Western Sahara 1

Western Sahara
Geographical coordinates: 25°N 13°W

The Western Sahara

‫( ةيبرغلا ءارحصلا‬Arabic)
Taneẓṛuft Tutrimt (Tamazight)
Sáhara Occidental (Spanish)

Capital [1] [2] [3] [4]

Laayoune

Largest city El Aaiún (Laâyoune)

1
Arabic de jure , Spanish and French widely
Official language(s) used,
Berber and Hassaniya (locally spoken)

Demonym Sahrawi
2
Disputed sovereignty

 -  Relinquished by Spain November 14, 1975 

Area

 -  Total 2
266,000 km  (76th)
103,000 sq mi

 -  Water (%) negligible

Population

 -  2009 estimate [5]

513,000  (168th)

 -  Density 1.9/km2 (236th)

5/sq mi

Currency Moroccan dirham, Sahrawi Peseta

Time zone (UTC+0)

ISO 3166 code EH

Internet TLD .eh is reserved but not used

Calling code +2123

Western Sahara 2

1
Arabic is the only official language of both Morocco and the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic which claim sovereignty over the
territory.
2
Mostly under administration of Morocco as its Southern Provinces. The Polisario Front controls border areas behind the border wall
as the Free Zone, on behalf of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.
3
Code for Morocco; no code specific to Western Sahara has been issued by the ITU.

The Western Sahara (US /En-us-Western Sahara.oggˌwɛstərnsəˈhɛrə/, UK /ˌwɛstərnsəˈhɑːrə/; Arabic: ‫ءارحصلا‬

‫ةيبرغلا‬‎, Berber: Taneẓṛuft Tutrimt, Spanish: Sáhara Occidental) is a disputed territory in North Africa, bordered
by Morocco to the north, Algeria to the northeast, Mauritania to the east and south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the
west. Its surface area amounts to 266000 square kilometres ( sq mi). It is one of the most sparsely populated
territories in the world, mainly consisting of desert flatlands. The population of the territory is estimated at just over
500,000,[5] over half of whom live in El Aaiun, the largest city in Western Sahara (also called Laayoune).
The Western Sahara has been on the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories since 1963 after a
Moroccan demand, when it was a Spanish colony.[6] In 1966, the UN called on Spain directly for the first time to
decolonize the territory.[7] The Kingdom of Morocco and the Sahrawi national liberation movement Polisario Front,
through the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) (exiled government in Tindouf, Algeria), dispute control of
the territory.
Since a United Nations-sponsored ceasefire agreement in 1991, most of the territory (including the entire Atlantic
coast line) has been controlled by Morocco, strongly backed by France,[8] and the remainder by the SADR, strongly
backed by Algeria.[9] Internationally, major powers such as the United States and Russia have taken a generally
ambiguous and neutral position on each side's claims, and have pressed both parties to agree on a peaceful
resolution. Both Morocco and POLISARIO have sought to boost their claims by accumulating formal recognition,
essentially from African, Asian, and Latin American states in the developing world. The Polisario Front has won
formal recognition for SADR from 81 states, and was extended membership in the African Union, while Morocco
has won recognition or support for its position from several African governments and from most of the Arab
League.[10] [11] In both instances, recognitions have over the past two decades been extended and withdrawn
according to changing international trends.

History

Early history
The earliest recorded inhabitants of the Western Sahara were agriculturalists called the Bafour.[12] The Bafour were
later replaced or absorbed by Berber-speaking populations which eventually merged in turn with migrating Maqil
Arab tribes from Yemen.
The arrival of Islam in the 8th century (although tribal oral traditions mention an earlier date) played a major role in
the development of relationships between the Saharan regions that later became the modern territories of Morocco,
Western Sahara, Mauritania, and Algeria, and neighbouring regions. Trade developed further, and the region became
a highway for caravans, especially between Marrakesh and Tombouctou in Mali. In the Middle Ages, the Berber
Almohads and Almoravids empires and dynasties both were able to control the area.
Towards the late Middle Ages, the Maqil Arab bedouin tribes from Yemen invaded the Maghreb, reaching the
northern border-area of the Sahara in the 14th and 15th centuries. Over roughly five centuries, through a complex
process of acculturation and mixing seen elsewhere in the Maghreb and North Africa, some of the indigenous Berber
tribes mixed with the Maqil Arab tribes from Yemen and formed a culture unique to Morocco and Mauritania.
Western Sahara 3

Spanish province
See also: Spanish Sahara and Spanish Morocco

This article is part of the series:

History of Western Sahara

Western Sahara

Historical background
Western Sahara War · History of Morocco · Spanish Sahara · Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic · Spanish Morocco · Colonial
wars in Morocco · Moroccan Army of Liberation · Ifni War · Harakat Tahrir · Polisario Front · Sahrawi National Union Party ·
ICJ Advisory Opinion · UN in Spanish Sahara · Madrid Accords · Green March · Berm (Western Sahara) · Human rights in
Western Sahara
Disputed regions
Saguia el-Hamra · Río de Oro · Southern Provinces · Free Zone
Politics
Legal status of Western Sahara · Politics of Morocco · Politics of the SADR · Polisario Front · Former members of the Polisario
Front · CORCAS · Moroccan Initiative for Western Sahara
Rebellions
Moroccan Army of Liberation · Harakat Tahrir · Polisario Front · Zemla Intifada · Independence Intifada
UN involvement
Resolution 1495 · Resolution 1754 · UN visiting mission · MINURSO · Settlement Plan · Houston Agreement · Baker Plan ·
Manhasset negotiations

After an agreement among the European colonial powers at the Berlin Conference in 1884 on the division of spheres
of influence in Africa, Spain seized control of The Western Sahara and established it as a Spanish colony.[13] After
1939 this area was administered by Spanish Morocco. As a consequence, Ahmed Belbachir Haskouri, the Chief of
Cabinet, General Secretary of the Government and Head of the palace for the caliph of Spanish Morocco cooperated
with the Spaniards to select governors in that area. The Saharan Lords who were already in prominent positions such
as the members of Maa El Ainain family provided a list recommending new governors. Together with the Spanish
High Commissioner, Belbachir selected from the list of recommendations. During the prophet's birthday celebration
these Lords paid their due respect to the caliph to show loyalty to the Moroccan monarchy. As time went by, Spanish
colonial rule began to unravel with the general wave of decolonization after World War II, which saw Europeans
lose control of North African and sub-Saharan African possessions and protectorates. Spanish decolonization in
particular began rather late, but internal political and social pressures for it in mainland Spain built up towards the
end of Francisco Franco's rule, in the context of the global trend towards complete decolonization. Spain began
rapidly and even chaotically divesting itself of most of its remaining colonial possessions. After initially being
violently opposed to decolonization, Spain began to give in and by 1974–75 issued promises of a referendum on
independence.
At the same time, Morocco and Mauritania, which had historical claims of sovereignty over the territory based on
competing traditional claims, argued that the territory was artificially separated from their territories by the European
colonial powers. The third neighbour of Spanish Sahara, Algeria, viewed these demands with suspicion, influenced
Western Sahara 4

also by its long-running rivalry with Morocco. After arguing for a process of decolonization guided by the United
Nations, the Algerian government under Houari Boumédiènne committed itself in 1975 to assisting the Polisario
Front, which opposed both Moroccan and Mauritanian claims and demanded full independence.
The UN attempted to settle these disputes through a visiting mission in late 1975, as well as a verdict from the
International Court of Justice (ICJ), which declared that Western Sahara has historical Links with Morrocco and
Mauritania, but population of this territory possessed the right of self-determination. On November 6, 1975 the
Green March into Western Sahara began when 350,000 unarmed Moroccans converged on the city of Tarfaya in
southern Morocco and waited for a signal from King Hassan II of Morocco to cross the border in a peaceful march.
A few days before, on October 31, Moroccan troops invaded The Western Sahara from the North-West of the
territory.

Demands for independence

In the waning days of General Franco's rule, and after the Green March the Spanish government signed a tripartite
agreement with Morocco and Mauritania as it moved to transfer the Territory on 14 November 1975. Thus the
accords foresaw a bipartite administration, Morocco and Mauritania each moved to annex the territories, with
Morocco taking control of the northern two-thirds of Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces and Mauritania
taking control of the southern third as Tiris al-Gharbiyya. Spain terminated its presence in Spanish Sahara within
three months, even repatriating Spanish corpses from its cemeteries.[14] The Moroccan and Mauritanian moves,
however, met staunch opposition from the Polisario, which had by now gained backing from Algeria. In 1979,
following Mauritania's withdrawal due to pressure from Polisario, including a bombardment of its capital and other
economic targets by the Polisario, Morocco extended its control to the rest of the territory, and gradually contained
the guerrillas through setting up the extensive sand-berm in the desert (known as the Border Wall or Moroccan Wall)
to exclude guerilla fighters. Hostilities ceased in a 1991 cease-fire, overseen by the peacekeeping mission
MINURSO, under the terms of a UN Settlement Plan.

Stalling of the referendum and Settlement Plan

The referendum, originally scheduled for 1992, foresaw giving the
local population the option between independence or affirming
integration with Morocco, but it quickly stalled. In 1997, the Houston
Agreement attempted to revive the proposal for a referendum, but
likewise has hitherto not had success. As of 2010, however,
negotiations over terms have not resulted in any substantive action. At
the heart of the dispute lies the question of who qualifies to be
registered to participate in the referendum, and, since about 2000,
Morocco considers that since there is no agreement on persons entitled
to vote, a referendum is not possible,meanwhile Polisario still attached System of the Moroccan Walls in Western Sahara
with insistence to the referendum with independence as a clear option, (territory outside them in yellow) set up in the
without trying to give a solution to the problem of who is qualified to 1980s.

be registered to participate in the referendum.

Both sides blame each other for the stalling of the referendum. The Polisario has insisted on only allowing those
found on the 1974 Spanish Census lists (see below) to vote, while Morocco has insisted that the census was flawed
by evasion and sought the inclusion of members of Sahrawi tribes which escape from Spanish invasion to the north
of Morocco by the 19th century.
Efforts by the UN special envoys to find a common ground for both parties did not succeed. By 1999 the UN had
identified about 85,000 voters, with nearly half of them in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara or
Southern Morocco, and the others scattered between the Tindouf refugee camps, Mauritania and other places of
Western Sahara 5

exile. Polisario accepted this voter list, as it had done with the previous list presented by the UN (both of them
originally based on the Spanish census of 1974), but Morocco refused and, as rejected voter candidates began a
mass-appeals procedure, insisted that each application be scrutinized individually. This again brought the process to
a halt.
According to a NATO delegation, MINURSO election observers stated in 1999, as the deadlock continued, that "if
the number of voters does not rise significantly the odds were slightly on the RASD side".[15] By 2001, the process
had effectively stalemated and the UN Secretary-General asked the parties for the first time to explore other,
third-way solutions. Indeed, shortly after the Houston Agreement (1997), Morocco officially declared that it was "no
longer necessary" to include an option of independence on the ballot, offering instead autonomy. Erik Jensen, who
played an administrative role in MINURSO, wrote that neither side would agree to a voter registration in which they
were destined to lose (see Western Sahara: Anatomy of a Stalemate).

Baker Plan
As personal envoy of the Secretary-General, James Baker visited all sides and produced the document known as the
"Baker Plan".[16] This was discussed by the United Nations Security Council in 2000, and envisioned an autonomous
Western Sahara Authority (WSA), which would be followed after five years by the referendum. Every person
present in the territory would be allowed to vote, regardless of birthplace and with no regard to the Spanish census. It
was rejected by both sides, although it was initially derived from a Moroccan proposal. According to Baker's draft,
tens of thousands of post-annexation immigrants from Morocco proper (viewed by Polisario as settlers, but by
Morocco as legitimate inhabitants of the area) would be granted the vote in the Sahrawi independence referendum,
and the ballot would be split three-ways by the inclusion of an unspecified "autonomy", further undermining the
independence camp. Also, Morocco was allowed to keep its army in the area and to retain the control over all
security issues during both the autonomy years and the election. In 2002, the Moroccan king stated that the
referendum idea was "out of date" since it "can not be implemented";[17] Polisario retorted that that was only because
of the King's refusal to allow it to take place.
In 2003, a new version of the plan was made official, with some additions spelling out the powers of the WSA,
making it less reliant on Moroccan devolution. It also provided further detail on the referendum process in order to
make it harder to stall or subvert. This second draft, commonly known as Baker II, was accepted by the Polisario as a
"basis of negotiations" to the surprise of many.[18] This appeared to abandon Polisario's previous position of only
negotiating based on the standards of voter identification from 1991 (i.e. the Spanish census). After that, the draft
quickly garnered widespread international support, culminating in the UN Security Council's unanimous
endorsement of the plan in the summer of 2003.

Today
Baker resigned his post at the United
Nations in 2004; his term did not see
the crisis resolved.[19] His resignation
followed several months of failed
attempts to get Morocco to enter into
formal negotiations on the plan, but he
met with rejection. The new king,
Mohammed VI of Morocco, opposes
Landscape in northern Western Sahara. any referendum on independence, and
has said Morocco will never agree to
one: "We shall not give up one inch of our beloved Sahara, not a grain of its sand".[20]
Western Sahara 6

Instead, he proposes, through an appointed advisory body Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS), a
self-governing Western Sahara as an autonomous community within Morocco. His father, Hassan II of Morocco,
initially supported the referendum idea in principle in 1982, and in signed contracts with Polisario and the UN in
1991 and 1997; thus engaging to a referendum. However, no major powers have expressed interest in forcing the
issue, and Morocco has historically showed little real interest in an actual referendum.
The UN has put forth no replacement strategy after the breakdown of Baker II, and renewed fighting has been raised
as a possibility. In 2005, former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan reported increased military activity
on both sides of the front and breaches of several cease-fire provisions against strengthening military fortifications.
Morocco has repeatedly tried to get Algeria into bilateral negotiations, based on its view of Polisario as the cat's paw
of the Algerian military. It has received vocal support from France and occasionally (and currently) from the United
States. These negotiations would define the exact limits of a Western Sahara autonomy under Moroccan rule, but
only after Morocco's "inalienable right" to the territory was recognized as a precondition to the talks. The Algerian
government has consistently refused, claiming it has neither the will nor the right to negotiate on the behalf of the
Polisario Front.
Demonstrations and riots by supporters of independence and/or a referendum broke out in the Moroccan-controlled
parts of Western Sahara in May 2005, and in parts of southern Morocco (notably the town of Assa). They were met
by police. Several international human rights organizations expressed concern at what they termed abuse by
Moroccan security forces, and a number of Sahrawi activists have been jailed. Pro-independence Sahrawi sources,
including the Polisario, have given these demonstrations the name "Independence Intifada", while most sources have
tended to see the events as being of limited importance. International press and other media coverage has been
sparse, and reporting is complicated by the Moroccan government's policy of strictly controlling independent media
coverage within the territory.
Demonstrations and protests still occur, after Morocco declared in February 2006 that it was contemplating a plan
for devolving a limited variant of autonomy to the territory, but still explicitly refused any referendum on
independence. As of January 2007, the plan has not been made public, even if the Moroccan government claims that
it has been more or less completed.[21] [22]
Polisario has intermittently threatened to resume fighting, referring to the Moroccan refusal of a referendum as a
breach of the cease-fire terms, but most observers seem to consider armed conflict unlikely without the green light
from Algeria, which houses the Sahrawis' refugee camps and has been the main military sponsor of the movement.
In April 2007, the government of Morocco suggested that a self-governing entity, through the Royal Advisory
Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS), should govern the territory with some degree of autonomy for Western
Sahara. The project was presented to the UN Security Council in mid-April 2007. The stalemating of the Moroccan
proposal options has led the UN in the recent "Report of the UN Secretary-General" to ask the parties to enter into
direct and unconditional negotiations to reach a mutually accepted political solution.[23]
In October 2010 Gadaym Izik camp was set up near Laayoune as a protest by displaced Sahrawi people about their
living conditions. It was home to more than 12,000 people. In November 2010 Moroccan security forces entered
Gadaym Izik camp in the early hours of the morning, using helicopters and water cannon to force people to leave.
The Polisario Front said Moroccan security forces had killed a 26-year-old protester at the camp, a claim denied by
Morocco. Protesters in Laayoune threw stones at police and set fire to tires and vehicles. Several buildings, including
a TV station, were also set on fire. Moroccan officials said five security personnel had been killed in the unrest.[24]
On 15th November 2010, the Moroccan government accused the Algerian secret services of orchestrating and
financing the Gadaym Izik camp with the intent to destabilize the region. The Spanish press was accused of
mounting a campaign of disinformation to support the Saharwi initiative, and all foreign reporters were either
prevented from travelling or else expelled from the area. [25] The protest coincided with a fresh round of negotiations
at the UN [26]
Western Sahara 7

Politics
The legal status of the territory and the question of its
sovereignty remains unresolved; the territory is
contested between Morocco and Polisario Front. It is
considered a non self-governed territory by the United
Nations.
The government of Morocco is a formally
constitutional monarchy under Mohammed VI with a
bicameral parliament. The last elections to the lower
house were deemed reasonably free and fair by
international observers. Certain powers such as the
capacity to appoint the government and to dissolve Police checkpoint at suburbs of Laayoune.
parliament remain in the hands of the monarch. The
Morocco-controlled parts of Western Sahara are divided into several provinces treated as integral parts of the
kingdom. The Moroccan government heavily subsidizes the Saharan provinces under its control with cut-rate fuel
and related subsidies, to appease nationalist dissent and attract immigrants from loyalist Sahrawi and other
communities in Morocco proper.[27]

The exiled government of the self-proclaimed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) is a form of single-party
parliamentary and presidential system, but according to its constitution, this will be changed into a multi-party
system at the achievement of independence. It is presently based at the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, which it
controls. It also claims to control the part of Western Sahara to the east of the Moroccan Wall, known as the Free
Zone. This area has a very small population, estimated to be approximately 30,000 nomads.[28] The Moroccan
government views it as a no-man's land patrolled by UN troops. The SADR government whose troops also patrol the
area regard it as the liberated territories and have proclaimed a village in the area, Bir Lehlou as SADR's provisional
capital.

Human rights
The Western Sahara conflict has resulted in severe human rights abuses, most notably the displacement of tens of
thousands of Sahrawi civilians from the country, the expulsion of tens of thousands of Moroccan civilians by the
Algerian government from Algeria,[29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] and numerous casualties of war and repression.
During the war years (1975–91), both sides accused each other of targeting civilians. Moroccan claims of Polisario
terrorism has generally little to no support abroad, with the USA, EU, AU and UN all refusing to include the group
on their lists of terrorist organizations. Polisario leaders maintain that they are ideologically opposed to terrorism,
and insist that collective punishment and forced disappearances among Sahrawi civilians [37] should be considered
state terrorism on the part of Morocco [38]. Both Morocco and the Polisario additionally accuse each other of
violating the human rights of the populations under their control, in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara
and the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, respectively. Morocco and organizations such as France Libertés consider
Algeria to be directly responsible for any crimes committed on its territory, and accuse the country of having been
directly involved in such violations.[39]
• Morocco has been repeatedly criticized for its actions in Western Sahara by international human rights
organizations such as
• Amnesty International[40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50]
• Human Rights Watch[51] [52]
• World Organization Against Torture[53] [54] [55]
• Freedom House[56]
Western Sahara 8

• Reporters Without Borders[57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63]

• International Committee of the Red Cross
• UN High Commissioner for Human Rights[64]
• Derechos Human Rights[65]
• Defend International[66] [67]
• Front Line[68] [69] [70] [71]
• International Federation of Human Rights[72] [73] [74] [75] [76]
• Society for Threatened Peoples[77] [78]
• Norwegian Refugee Council[79]
• POLISARIO has received criticism from the French organization France Libertes [80] on its treatment of
Moroccan prisoners-of-war,[81] and on its general behaviour in the Tindouf refugee camps in reports by the
Belgian organization ESISC [82], or European Strategic Intelligence and Security Center.[83] A number of former
Polisario officials who have defected to Morocco accuse the organisation of abuse of human rights and
sequestration of the population in Tindouf.[84] [85]

Regions
Three Moroccan regions overlap the
territory of Western Sahara:
• Guelmim-Es Semara – also includes
Moroccan territory outside of Western
Sahara
• Laâyoune-Boujdour-Sakia El Hamra
• Oued Ed-Dahab-Lagouira
Morocco controls territory to the west of the
berm (border wall) while the Polisario Front
controls territory to the east (see map on
right).

Dispute
The Western Sahara was partitioned
between Morocco and Mauritania in April
1976, with Morocco acquiring the northern
two-thirds of the territory.[86] When
Mauritania, under pressure from Polisario
guerrillas, abandoned all claims to its portion in August 1979, Morocco moved to occupy that sector shortly
thereafter and has since asserted administrative control over the whole territory.[86] The official Moroccan
government name for Western Sahara is the "Southern Provinces," which indicates Río de Oro and Saguia el-Hamra.

Not under control of the Moroccan government is the area that lies between the border wall and the actual border
with Algeria. (for map [87] see external links) The Polisario Front claims to run this as the Free Zone on behalf of
the SADR. The area is patrolled by Polisario forces,[88] and access is restricted, even among Sahrawis, due to the
harsh climate of the Sahara, the military conflict and the abundance of land mines.[89] Still, the area is traveled and
inhabited by many Sahrawi nomads from the Tindouf refugee camps of Algeria and the Sahrawi communities in
Mauritania.[90] United Nations MINURSO forces are also present in the area. The UN forces oversee the cease-fire
between Polisario and Morocco agreed upon in the 1991 Settlement Plan.[91]
Western Sahara 9

The Polisario forces (of the Sahrawi People's Liberation Army, SPLA) in the area are divided into seven "military
regions", each controlled by a top commander reporting to the President of the Polisario proclaimed Sahrawi Arab
Democratic Republic.[92] The total size of the Polisario's guerrilla army present in this area is unknown, but it is
believed to number a few thousand men, despite many combantants being demobilized due to the cease-fire.[93]
These forces are dug into permanent positions, such as gun emplacements, defensive trenches and underground
military bases, as well as conducting mobile patrols of the territory.[94]
Major Sahrawi political events, such as Polisario congresses and
sessions of the Sahrawi National Council (the SADR parliament in
exile) are held in the Free Zone (especially in Tifariti and Bir Lehlou),
since it is considered politically and symbolically important to conduct
political affairs on Sahrawi territory. In 2005, MINURSO lodged a
complaint to the Security Council of the United Nations for "military
maneuvers with real fire which extends to restricted areas" by
Morocco.[95] A concentration of forces for the commemoration of the
Saharawi Republic’s 30th anniversary[96] were however subject to
Tifariti, 2005
condemnation by the United Nations,[97] as it was considered an
example of a cease-fire violation to bring such a large force
concentration into the area. In late 2009, Morocco do military maneuvers on Umm Dreiga, in the exclusion zone,
violating the cease-fire. Both parties have been accused of such violations by the UN, but to date there has been no
serious hostile action from either side since 1991.

Annual demonstrations against the Moroccan Wall are staged in the region by Sahrawis and international activists
from Spain, Italy and other mainly European countries. These actions are closely monitored by the UN.[98]
During the joint Moroccan-Mauritanian control of the area, the Mauritanian-controlled part, roughly corresponding
to Saquia el-Hamra, was known as Tiris al-Gharbiyya.

Communications
Due to lack of international recognition, the International Telecommunications Union does not assign call sign
prefixes for broadcast, experimental or amateur communications. As such, amateur radio operators have adopted SØ
as a call sign prefix, rather than one from either of the CNA-CNZ or 5CA-5GZ prefix blocks assigned to
Morocco.[99] SØ is unassigned by the ITU. DX-peditions composed of Spanish, Italian, and Russian amateurs have
traveled to Tifariti in the Western Sahara desert near the Mauritania border in 2003, 2006, and 2009 operationing as
SØ5X, SØ1R, and SØ4R respectively.

Geography
Western Sahara is located in Northern Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Mauritania and
Morocco. It also borders Algeria to the northeast. The land is some of the most arid and inhospitable on the planet,
but is rich in phosphates in Bou Craa.

Economy
Aside from its rich phosphate deposits and fishing waters, Western Sahara has few natural resources and lacks
sufficient rainfall for most agricultural activities. There is speculation that there may be rich off-shore oil and natural
gas fields, but the debate persists as to whether these resources can be profitably exploited, and if this would be
legally permitted due to the non-decolonized status of Western Sahara (see below).
Western Sahara's economy is centred around nomadic herding, fishing, and phosphate mining. Most food for the
urban population is imported. All trade and other economic activities are controlled by the Moroccan government.
Western Sahara 10

The government has encouraged citizens to relocate to the territory by giving subsidies and price controls on basic
goods. These heavy subsidies have created a state-dominated economy in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western
Sahara, with the Moroccan government as the single biggest employer.
Due to the disputed nature of Moroccan sovereignty over the territory, the application of international accords
Western Sahara is highly ambiguous and political leadership of trade agreement signatories such as the United States
(US-Morocco Free Trade Agreement) and Norway (European Free Trade Association trade accord) have made
statements as to its these agreements non-applicability, although practical policy application is ambiguous.[100] [101]
[102]

Exploitation of natural resources

After reasonably exploitable oil fields were located in neighbouring
Mauritania, speculation intensified on the possibility of major oil
resources being located off the coast of Western Sahara. Despite the
fact that findings remain inconclusive, both Morocco and the Polisario
have signed deals with oil and gas exploration companies. US and
French companies (notably Total and Kerr-McGee) began prospecting
on behalf of the Moroccan Office National de Recherches et
d’Exploitations Petrolières (ONAREP).[103]

In 2002, Hans Corell, Under-Secretary General of the United Nations

and head of its Office of Legal Affairs issued a legal opinion on the Satellite image of Western Sahara, generated
[103] from raster graphics data supplied by The Map
matter. The opinion was rendered following an analysis of relevant
Library
provisions of the Charter of the United Nations, the United Nations
General Assembly resolutions, the case law of the International Court
of Justice and the practice of States.[103] It concluded that while the existing exploration contracts for the area were
not illegal, "if further exploration and exploitation activities were to proceed in disregard of the interests and wishes
of the people of Western Sahara, they would be in violation of the principles of international law."[103] After
pressures from corporate ethics-groups, Total S.A. pulled out in late 2004.[104]

In May 2006 the remaining company Kerr-McGee also left following sales of numerous share holders like the
National Norwegian Oil Fund, due to continued pressure from NGOs and corporate groups.[105] .
Despite the UN report and the development regarding the exploration of oil, the European Union wants to exploit
fishing resources in waters outside Western Sahara and has signed a fishing treaty with Morocco.
In a previously confidential legal opinion (published in 23 February 2010, although it was forwarded in July 2009),
the European Parliament’s Legal Service opined that fishing by European vessels under a current EU - Morocco
fishing agreement covering the Western Sahara’s waters is in violation of international law.[106]
Western Sahara 11

Demographics
The indigenous population of Western Sahara is
known as Sahrawis. These are
Hassaniya-speaking tribes of mixed
Arab–Berber heritage, effectively continuations
of the tribal groupings of Hassaniya speaking
Moorish tribes extending south into Mauritania
and north into Morocco as well as east into
Algeria. The Sahrawis are traditionally nomadic
bedouins, and can be found in all surrounding
countries. War and conflict has led to major
displacements of the population.

As of July 2004, an estimated 267,405 people

(excluding the Moroccan army of some 160,000)
Town in Western Sahara
lived in the Moroccan-controlled parts of
Western Sahara. Many people from parts of
Morocco outside of the Southern Provinces have come to live in the area, and these latest arrivals are today thought
to outnumber the indigenous Western Sahara Sahrawis. The precise size and composition of the population is subject
to political controversy.

The Polisario-controlled parts of Western Sahara are barren. This area has a very small population, estimated to be
approximately 30,000 in 2008.[107] The population is primarily made up of nomads who engage in herding camels
back and forth between the Tindouf area and Mauritania. However, the presence of mines scattered throughout the
territory by the Moroccan army makes it a dangerous way of life.

The Spanish census and MINURSO

A 1974 Spanish census claimed there were some 74,000 Sahrawis in the area at the time (in addition to
approximately 20,000 Spanish residents), but this number is likely to be on the low side, due to the difficulty in
counting a nomad people, even if Sahrawis were by the mid-1970s mostly urbanized. Despite these possible
inaccuracies, Morocco and the Polisario Front agreed on using the Spanish census as the basis for voter registration
when striking a cease-fire agreement in the late 1980s, contingent on the holding of a referendum on independence
or integration into Morocco.
Western Sahara 12

In December 1999 the United Nations'

MINURSO mission announced that it had
identified 86,425 eligible voters for the
referendum that was supposed to be held
under the 1991 Settlement plan and the 1997
Houston accords. By "eligible voter" the UN
referred to any Sahrawi over 18 years of age
that was part of the Spanish census or could
prove his/her descent from someone who was.
These 86,425 Sahrawis were dispersed
between Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara
and the refugee camps in Algeria, with smaller
numbers in Mauritania and other places of
exile. These numbers cover only Sahrawis
El Mchaouar square at El Aaiún, Western Sahara.
'indigenous' to the Western Sahara during the
Spanish colonial period, not the total number
of "ethnic" Sahrawis (i.e., members of Sahrawi tribal groupings), who also extend into Mauritania, Morocco and
Algeria. The number was highly politically significant due to the expected organization of a referendum on
self-determination.

The Polisario has its home base in the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, and declares the number of Sahrawi
population in the camps to be approximately 155,000. Morocco disputes this number, saying it is exaggerated for
political reasons and for attracting more foreign aid. The UN uses a number of 90,000 "most vulnerable" refugees as
basis for its food aid program.

Culture
The major ethnic group of the Western Sahara are the Sahrawis, a nomadic or Bedouin tribal or ethnic group
speaking the Hassānīya dialect of Arabic, also spoken in much of Mauritania. They are of mixed Arab-Berber
descent, but claim descent from the Beni Hassan, a Yemeni tribe supposed to have migrated across the desert in the
11th century.
Physically indistinguishable from the Hassaniya speaking Moors of Mauritania, the Sahrawi people differ from their
neighbors partly due to different tribal affiliations (as tribal confederations cut across present modern boundaries)
and partly as a consequence of their exposure to Spanish colonial domination. Surrounding territories were generally
under French colonial rule.
Like other neighboring Saharan Bedouin and Hassaniya groups, the Sahrawis are Muslims of the Sunni sect and the
Maliki fiqh. Local religious custom ('urf) is, like other Saharan groups, heavily influenced by pre-Islamic Berber and
African practices, and differs substantially from urban practices. For example, Sahrawi Islam has traditionally
functioned without mosques in the normal sense of the word, in an adaptation to nomadic life.
The originally clan- and tribe-based society underwent a massive social upheaval in 1975, when a part of the
population was forced into exile by the Polisario and settled in the refugee camps of Tindouf, Algeria, where they
remain sequestrated till now. Families were broken up by the dispute. For developments among this population, see
Sahrawi and Tindouf Province.
Western Sahara 13

Notes and references

[1] "Regions and territories: Western Sahara" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ africa/ country_profiles/ 3466917. stm). BBC. 2010-11-09. .
Retrieved 25 November 2010.
[2] "Q&A: Western Sahara clashes" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ world-africa-11712267). BBC. 2010-11-08. . Retrieved 25 November
2010.
[3] Jensen, Erik (2005). Western Sahara: Anatomy Of A Stalemate (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vYLuOGyDBjsC& lpg=PA48&
dq=western sahara capital& pg=PP1#v=snippet& q="capital of western sahara"& f=false). International Peace Academy Occasional Paper
Series. Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 48. ISBN 1588263053. .
[4] "Western Sahara" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 640800/ Western-Sahara). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2010. .
Retrieved 25 November 2010.
[5] Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division (2009) (.PDF). World Population Prospects, Table A.1 (http:/ / www. un.
org/ esa/ population/ publications/ wpp2008/ wpp2008_text_tables. pdf). 2008 revision. United Nations. . Retrieved 2009-03-12.
[6] Whitfield, Teresa. Friends Indeed?: The United Nations, Groups of Friends, and the Resolution of Conflict. 2007, page 191.
[7] MINURSO United Nations mission for the Referendum in The Western Sahara - 1991 to today (http:/ / www. un. org/ spanish/ Depts/ dpko/
minurso/ MINURSO& #91;1& #93;. pdf)
[8] "France is Morocco's leading trade partner and the leading source of public development aid and private investment. It also endorses
Morocco's autonomy plan for Western Sahara". (http:/ / www. unhcr. org/ refworld/ country,,,,ESH,456d621e2,49705f97c,0. html)
[9] Baehr, Peter R. The United Nations at the End of the 1990s. 1999, page 129.
[10] Arab League supports Morocco's Territorial Integrity (http:/ / www. arabicnews. com/ ansub/ Daily/ Day/ 990108/ 1999010849. html),
Arabic News, Morocco-Regional, Politics, January 8, 1999. Retrieved August 24, 2006.
[11] Arab League Withdraws Inaccurate Moroccan maps (http:/ / www. arabicnews. com/ ansub/ Daily/ Day/ 981217/ 1998121758. html),
Arabic News, Regional-Morocco, Politics, December 17, 1998. Retrieved August 24, 2006.
[12] Handloff, Robert. "The West Sudanic Empires" (http:/ / www. shsu. edu/ ~his_ncp/ WestSud. html). Federal Research Division of the
Library of Congress. . Retrieved 3 September 2009.
[13] ICE Conflict Case ZSahara (http:/ / www1. american. edu/ ted/ ice/ sahara. htm)
[14] Tomás Bárbulo, La historia prohibida del Sáhara Español, Destino, Imago mundi, Volume 21, 2002, Page 292
[15] http:/ / www. nato-pa. int/ archivedpub/ trip/ as79gsm993-morocco. asp
[16] United Nations Security Council S-2000-461 (http:/ / www. undemocracy. com/ S-2000-461''Document''& #32;) on 22 May 2000 (retrieved
2007-08-10)
[17] CountryWatch - Interesting Facts Of The World (http:/ / www. countrywatch. com/ facts/ facts_default. aspx?type=text& topic=SEWSA)
[18] Shelley, Toby. Behind the Baker Plan for Western Sahara (http:/ / www. merip. org/ mero/ mero080103. html), Middle East Report Online,
August 1, 2003. Retrieved August 24, 2006.
[19] Western Sahara: Baker Resigns As UN Mediator After Seven Years (http:/ / allafrica. com/ stories/ 200406141270. html)
[20] (http:/ / www. timesnews. co. ke/ 04apr06/ insight/ ins4. html)
[21] http:/ / www. map. ma/ eng/ sections/ politics/ king_informs_governm/ view
[22] http:/ / www. afrol. com/ articles/ 18964
[23] Report of the Secretary-General on the situation concerning Western Sahara (13 April 2007) (http:/ / daccessdds. un. org/ doc/ UNDOC/
GEN/ N07/ 299/ 28/ PDF/ N0729928. pdf?OpenElement)(ped). UN Security Council. Retrieved on 2007-05-18.
[24] "Deadly clashes as Morocco breaks up Western Sahara camp" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ world-africa-11710400). BBC. 2010-09-11.
. Retrieved 2010-11-13.
[25] Black, Ian (First published 2010-Nov 15). "New expulsions of Spanish citizens from Western Sahara" (http:/ / www. ?????????????) (in
English) (PDF). El Pais /English edn, circulated with Herald International. . Retrieved 2010-Nov 15.
[26] {cite web |last = |first = |title = Deadly clashes stall western Sahara-Morocco peace talks |url=http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2010/
nov/ 12/ western-sahara-peace-talks-stall |authorlink = |coauthors = |work = |publisher = Guardian Newspapers UK |language= English |date =
First published 2010-Nov 12 |format = HTML/PHP |accessdate = 2010-Nov 15 }}
[27] Thobhani, Akbarali. Western Sahara Since 1975 Under Moroccan Administration: Social, Economic, and Political Transformation. Edwin
Mellen Press. ISBN 0773471731.
[28] http:/ / www. nrc. no/ arch/ _img/ 9258989. pdf Norwegian Refugee Council Report: Western Sahara, Occupied country, displaced people,
2008
[29] Maroc/Algérie. Bluff et petites manœuvres (http:/ / www. telquel-online. com/ 189/ couverture_189_1. shtml), Telquel, not in English
[30] Aljazeera.net (http:/ / www. aljazeera. net/ news/ archive/ archive?ArchiveId=316911), not in English
[31] La "Répudiation massive" de l’Algérie des colonels! (http:/ / www. lagazettedumaroc. com/ articles. php?r=7& sr=959& n=409&
id_artl=5975) La Gazette Du Maroc, February 28, 2005, not in English
[32] Jugement Dernier (http:/ / www. maroc-hebdo. press. ma/ MHinternet/ Archives_435/ html_435/ jugement. html), Maroc Hebdo
International, not in English
[33] Le Drame des 40.000 (http:/ / cinemanageria. ifrance. com/ cine_maroc/ films_marocains/ 82. htm#drame), cinemanageria.ifrance.com, not
in English
Western Sahara 14

[34] Mohamed Elyazghi au Matin du Sahara: Solution politique au Sahara et refondation de nos relations avec Alger (http:/ / www. usfp. ma/
article. php?t=4& id=46), USFP, not in English
[35] La mal-vie des Marocains d'Algérie (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071013180223/ http:/ / minorites. org/ article. php?IDA=7531),
Minorités.org
[36] Revue de Presse des Quotidiens (http:/ / www. ambafrance-ma. org/ presse/ index. cfm?pjour=1& jr=20060728)
[37] http:/ / web. amnesty. org/ web/ ar2001. nsf/ webmepcountries/ MOROCCO+ AND+ WESTERN+ SAHARA?OpenDocument
[38] http:/ / www. arso. org/ akhbar2. htm
[39] Morocco's Memorandum to UN unveils Algiers' responsibility in Sahara conflict, political parties (http:/ / www. arabicnews. com/ ansub/
Daily/ Day/ 040929/ 2004092916. html), Arabic News, Morocco-Algeria, Politics, September 29, 2004
[40] Morocco/Western Sahara: Broken Promises: The Equity and Reconciliation Commission and its Follow-up (http:/ / www. amnesty. org/ en/
library/ info/ MDE29/ 001/ 2010/ en)
[41] Morocco/Western Sahara: No more half measures: Addressing enforced disappearances in Morocco and Western Sahara (http:/ / www.
amnesty. org/ en/ library/ info/ MDE29/ 005/ 2009/ en)
[42] Morocco/ Western Sahara: Further Information on UA 16/08 - Fear of unfair imprisonment/ Prisoners of conscience/ Health concern (http:/ /
www. amnesty. org/ en/ library/ info/ MDE29/ 004/ 2008/ en)
[43] Morocco/ Western Sahara: Three years’ imprisonment for putting a profile of Prince Moulay Rachid on Facebook (http:/ / www. amnesty.
org/ en/ library/ info/ MDE29/ 005/ 2008/ en)
[44] Morocco/Western Sahara: New arrests and allegations of torture of Sahrawi human rights defenders (http:/ / www. amnesty. org/ en/ library/
info/ MDE29/ 004/ 2005/ en)
[45] Morocco/Western Sahara: Justice must begin with torture inquiries (http:/ / www. amnesty. org/ en/ library/ info/ MDE29/ 003/ 2005/ en)
[46] Morocco/Western Sahara: Torture of detainees must end (http:/ / www. amnesty. org/ en/ library/ info/ MDE29/ 008/ 2004/ en)
[47] Morocco/Western Sahara: Torture in the "anti-terrorism" campaign - the case of Témara detention centre (http:/ / www. amnesty. org/ en/
library/ info/ MDE29/ 004/ 2004/ en)
[48] Morocco/Western Sahara: Briefing to the Committee against torture (November 2003) (http:/ / www. amnesty. org/ en/ library/ info/
MDE29/ 011/ 2003/ en)
[49] Morocco/Western Sahara: reports of secret detention and torture on the rise (http:/ / www. amnesty. org/ en/ library/ info/ MDE29/ 001/
2003/ en)
[50] Morocco and Western Sahara Human Rights (http:/ / www. amnestyusa. org/ all-countries/ morocco-and-western-sahara/ page.
do?id=1011203)
[51] Morocco/Western Sahara: Activists Need Fair Trial (http:/ / hrw. org/ english/ docs/ 2005/ 12/ 10/ morocc12183. htm)
[52] WESTERN SAHARA: KEEPING IT SECRET - THE UNITED NATIONS OPERATION IN THE WESTERN SAHARA (http:/ / www.
hrw. org/ reports/ 1995/ Wsahara. htm)
[53] http:/ / www. omct. org/ base. cfm?page=article& num=6130& consol=close& kwrd=OMCT& cfid=4407045& cftoken=75311945
[54] http:/ / www. omct. org/ base. cfm?page=article& num=5983& consol=close& kwrd=OMCT& cfid=4407045& cftoken=75311945&
SWITCHLNG=ES
[55] http:/ / www. omct. org/ base. cfm?page=article& num=6233& consol=close& kwrd=OMCT& cfid=4407045& cftoken=75311945&
SWITCHLNG=FR
[56] Western Sahara [Morocco] (2006) (http:/ / www. freedomhouse. org/ template. cfm?page=22& year=2006& country=7106)
[57] Swedish photographer expelled from Western Sahara a day after his arrest (http:/ / en. rsf. org/ spip. php?page=article& id_article=21059)
[58] Journalist assaulted in the name of Moroccan control of Western Sahara (http:/ / en. rsf. org/ spip. php?page=article& id_article=13920)
[59] Journalists working in Western Sahara face assaults, arrests and harassment (http:/ / en. rsf. org/ spip. php?page=article& id_article=14119)
[60] Western Sahara, government corruption and palace life are all off-limits for the press (http:/ / en. rsf. org/ spip. php?page=article&
id_article=13197)
[61] Two Norwegian journalists threatened with expulsion (http:/ / en. rsf. org/ spip. php?page=article& id_article=10696)
[62] Morocco puts US censorship busting site Anonymizer.com on its black list (http:/ / en. rsf. org/ spip. php?page=article& id_article=15809)
[63] Appeal court upholds exorbitant damages award against Journal Hebdomadaire (http:/ / en. rsf. org/ spip. php?page=article&
id_article=17166)
[64] Report of the OHCHR to Western Sahara & the refugee camps in Tindouf 2006 (http:/ / www. arso. org/ OHCHRrep2006en. pdf)
[65] Human rights in Morocco & Western Sahara (http:/ / www. derechos. org/ human-rights/ mena/ moro/ )
[66] Wave of arrests in Western Sahara (http:/ / www. defendinternational. com/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=191&
Itemid=126)
[67] Morocco: Protect And Preserve Mass Grave Sites (http:/ / www. defendinternational. com/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view&
id=153& Itemid=126)
[68] Western Sahara: UPDATE - Human rights defenders on hunger strike in protest at continued arbitrary detention (http:/ / www.
frontlinedefenders. org/ node/ 2436)
[69] Western Sahara: Severe beating of human rights defender, Mr Mohammed al-Tahleel by security forces (http:/ / www. frontlinedefenders.
org/ node/ 2154)
[70] Western Sahara: Torture and solitary confinement of human rights defender Mr Yahya Mohamed el Hafed Aaza (http:/ / www.
frontlinedefenders. org/ node/ 1932)
Western Sahara 15

[71] Western Sahara: Systematic repression of human rights defenders (http:/ / www. frontlinedefenders. org/ node/ 1585)
[72] Arrestation de M. Duihi Hassan (http:/ / www. fidh. org/ Sahara-occidental-Arrestation-de-M-Duihi-Hassan) (French)
[73] Harcelement a l'encontre de Mme. Elghalia Dijim et M. Duihi Hassan (http:/ / www. fidh. org/
Harcelement-a-l-encontre-de-Mme-Elghalia-Dijim-et) (French)
[74] Détentions arbitraires - Poursuites judiciaires - Mauvais traitements (http:/ / www. fidh. org/
Detentions-arbitraires-Poursuites-judiciaires,3433)
[75] Nouvelle condamnation d'un militant sahraoui (http:/ / www. fidh. org/ Nouvelle-condamnation-d-un-militant-sahraoui) (French)
[76] Après l'interdiction de trois hebdomadaires au Maroc, RSF et la FIDH dénoncent une décision inique et inacceptable (http:/ / www. fidh.
org/ Apres-l-interdiction-de-trois-hebdomadaires-au) (French)
[77] EU ignores violations of human rights in Morocco and West Sahara (http:/ / www. gfbv. de/ pressemit. php?id=2204& stayInsideTree=1)
[78] Almost 700 arrested in the year 2006 (http:/ / www. gfbv. de/ pressemit. php?id=807& stayInsideTree=1)
[79] Occupied Country, Displaced People (http:/ / www. nrc. no/ ?did=9258996)
[80] http:/ / www. france-libertes. fr
[81] The Conditions of Detentions of the Moroccan POWs Detained in Tindouf (Algeria) (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20051211175842/
http:/ / www. freethemnow. org/ FranceLiberte. pdf)
[82] http:/ / www. esisc. org
[83] THE POLISARIO FRONT AND THE IRA Two approaches to the process of negotiation (http:/ / www. esisc. net/ en/ p.
asp?TYP=TEWN& LV=187& see=y& t=37& PG=TEWN/ EN/ detail_os& l=8& AI=1840)
[84] Quatrème Commission: Le Maroc rest attaché au plan de règlement et a la tenue d'un référendum transparent au Sahara Occidental (http:/ /
www. un. org/ News/ fr-press/ docs/ 1996/ 19961010. CPSD108. html)
[85] http:/ / www. arabicnews. com/ ansub/ Daily/ Day/ 991105/ 1999110536. html Report: Clan wars and unavoidable scission in Tindouf,
defectors]
[86] https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ wi. html CIA: The World Factbook: 2006. ‘Western Sahara’, 266.
[87] http:/ / www. un. org/ Depts/ Cartographic/ map/ dpko/ minurso. pdf
[88] http:/ / www. newint. org/ issue297/ wall. html "Up Against the Wall", Chris Brazier, New Internationalist Magazine (297), December 1998
• Land Mine Report, Western Sahara, http:/ / www. icbl. org/ lm/ 2006/ western_sahara. html
Landmine Action UK undertook preliminary survey work by visiting the Polisario-controlled area of Western Sahara in October 2005 and
February–March 2006. A field assessment in the vicinity of Bir Lahlou, Tifariti and the berms revealed that the densest concentrations of
mines are in front of the berms. Mines were laid in zigzags up to one meter apart, and in some parts of the berms, there are three rows of
mines.[15] There are also berms in the Moroccan-controlled zone, around Dakhla and stretching from Boujdour, including Smara on the
Moroccan border.[16] However, mine-laying was not restricted to the vicinity of the berms; occupied settlements throughout the
Polisario-controlled areas, such as Bir Lahlou and Tifariti, are ringed by mines laid by Moroccan forces.
• Landmine Action UK, (http:/ / www. landmineaction. org/ resources. asp?item=research )“Explosive Ordnance Disposal and technical
survey in Polisario-controlled areas of Western Sahara,” Project proposal, February 2006, pp. 2–4, quoted in Land Mine Report, Western
Sahara, , footnote 15 and 17
[90] http:/ / www. nrc. no/ arch/ _img/ 9258989. pdf Norwegian Refugee Council Report: Western Sahara, Occupied country, displaced people,
2008
[91] http:/ / www. un. org/ Depts/ dpko/ missions/ minurso/ mandate. html MINURSO homepage - mandate Accessed May 21, 2006
• http:/ / www. arso. org/ bhatia2001. htm Western Sahara under Polisario Control: Summary Report of Field Mission to the Sahrawi
Refugee Camps (near Tindouf, Algeria) by Michael Bhatia, 2001
• http:/ / www. newint. org/ issue297/ wall. html "Up Against the Wall", Chris Brazier, New Internationalist Magazine (297), December
1998
[93] http:/ / www. arso. org/ bhatia2001. htm Western Sahara under Polisario Control: Summary Report of Field Mission to the Sahrawi Refugee
Camps (near Tindouf, Algeria) by Michael Bhatia, 2001
• http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ Archive/ Article/ 0,4273,4132213,00. html "Saharan rebels stranded in camps, casualties of the stalemate
between Morocco and the Algerian-backed Polisario rebels; 100,000 refugees subsist on aid." by Rory Carroll in Tifarity, Guardian,
Wednesday February 7, 2001
• http:/ / www. newint. org/ issue297/ wall. html New Internationalist, Chris Brazier, "Up Against the Wall", New Internationalist Magazine
(297), December 1998
[95] http:/ / www. canariasahora. com/ documentos/ 8119b2af172030e86f14c5f746e9347d. pdf MINURSO complaint to the UN Security
Council (Spanish)
[96] http:/ / www. spsrasd. info/ sps-e270206. html Commemoration of the Saharawi Republic’s 30th anniversary in liberated territories of
Western Sahara Sahara Press Service, February 27, 2006
[97] United Nations Security Council S-2006-249 (http:/ / www. undemocracy. com/ S-2006-249''Document''& #32;) on 19 April 2006 (retrieved
2007-08-10)
[98] http:/ / www. un. org/ Docs/ journal/ asp/ ws. asp?m=S/ 2006/ 249 Secretary General's report to Security Council on Western Sahara, 19
April 2006 (pdf file)
[99] Table of Allocation of International Call Sign Series (http:/ / life. itu. ch/ radioclub/ rr/ ap42. htm)
Western Sahara 16

[100] Rep. Pitts lauds protection of Sahrawis in Morocco trade pact (http:/ / www. house. gov/ pitts/ press/ releases/ 040722r-FTAwsahara. htm)
[101] "Western Sahara excluded from EFTA-Morocco free trade agreement" (http:/ / www. spsrasd. info/ en/ detail. php?id=11569). SPS.
12-05-2010. . Retrieved 13-05-2010.
[102] "Western Sahara "not part of EFTA-Morocco free trade"" (http:/ / www. afrol. com/ articles/ 36091). Afrol news. 13-05-2010. . Retrieved
14-05-2010.
[103] United Nations Security Council S-2002-161 (http:/ / www. undemocracy. com/ S-2002-161''Document''& #32;) on 12 February 2002
(retrieved 2007-08-10)
[104] "Upstream Online: Total turns its back on Dakhla block, 2004" (http:/ / www. wsrw. org/ index. php?cat=193& art=1500). Western Sahara
Resource Watch. 03-12-2004. . Retrieved 02-09-2010.
[105] "Last oil company withdraws from Western Sahara" (http:/ / www. afrol. com/ articles/ 19029). Afrol News. 02-05-2006. . Retrieved
01-10-2010.
[106] (http:/ / www. wsrw. org/ index. php?parse_news=single& cat=105& art=1348)
[107] http:/ / www. nrc. no/ arch/ _img/ 9258989. pdf Norwegian Refugee Council Report: Western Sahara, Occupied country, + displaced
people, 2008

Further reading
• Hodges, Tony (1983). Western Sahara: The Roots of a Desert War. Lawrence Hill Books. ISBN 0882081527.
• Pazzanita, Anthony G.; Hodges, Tony (1994). Historical Dictionary of Western Sahara. Scarecrow Press.
ISBN 0810826615.
• Shelley, Toby (2004). Endgame in the Western Sahara: What Future for Africa's Last Colony?. Zed Books.
ISBN 1842773410.
• Jensen, Erik (2005). Western Sahara: Anatomy of a Stalemate. International Peace Studies. ISBN 1588263053.

External links
General information
• Country Profile (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/3466917.stm) from BBC News
• CIA World Factbook Western Sahara (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/wi.
html)
• Western Sahara (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/wi.html) entry at The
World Factbook
• Western Sahara (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Western_Sahara/) at the Open Directory Project
• Wikimedia Atlas of Western Sahara
• Western Sahara travel guide from Wikitravel
United Nations
• The United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) (http://www.minurso.unlb.
org/)
• MINURSO Deployment map (http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/dpko/minurso.pdf) as of
February 2009
• Reports of the UN Secretary General (http://www.un.org/depts/dpko/missions/minurso/reports.html)
Human Rights
• Amnesty International (http://www.amnesty.org/en/region/moroccowestern-sahara) Human rights in
Morocco and Western-Sahara
• Human Rights Watch (http://www.hrw.org/en/middle-eastn-africa/morocco/western-sahara) Human rights in
Morocco and Western-Sahara
• The Sahrawi Association of Victims of Grave Human Rights Violations Committed by the Moroccan
State(ASVDH) (http://asvdh.net/english/)
• Association for the Families of Sahrawi Prisoners and the Disappeared (AFAPREDESA) (http://www.
afapredesa.org/index.php)
Western Sahara 17

Other
• News headline links (http://allafrica.com/westernsahara/) from AllAfrica.com
• Western Sahara Project (http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/~e118/WS/wsahara.htm) archaeology and past
environmental change in Western Sahara
• The largest prison in the world: landmines, walls, UXOs and the UN's role in the Western Sahara (http://www.
genevacall.org/news/in-the-press/f-in-the-press/2001-2010/2007-17apr-gees.pdf). Pablo San Martín & Joanna
C. Allan. GEES, 2007.
• Western Sahara, Landmine Monitor Report 2008 (http://lm.icbl.org/index.php/publications/display?url=lm/
2008/countries/western_sahara.html)
• Jacob Mundy - "Seized of the Matter". The UN and the Western Sahara Dispute. (http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/
mediterranean_quarterly/v015/15.3mundy.pdf)PDF On the Baker Plan debate
• Association de soutien à un référendum libre et régulier au Sahara Occidental, a multilingual resource (http://
www.arso.org/)
• Western Sahara Online (pro-Morocco) (http://www.westernsaharaonline.net/)
• Western Sahara - A Forgotten Country! (http://dspace.dial.pipex.com/suttonlink/334ws.pdf)PDF (99.8 KiB)
• Sahara Press Service (http://spsrasd.info/) Official Sahrawi press agency
• Sahara Update (http://groups.yahoo.com/group/sahara-update/) News
• Western Sahara Resource Watch (http://www.wsrw.org)
• Sahara Occidental (http://saharaoccidental.blogspot.com) News in English, French, Spanish and German
• Moroccan Forces Raid Protest Camp in Western Sahara, Thousands Demonstrate in Madrid (http://www.
democracynow.org/2010/11/15/moroccan_forces_raid_protest_camp_in) - video report by Democracy Now!
Article Sources and Contributors 18

Article Sources and Contributors

Western Sahara  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=410492300  Contributors: -- April, 1717, A Jalil, A-giau, A314268, ACW, Aaker, Abdel Noor, Acelor, AdamBMorgan,
Adrianbrodal, Aesopos, Ahkond, Ahuskay, Akanemoto, Alagemo, Alan Liefting, AlefZet, AlgeriaLove, Alinor, Andre Engels, Andy Marchbanks, AndySimpson, Angela, Angr, Antandrus,
Anthere, Aris Katsaris, Arre, Art LaPella, Asterion, Atitarev, Avala, Axeman89, AzaToth, B00P, Baronnet, Baseball Watcher, Behemoth, Beland, Bender235, Big Adamsky, Biruitorul, Bjarte
Bjørsvik, Bkell, Bkonrad, Blahma, Blessthishouse, Blisco, Bobblewik, Bokpasa, Bradtcordeiro, Briaboru, Brian Boru is awesome, Brianski, Bryan Derksen, Buffadren, Bumm13, Cajamarca
express, CambridgeBayWeather, Cantus, Caponer, Carusus, Causteau, Cburnett, Cdc, ChanochGruenman, Che829, Chipmunkdavis, Collounsbury, CommonsDelinker, Conte di Cavour,
Conversion script, Corvus13, Courcelles, Credema, Cuak's, Curps, Cwolfsheep, Cybercobra, D6, DBaba, DabMachine, Danno uk, Danny, Dante Alighieri, Dark Shikari, Dark side, Darwinek,
Daryou, David Kernow, David spector, Davidme, DeadEyeArrow, Deflective, Delirium, Demicx, Den fjättrade ankan, Deror avi, Descendall, Dexcel, Dietlind, DivineIntervention, Dmac,
DocendoDiscimus, Dominic, Domino theory, Donald Albury, Doprendek, Drbug, Drumguy8800, Dtrebbien, Dvd Avins, E Pluribus Anthony, Eagle1075, Ecksemmess, Ed Poor, Effeietsanders,
El C, ElNuevoEinstein, Electionworld, ElectricEye, Ellsworth, Emdanith, EncycloPetey, Enviroboy, Esn, Espetkov, Ewlyahoocom, FayssalF, Fibonacci, Finngall, Fjmustak, Flatterworld, Foobar,
FrancisTyers, Frangibility, Frankie816, Friedfish, Frontlinefilm, Fuhghettaboutit, Gadfium, Gaius Cornelius, Gidonb, Gilliam, Giraffedata, Glane23, Goatchurch, Gogo Dodo, Golbez, Good
Olfactory, GrandfatherJoe, Greatestrowerever, Green Giant, Grenavitar, Gribeco, Grm wnr, Guest9999, HCPUNXKID, HXL49, Hadal, Hairy Dude, Hashar, HeartofaDog, Hibernian,
Hihellowhatsup, Hu12, IJA, Ian Pitchford, Icairns, Iceshark7, Idont Havaname, Ilyacadiz, Immunize, Inkypaws, Iokseng, Iridescent, IronGargoyle, Itai, J'raxis, J04n, JLaTondre, Jacob.jose,
Jahangard, Jalal nali, JamesR, Jayjg, Jimp, Jklamo, JoSePh, Joaoleitao, John Vandenberg, Jojit fb, Jonathan.s.kt, Jorunn, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joy, Jtkiefer, Jusdafax, Jw6aa, Kafka1, Kaldari,
Karl-Henner, Kelisi, Kf4bdy, Khalid hassani, Kimse, Kintetsubuffalo, Kmusser, Knorpel, Knutux, Koavf, Kolins, Kostya Wiki, Kotkoto, Kotniski, Koyaanis Qatsi, KoyaanisQatsi, Kralizec!,
Kwamikagami, L Kensington, Laduqesa, LailaKes, Larry Mudd, Laufey, Lexicon, LiDaobing, Librarian2, Lilac Soul, Livajo, Lucas(CA), Lucinos, Lusanaherandraton, MJCdetroit, MSGJ,
Maartenvdbent, Mabuhelwa, Magicus69, Mahmudmasri, Malhonen, Manicsleeper, ManuelGR, Marrakech 2007, Mashford, Mauls, McDogm, Mentifisto, Merenta, Mfv2, Miaow Miaow, Mic,
Michael Hardy, Milkbreath, Mingshey, Mitch1981, Mnmazur, Modulatum, Mokonono, Morwen, Moszczynski, Mr Minchin, Murraybuckley, Mustafaa, Mzmadmike, NawlinWiki, Nburden,
NeilN, Nickbrooks, Night w, Nine999999999s, Nlu, NoGringo, Northumbrian, Notheruser, Nyttend, Ohnoitsjamie, Olegwiki, Omar-Toons, Omelet4th, Open2universe, Oreo Priest,
Ownlyanangel, PBP, PDH, Palmpilot900, Panarjedde, Pascal, Patrick, Patrick-br, Pechke, Pgan002, Pigman, Pinethicket, Pokrajac, Polaron, Profoss, Puddhe, Purpleturple, Pylambert, Pzalms,
R'n'B, RG2, Radon210, Ramirez72, Rarelibra, Raymond Cruise, Rd232, Red King, Redking7, Redthoreau, Reisio, Rettetast, Rich Farmbrough, Ricky81682, Rjwilmsi, Rlquall, Robdurbar, Robert
K S, Rockfang, Roke, Roleplayer, Romanm, RookZERO, Royalmate1, Rwv37, S710, S711, SU Linguist, Saberwolf116, Saforrest, Sam Hocevar, Sam benji, SamEV, Samantha555,
SantiRelloVarona, Scaife, Sdownard, Sean.hoyland, SeanMack, Secfan, SelfQ, Seth Ilys, Shanes, Shaskouri, SimonP, Slashme, SophisticatedPrimate, Speedboy Salesman, Spike Wilbury, Stan
Shebs, StarbucksFreak, Stephen G. Brown, Str1977, SunCreator, Sunray, Super-Magician, Suruena, Susvolans, Sven70, Swikid, THB, TUF-KAT, Tahaex, Tallal, Tannin, Tashfine, Techman224,
Template namespace initialisation script, The Anome, The Giant Puffin, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Transhumanist, The darkman ali, TheEgyptian, Thecurran, Thedavid, Thehelpfulone,
Timc, Timpo, Tjmayerinsf, Tobias Conradi, Toussaint, Treyw, Twas Now, Twinxor, Undeponte, Vague Rant, Valenciano, Van der Hoorn, Varag, Vardion, Viajero, VirtualDelight,
Vis-a-visconti, Vital component, Vlma111, Vsmith, WHATaintNOcountryIeverHEARDofDOtheySPEAKenglishINwhat, Waggers, Waldir, Wander.mahet, WhisperToMe, Wik, Wikima, Will
Beback Auto, Willem Tijssen, Wmahan, Xiquet, Yohan euan o4, Yom, Yst, Yyy, Zazaban, Zeno Gantner, Zer0fighta, Zero Gravity, Zigger, Zscout370, Zundark, 436 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:LocationWesternSahara.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LocationWesternSahara.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
User:Vardion
Image:Wi-map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wi-map.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dubaduba, Electionworld, Kintetsubuffalo, Ras67
Image:Western sahara walls moroccan.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Western_sahara_walls_moroccan.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: User:Roke
Image:Western sahara landscape (north).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Western_sahara_landscape_(north).jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: User:StAn
Image:Laayoune-miltary checkpoint.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Laayoune-miltary_checkpoint.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:StAn
Image:Westernsaharamap.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Westernsaharamap.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Ecemaml,
Kmusser, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Tifariti 2005.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tifariti_2005.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: AlbertoDV,
HCPUNXKID, Juiced lemon, Masen, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Western_Sahara_sat.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Western_Sahara_sat.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Cwolfsheep, Lokal Profil, Martin H.
Image:Empty Town Western Sahara.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Empty_Town_Western_Sahara.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Dexcel
Image:Layoune.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Layoune.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Ifni95

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