RESPONSIBILITIES

The management is responsible and answerable to many groups. Sometimes

the interests of these groups conflicts with each other. Hence, management

must conduct its affairs in a manner so as to be fair and equitable to all

parties who have a vested interest and claim on management. These

interested parties are:

1) The stockholders and other investors

2) Employees

3) Consumers

4) Inter-related business

5) The government

6) The community

These responsibilities are discussed in more detail as follows:

2.9.1 Responsibility towards stockholders:

The stockholders are the owners of the company who have invested capital

in the organization. Their primary purpose in investing funds is to make a

reasonable profit. Accordingly, the management must direct its resources at

its command in such a manner so as to yield a satisfactory rate of return for

its investors in the long run. The stockholders are not so much interested in

quick profits as they are in stability, growth and image of the company. The

company must create an image of quality and service. In addition, it is the

38
management’s duty to inform the shareholders about the company’s

financial position from time to time and all relevant matters regarding

objectives, policies and procedures, so that the stockholders can give some

necessary input from time to time. The stable growth of a company will help

the stockholders in two ways. First, they will share a part of the total profits

in the form of dividends and secondly, the value of their share will

appreciate. Accordingly, the management must base their decisions on long

range planning and objective forecasting.

2.9.2 Responsibility towards employees: The responsibilities of

management towards employees, who put in their time and efforts, are

many folds. Dome of these responsibilities relate to the following areas:

a) Responsibility in relation to employment:

This must be clearly understood that the employment is meant to be

mutually beneficial for the employee as well as for the employer.

Accordingly, the emphasis should not only be on what the employee can do

for the company, but also what the company can do for the employee. The

employee contribution must be fully recognized. The employees must be

assigned the right jobs as per their knowledge, experience, attitudes and

interests. Additionally, the employees must be made aware of company

policies, procedures and objectives.

39
 b) Responsibility in relation to working conditions:

The employees spend their major part of the day in work environment.

Accordingly, working conditions must be conducive to work. These working

conditions refer to physical facilities, which must be adequate and

acceptable. These must meet the accepted standards of cleanliness, light,

heat, air conditioning, ventilation, safety and sanitation facilities. They

should also be given the proper tools and machines to work with. Whenever

the job requires some extra degree of risk or difficulty, then additional

benefits and incentives must be offered. These conditions include night duty,

working with chemicals, working underground in a coalmine or working with

fast heavy machinery. In addition, provision for social activities as well as

athletic activities would make the employees more dedicated. The workers

should consider this an additional benefit as well as a boost in their morale, if

they are allowed easy access to superiors, provisions for suggestions that

would be seriously considered and flexibility in working hours, if possible.

Many large companies provide for psychological counseling, which greatly

reduces the stress of work and helps solve other personal problems. This

reduction in stress and tension and the development of a positive attitude

would greatly improve the productivity.

c) Responsibility in relation to economic security:

The economic security implies the continuity of the job in good times as well

as bad times. This sense of job security greatly improves the sense of

40
dedication to the company. A lifetime employment brings about a shared

responsibility, which helps to build the loyalty to the company. The system of

“tenure” in academic institutions after five or six years of service is designed

to give professor a sense of economic security which should bring out

dedication, sincerity and a sense of belonging to the institution. In addition to

job security, the remuneration and fringe benefits must be adequate and

encouraging. Some of the fringe benefits in addition to the salary are:

• Life insurance

• Medical insurance

• Sick leave

• Maternity leave

• Provision for other emergencies

• Profit sharing plans

Stock options. This is a provision to buy the stock shares of the company at a

price lower than the price paid by the public.

• Pension plans and retirement benefits.

• Paid vacation

• Free education for workers, if necessary, for their children.

d) Responsibility in relation to job satisfaction:

Job satisfaction refers to the employee’s self-fulfilment and happiness at the

job. The conceptual environment should be such as to enhance the

41
employee’s confidence and faith in the company. The workers should be

encouraged to participate in the company affairs as much as possible,

especially in the formulation of procedures and policies affecting them. This

would encourage a sense of belonging. In addition, the employee

contributions should be properly recognized and rewarded. Other

management policies include provisions for challenging opportunities,

increased responsibility, promotion and participation in the decision making

process.

e) Responsibility towards consumers: The customers expect a quality

product at a reasonable price with guaranteed satisfaction. It is the

responsibility of the management to see that the interests of the consumers

are promoted. The quality of the product can be guaranteed by offering

facilities for returning the defective product either for a refund of the

purchase price or for a new unit. Also by providing free service to the

product for a specified period of time, the customer’s confidence in the

quality of the product can be strengthened. The product should be simple to

operate and be made easily available through proper distribution channels

and the customer satisfaction should be first rule of sales. “ The customer is

always right”, has proved to be a good policy for initiating sales and keeping

the customer.

42
f) Responsibility towards inter-business relations: All industries buy

raw materials or semi-finished products from other industries. All business

buy some supplies from vendors. All companies sell their products to other

companies like distributors and wholesalers. It is the responsibility of the

management to maintain the inter-business relationship at a level of high

ethical standards. They should have fair trade practices, regarding their

prices, the quality and the quantity of the product, methods of payment,

time and mode of delivery, and the quality of services. For example General

Motors buys steel from steel mills, tires from Firestone or General Tire, and

some other parts of the cars from other companies and sells the cars to

dealers. These inter-business relationships demand a fair code of conduct

from all parties concerned.

Responsibility towards government: The management must operate within

the legal system, adhering to all laws, which may be local, state, or federal

laws. These laws include, but are not limited to:

Paying proper taxes and paying them on time.

Respecting laws pertaining to social environment. These may be relating to

air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, dumping of chemical wastes,

respect of zoning laws etc.

Affirmative action. This means that the management makes special

provisions for hiring, training and promoting employees belonging to such

minority groups who have been discriminated against previously. These

43
discriminations may have been on the basis of ethnic origin, race,

provincialism or sex.

Equal opportunities for all. This means that there is no longer any

discrimination in hiring practices and that people are hired only on the basis

of merit.

Respect for anti-trust laws. This means that a few major companies that may

dominate the markets for a particular product should not conspire to fix

prices or create artificial shortages by hoarding and holding back supply of

product.

Truth in advertising. This means that the public should not be misled by false

claims about the benefits of the products.

g) Responsibility towards community interests: Some of these

interests may be protected by law such as areas of air pollution and water

pollution. Other interests may be the outcome of social environments. Some

of the community interests are:

 Providing jobs within the community

 Hiring the handicaps

 Assisting in church and school activities

 Organizing sports tournaments and other cultural functions for

the community

 Raising funds for public activities such as opening of hospitals or

other charitable activities

44
 Taking active interest in all community affairs.

2.10 MODELS OF TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE

All over the world various theoretical insights have been used for

understanding changes within organizations. These include planned and

emergent models. Planned approaches are based on two fundamental

assumptions. Firstly they assume that the major determinants of change can

be planned in advance and secondly, technology is seen as the main enabler

for successful change management. Planned models postulate a top down

approach, where senior management are seen as the prime drivers in

managing the change process.

Theoretical Change Model

+ +

Organizational Culture + Managing Technological Change

Figure 1. Aligning the key change dimensions, the + signifies the

interrelation between the various concepts.

45
Despite the popularity of planned models over the few decades, they are

increasingly becoming obsolete, as reflected by the increase failure of many

planned change interventions. A major reason for planning failure is the

increasingly turbulent, complex and uncertain organizational conditions of

today, Orlikowski and Hofman (1997). A major criticism, as frequently

reported in the literature, is that they failed to look beyond technological

issues and understand the social and cultural factors, influencing the change

process. Recent researchers have highlighted the need to move beyond

these simple technocratic accounts of technological changes and develop

theoretical approaches that examine the complex interaction between social,

technical and interpretative factors that continually influence change within

specific organizational context.

Newer approaches have incorporated the notions of emergence,

improvisation, learning and innovation. These approaches share the view

that change cannot be viewed as a linear sequential process which can be

planned within a given time period, by senior management. Instead actors

enact change as they respond to change arising in an adhoc fashion. Change

from this view is something, which is ongoing or continues.

However, these approaches are not without their criticism, increasingly

numerous researchers have suggested the need to explain more explicitly

how technology both constrains and enable actor’s perceptions in

relationship to distinguishing deeply held beliefs and motives and the

46
entwinement between organizational culture and organizational change,

Avison and Myers (1995). Despite the call for a more interpretative and

dynamic model for managing technological change the pursuit of more

explanatory models for examining change management continues

The word administrator is originated from the word administration. The

world book dictionary defined administration as the managing of a business,

household, club or office, which of course, dwells on management. A person

who directs the work of other employees in a business could also be termed

as an administrator. He therefore happens to be at the centre of which all

functions within the business is directed to.

An administrator is one who administers, especially one who works as a

manager in a business, government, agency or school. In business terms, he

is a performer of executive duties, management. Thesaurus dictionary

defined it as a person having administrative or managerial authority in an

organization. Some titles include; administrator, director, executive,

manager, officer, official. Simply put, a person who manages an organization

is said to be an administrator.

Administrative theorists were concerned with the efficiency of administrative

processes through system coordination and endeavored to establish certain

principles of good management. Henri Fayol was one of the first people who

tried to work out what managers should do and how they should do it. He

47
emphasized the role of management and concluded that all activities that

occur in business organization could be divided into six main groups:

• Technical – production, manufacturing

• Commercial – buying, selling, exchange

• Financial – obtaining and using capital

• Security – protection of people and property

• Accounting – stock taking costing, statistics and the balance sheet

• Managerial – planning, organizing, commanding, co-ordianating and

controlling.

Fayol concluded that these activities are interdependent and that it is the

role of the management to ensure all six activities work smoothly to achieve

the goals of the organization.

48
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH DESIGN

3.0 Introduction

This chapter explains the study area which the researcher limited his study,

the sources of data, the research instrument, the nature and composition of

the target population, the sample size and sampling techniques used, mode

of data collection, problems of data collection and method of data analysis.

3.1 The Study Area

The study was limited to Unilever Ghana Limited, Nestle Ghana Limited, Four

Commercial banks in Ghana (International Commercial Bank, Barclays Ghana

Limited, Ecobank Ghana Limited and Standard Chartered) and Volta

Aluminium Company Limited. This is because it would be difficult for the

researcher to compare all the companies in the country.

3.2 Sources of Data

For the purpose of this study, both primary and secondary sources of data

were used to elicit information on the impact of technological changes on the

administrators (Managers). The primary data took the form of Questionnaires

and Interviews. Also, purposive samplings were used.

49
Secondary data were in the form of published materials, textbooks and

journals as well as the internet.

3.3 Research Instruments

One set of questionnaires were presented to the management and staff of

four commercial banks in Ghana, Unilever, Nestle Ghana Limited and VALCO.

The questionnaires were open and closed ended to allow respondents to

express their views appropriately. These questions were carefully developed,

tested and sorted out before being administered. Additional care was taken

in choosing the questions and their form, their wording and sequence.

3.4 Population

The target population for the study was made up of four (4) groups. For the

researcher to gather enough information he grouped the population into four

(4). They are:

a. Unilever Ghana Limited

b. Nestle Ghana Limited

c. Commercial Banks in Ghana

d. Volta Aluminium Company Limited (VALCO)

The population size for the study was limited to thirty (30) respondents from

all the four groups. In the research, one set of questionnaires were

administered. The population of the four commercial banks was made up of

50
12 workers. Classes of respondents were representative of the various

institutions.

Due to inadequate Funding of the research, the researcher had to choose

four (4) Banks. The aim was to avoid incidental and transportation costs if

the research were to extend to other firms. The time limit for submission of

the research work was also very short and full of other activities which put

the researcher under much pressure. The choice was therefore made to

minimize difficulties the writer envisaged in administering and collecting

questionnaires from all institutions at the time the representatives were busy

preparing accounts.

3.5 Sample Size and Sampling Techniques

A 29% stratified random sampling consisting of four (4) banks was drawn

from among the commercial banks. It is generally accepted that stratified

sampling does not give every individual or organization a chance to be

selected but it was used because a selection must be made among various

strata or institutions.

A section of respondents who were representatives of the other institutions

were selected based on the purpose and objectives of the study. In the

research one set of questionnaires were administered.

51
The analysis below explains how the thirty (30) respondents were drawn

from the target population to ensure a true representation of the population

without any bias.

Table 3.3 Composition of the Sample (Respondents)

INSTITUTION RESPONDENTS
Unilever Ghana Limited 5
Nestle Ghana Limited 8
Commercial Banks in Ghana 12
VALCO 5
Total 30

Table 3.4 Composition of the Sample Size

Managin Gran
Organizations Marketin Finance H g Othe d
g R Director rs total
Unilever Ghana Limited 1 2 1 1 - 5
Nestle Ghana Limited 2 1 2 1 3 8
Commercial Banks in 2 3 2 4 - 12
Ghana
VALCO 1 1 1 1 1 5
Total 6 7 6 7 4 30

3.6 Mode of Data Collection

This contained the methods the researcher used to arrive at his findings and

conclusions. A quantitative data collection method was adopted for this

description study. In line with this objective, the researcher utilized both

primary and secondary sources in gathering data. The secondary sources

took the form of textbooks, newspapers and other published materials. The

primary source comprised of personal interviews and questionnaires. The

52
type of interview used was the structured interview as the respondent would

be able to go straight to the point on the subject matter and also save time.

The questionnaires took the form of semi-structured (mixed) questionnaires

because all the respondents could read and write. The questions were open

and closed-ended questions to allow for free expression on each question

where appropriate.

The questionnaire was chosen for another reason. Respondents tend to

conceal vital information about financial affairs and to give misleading

answers when interviewed on certain matters.

The researcher used various sampling to select his respondents. Among the

sampling types used were the stratified and purposive samplings. The

purposive sampling was also used as the topic under study is prominent

among the chosen institutions.

3.7 Problems of Data Collection

Time was a serious factor that posed considerable problems for the writer.

The critically short period within which the study was to be conducted was

full of activities such as preparation for end of semester examination on the

part of the writer and also preparation of accounts on the part of

53
respondents. It was therefore difficult to persuade respondents to complete

their questionnaires at the right time.

Some respondents felt reluctant to answer the questionnaires with the

reason that their companies’ financial position and information could be

exposed to the public since they are in competitive market. In certain

offices, the researcher was not allowed to present the questionnaire to the

respondents themselves and this led to some questionnaires been misplaced

in certain instances. Also, several visits had to be made to respondents'

work places before some of the questions could be traced, completed and

handed in but the writer was able to collect a reasonable number of

questionnaires.

3.8 Method of Data Analysis

Data obtained from the questionnaires were analyzed using tables, charts

and percentages. Each question in the questionnaire was considered as

separate from the others and analysed differently. In the case of questions,

which demanded the expression of respondent’s views and suggestions, the

central facts were compiled and analysed using percentages.

54
 CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.0 Introduction

This chapter deals with the main research work. It seeks to find out the

effect of technological changes on the administrator and their responds.

Analysis would be made from data obtained from twenty (20) questionnaires

being administered.

4.1 Definition of Technology

From the research, it can be deduced that most of the administrators

(Managers) actually know and actually understand what technology is about.

The study revealed that 20 out of the thirty (30) respondents, which

represent 66.7%, actually know and define technology as "a process by

which humans modify nature to meet their needs and wants. Also, they

added that, technology is a scientific knowledge used in a practical way in an

organization while six (6) representing 20% sees technology as everyday

change. 13.3% of the respondents actually cannot define what technology

is. Some of the respondents also revealed that technological changes are

vital for organizational growth and economic growth.

55
4.2 Relationship between Technology and Job Function

Criteria Respondents Percentages

Very Useful 28 93.7%
Less Useful - -
Not Useful 2 6.7%
Total 30 100%
Table 4.1 Source: Study Survey

Very Good
Less Useful
Not Useful

Table 4.1 shows 93.3% of respondents who were of the view that technology

has direct relationship with their job functions and describe this relationship

as very useful. Part of the 93.3% explained that technological changes have

been very helpful in delivering their job as compared to 6.7% having

divergent views.

4.3 Observation on the Role of an Administration.

The roles of administrators in Ghana present varying ideas. Respondents

were of the view that, the roles of an administrator is the same as leaders.

56
 They classified the roles into three namely; interpersonal relationship,

information processing and dissemination and decision making.

Respondents were of the view that these roles should be exhibited by every

administrator (Manager) in all kinds of organization be it private or public.

It was found that most of the respondents both administrators and staff don’t

actually know their roles hence, manage the company any way they like.

This does not urger well for organisations and individual managers.

Further, those respondents who understood the role of administrator when

asked to elaborate on the roles as interpersonal relationship, information

processing and dissemination and decision making has explained the role of

an administrators as follows;

B. Interpersonal Relationships

1. Manager’s role as a figurehead: Managers act as symbolic figureheads

performing social or legal obligations. These duties include greeting visitors,

signing legal documents, taking important customers to lunch, attending a

subordinate’s wedding or speaking at functions in schools and churches

among others.

2. Manager’s leadership role: Since manager is responsible for the

activities of his subordinates he must motivate them to perform better. He

57
must be an exemplary leader so that his subordinates follow his directions

and guidelines with respect and dedication.

3. Manager’s role as a liaison officer: In addition to their constant

contact with their own subordinates and peers, the managers must maintain

a network of outside contacts in order to assess the external environment of

competitions. This can be achieved by attending meetings, professional

conferences, personal phone calls through mails among others.

B. Information Processing

4. Manager’s role as a monitor: The managers are constantly monitoring

their environment, collecting and studying information regarding their

organisation and the outside environment affecting their organisation. This

can be achieved by reading reports and periodicals and through personal

contacts.

5. Manager’s role as disseminator of Information: They transmit the

information regarding changes in policies or other matters to their

subordinates, their peers, and to other members of the organisation. This

can be done through memos, phone calls or group or individual meetings.

6. Manager’s role as a Spokesman: The manager has to be a spokesman

for his unit and represents his unit in either sending information to people or

making some demands on behalf of his unit. This can be done through

meetings and phone calls.

58
D. Decision Making

7. Manager’s role as an entrepreneur: The managers are constantly on

the look out for new ideas for product improvement or product addition.

They initiate feasibility studies, arrange for capital for new products if

necessary, and ask for suggestions from the employees for ways to improve

the organisation in any way. This can be achieved through suggestion

boxes, holding strategy meetings with project manager and Research and

Development personnel.

8. Manager’s role as a conflict handler: Managers are constantly

involved as arbitrators in solving differences among the subordinates or the

employees’ conflict with management. These conflicts may arise due to

demands for higher pay or other benefits. These conflicts may involve

outside forces such as vendors increasing their prices or visits by

governmental inspectors. Managers try to resolve these problems and take

corrective actions.

9. Manager’s role as resource allocator: Managers make budgetary

allocations to different activities of the organisation. They assign personnel

to jobs, they allocate their own time to different activities and they allocate

funds for new equipment, advertising, pay raises among others.

10. Manager’s role as negotiator: they negotiate contracts with the

unions. The sales managers may negotiate prices with prime customers. The

purchasing managers may negotiate prices with the vendors.

59
The study revealed that the roles mentioned make an administrator a good

one.

4.4 Relevance of Technology to Job Functions

CRITERIA RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE %

Very Important 24 80%
Less Important 4 13.3%
Not Important 2 6.7%
Total 30 100
Table 4.2

80

60
Very Important
40 Less Im portant
Not Im portant
20

0
Respondents

It can be deduced from the table that technology is very relevant to Job

Functions in the light that technological changes affects the job functions of

both administrators and employees.

The study revealed that 80% of the respondents see technological changes

as very important to their job functions, while 13.3% sees it as less important

to their job functions and 6.7% of the respondents see technological changes

(technology) as not important to their job functions.

4.4 Requests for Technological Updates

60
Figure 4.1

CRITERIA RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE %

2 – 5years 28 93.3
Annually 2 6.7
Quarterly - -
Monthly - -
Total 30 100
Table 4.3

100

80
2-5 years
60
Annually
40
Quarterly
20 Monthly

0
Respondents

It can be deduced from table 4.3 and figure 4.1 that, most of companies go

in for new technology between 2 to 5 years in order to update their system

and operation. This is a good managerial style since most of the changes or

innovation occurs between the period 2 to 5 years, while6.7 of the

respondents were of the view that they request for their technological

updates annually. Besides, there were no respondents which requested for

updates quarterly and monthly.

Part of the respondents further explained that management has responded

and approved their request for technological updates a month after their

requests were made. This is a very good sign of a good administration and

its willingness to all for change.

61
4.5. Types of Technological Tools

This is where the kind of technological tools used by the organisation is

studied.

Table 4.4 below illustrates the kind of technological tools used

CRITERIA RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE %

Computers and 22 73.3%
Software
Typewriters 3 10%
Calculators 5 16.7%
Total 30 100

80
70
60
50
Computers & Softwares
40
Typewriters
30
Caculators
20
10
0
Respondents

Table 4.4 show that 22 respondents representing 73.3% clearly revealed that

they use computers and printers as the kind of technological tools in use in

their organisation, while 16.7% uses calculators and only 10% are still using

typewriters. Part of the 73.3% revealed that they also make use of

calculators in the finances department.

62
It can be deduced from the table that even though most of the organisations

are exposed to technological changes some are still using old technologies

as seen in the 10% us of typewriters. This, they explained, makes working

unpleasant and undermines productivity.

4.6 Obstacles in Managing Change

CRITERIA RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE %

Yes 28 93
No 2 7%
Total 30 100
Table 4.5

100

80

60
Yes
40 No

20

0
Respondents

It can be deduced from the table above that Management and Administrators

face major obstacles in implementing and managing technological changes.

Table 4.5 shows that 93% of the respondents were of the view that they

experience obstacles in managing change while 7% were of diverging views.

They do not know whether there is an obstacle in managing and

implementing change.

63
Some of the respondents included in the 93% cited; organisational culture,

behavioural aspect of employees and inability of understanding the nature of

technological changes as the major obstacle to managing change.

4.7 Effects of Technological changes on Organisation

CRITERIA RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE %

Yes 30 100%
No - -
Total 30 100

It can be seen from table 4.6 that technological transformation or changes

greatly affects organisations be it public or private.

The study revealed that al the 30 respondents representing 100% were of

the view that technological changes or transformation have major effects on

the company in which they work. Respondents concerted that technological

changes posses a major challenge for administrators and the company to re-

align and restructure their strategies and the organisation to meet these

challenges.

The study also revealed the major areas of the organisation affected by the

technological changes. These areas are:

Work tasks: Respondents explained, producing a regrouping of tasks, direct

production activities have reduced an indirect activities; maintenance and

quality increased.

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They revealed that physical efforts have been substituted by technological

developments but at the same time, the everyday activity of the worker has

become more complex, with higher levels of autonomy, decision and

responsibility.

Professional Categories: Respondents explained that with the substitution of

the concept of professional category by those of functional categories

emerged and acquired relevance, such as auditors, programmers, work team

and quality control coordinators. Also, there is a clear tendency for the

unification of direct labour (DL) and indirect labour (IL) teams.

Qualification Requirements, Functional Mobility and Training: Respondents

revealed that due to technological transformation, there has been increased

demand for multi-skilled workers which puts specialists category under

threat due to lack of training. They concerted that training policies

developed focused only on Directors, Senior Managers, Engineers and

Administrative Staff.

Working Conditions: Respondents explained that even though technological

innovation has generally been good in terms of production and health issues

and to fewer accidents, it has lead to problems related to working conditions.

They cited; increased responsibility, greater job uncertainty and insecurity

and more flexible and irregular working days; stress, depression among

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others as the working conditions problems brought about by technological

Criteria Respondents Percentage (%)

10 – 14yrs 22 73.3
5 – 9yrs 6 20
1 – 4yrs 2 6.7
Below 1yr - -
Total 30 100
changes.

4.8 Management Response to the Effect of Technological

Transformation

Table 4.13 Technological Changes Period

It can be seen that most of the organization have been exposed to

technology over the past ten (10) fifteen (15) years of their establishment.

The study revealed that 73.3% of the respondents were of the view that they

are exposed to technological changes over fifteen years of their existence,

while 20% were of the view that they started using technology for the period

of 5 to 9years. Also, 6.7% of the respondents claimed to be exposed to

technological changes between 1 to 4years.

Table 4.14 Failure in Implementing Change (Technological Change)

Criteria Respondents Percentage

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Yes 27 90
No 3 10
Total 30 100

It can be deduced from the table above that most companies have in one

way or the other experienced failure in trying to implement a particular

change. The study revealed that 90% of the respondents explained they

sometimes experience failure in change implementation and gave reasons

for the failure as if the purpose of the change is not made clear, lack of

involvement of employees work group are ignored and poor communication

regarding change, fear of failure and lack of respect and trust in change

initiator.

Table 4.15 Perception of Technological Change

Criteria Respondents Percentage

Threat 5 16.7
Opportunity for 25 83.3

growth
Total 30 100

It can be seen from table 4.15 that majority of employees see technological

changes as an opportunity for growth in which their capabilities can be fully

utilized for their own benefit and that of the company. Also, some few

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employees who do not understand technology and all what technological

change is about perceive it as a threat. The study revealed that 25

respondents representing 83.3% perceive technological transformation on

changes as an opportunity for growth while 16.7% perceive technological

changes as a threat. Part of the 83.3% respondents explained the

technological changes and innovations has really helped them personally in

acquiring new skills and new methods of doing things and also helped in

increasing productivity for their organization. They cited technological

changes as an opportunity for growth. Also part of the 16.7% respondents

who perceived technology as a threat explained that any time this occurs

their job security is threatened. The believe that they will loose their jobs

technological innovation and changes in the organization is on the increase.

Criteria Respondents Percentage

Yes 24 80
No 6 20
Total 30 100
Table 4.16 Times in Implementing Technological Changes

It can be deduced from the table above that administrators (managers) of

most companies take into consideration the factor of time in introducing and

implementing technological changes. The study revealed that 80% of the

respondents consider timing when introducing and implementing

technological changes while 20% were of divergent views they claimed that

they do not know if timing is considered when implementing technological

changes. The 80% respondents explained that they conduct research in the

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company organization to see whether they are ready to welcome the

change. Also they carefully considers if it is the right time or conducive for

them to introduce and implement the change and that the implementation is

done based on developed time table and stages.

4.17Risk Involved In Technological Changes

Criteria Respondents Percentage

Yes 26 86.7
No 4 13.3
Total 30 100

It can be seen from the above table that there are risks involved in

technological changes or innovation whenever an organization goes through

these changes. The study revealed that 86.7% of respondents were of the

view that there are risk elements in implementing technological changes

while 13.3% cannot tell if there are risks involved in technological changes or

not. The 86.7% of the respondents classified the risk involved in

technological change into two namely; Adverse Occupational Health and

Safety (OHD) outcomes and Occupational Overuse Syndrome (OOS). They

explained that these occur when the change is poorly managed and

inadequately modified to workplace needs or not supported by appropriate

training. They also cited psychological injury as part of the risk which

includes career concerns and job insecurity, Health issues and accidents. All

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those were linked to managements (administrators) inability to properly

manage technological changes.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Summary of Findings

The study was calculated to examine the impact of technological changes on

the Administrator (Manager) and concentrated on changing technology and

the administrator. The literature review provided background information on

the scope of technology and its components levels of technology and

classification of technology. Also, it highlighted what actually administration

or management is all about, administerial roles and functions; the

characteristics of a good administrator and their responsibilities and the

models of technological changes.

Stratified random sampling and purposive techniques were used to select

respondents from the corporate world or among the organizations in the

Ghanaian society. Twenty (20) questionnaires were administered and greater

part were received which were enough to draw a valid conclusion of the

study. Data collected were analysed using tables, charts and the report was

descriptive in nature.

5.2 CONCLUSIONS

The study revealed that most of the respondents were in favour of the

impact of technological changes on the administrator as very significant. It

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was found that 66.7% of the respondents actually know what technology is

all about. Data from the study indicated that 93.3% of respondents were of

the view that technological changes or technology is directly related to their

job functions while 6.7% did not know whether it is related to their job

functions or not. The study further revealed that technology is very relevant

or important to job functions. They maintained that technological changes

affect the job functions of all employees and administrators. It was found

that most of companies update their technological systems by obtaining new

technologies both software and hardware. Also, the study revealed that

73.3% of respondents used computers and printers in their organization.

The study also revealed that 93% of respondents were of the view that

technological changes are faced with obstacles when managing them, while

7% did not know that obstacles exist. It was found that technological

changes greatly affect every aspect of the organization. They maintained

that work tasks, professional categories, qualification requirements and

working conditions are the areas affected. The study further revealed that

organizations are exposed to technology as knowledge, a tool and as a

technique.

It was also found that companies are challenged by resistance on the path of

employees during technological changes implementation by management.

86.7% of respondents were in favour of this, while 13.3% did not know

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whether technological changes are faced with resistance or not. In another

development, the study revealed that most of the successful companies in

Ghana have experienced failure in implementing technological changes.

Also, it was found that majority of respondents sees technological

transformation as an opportunity for growth while few perceived it as a

threat.

Furthermore, it was found that most of the administrators (management)

take into consideration time factor whenever introducing technological

changes and among other changes. Besides, the study revealed that

managers (administrators) response to the effect of technological changes in

their organizations by developing strategic human resources policies to

minimize the negative effects on their firms.

In sum, technological innovation (transformation) or changes and its

challenges it posses to administrators (management) were considered

inevitable and irreversible facts.

5.3 Recommendations

In the light of the results obtained, the researcher would like to make the

following recommendations;

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Promotion and education among management and employees on the

benefits and usefulness of technology to the individuals and the organization

as a whole.

1. Sound Preparation: Administrators (management) should clarify what

the change is intended to achieve by establishing clear, measurable

and realistic objectives and outcomes. Identify risks and develop

appropriate controls including in relation to *OHS issues. Also, they

should choose incremental over transformational changes if time

allows.

2. Administrators should create a common vision by helping employees

understand the need for change and provide a clear vision of what will

be accomplished and how they will be affected. This will increase their

awareness and perception about technological changes as an

opportunity for growth but not a threat to them.

3. Clear Communication: Administrators and management should clearly

communicate the vision and often to everyone. They should establish

processes to allow ongoing communication so that employees hear

things through official channels rather than “on the grapevine”.

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4. Administrators and management should address concerns and enable

participation by developing processes to bring concerns out into the

open and discuss them. Also allow employee participation in the

change process. This will help to develop ownership and commitment

and improves its effectiveness-so build employee feedback into the

change process.

5. Management should develop a clear action plan by involving

employees. Employees should be involved in drawing action plans

about who will do what, when and how in order to achieve the vision

and make the change work.

6. Administrators and employees should celebrate progress. They should

celebrate as stages are achieved to enable employees to let go of the

old and accept new. They should also create a culture where change is

about a continuous learning and improvement and is viewed positively.

7. Managers (Administrators) should create a climate of certainty by

allowing people to tell others what they know, explain what will change

and what will not. Also management should establish processes to give

individual and team feedback on how change is progressing and how

their efforts and support are helping.

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8. Finally, administration should follow up on changes by monitoring the

change progression and reviewing the adequacy of risks controls. They

should also establish what is working well and what needs improving

and modify in the light of experience.

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