c c



I dedicate this book to almighty allah for sustaining my life down to this day.
 
 
    


 
 

 
 

n engineer is always interested in knowing the strength of the material he wishes to use in
various projects.

The strength of a material may be defined as its ability to resist failure and behavior when it is
subjected to external forces. Hence a detailed study of the effects of these forces and protective
measures to enable a suitable working condition is known as strength of material. Strength of
Materials also deals with deformable body.

cc:  solid that changes its size and/or shape under applied load or
temperature change.
 : applied on the deformable body such as concentrated forces and moments.

  : the forces that are in the deformable body such as axial forces, shear forces,
torque and bending moments.
c!!: Number of unknown forces and support reactions are equal
to the number of static equilibrium equations.
c!!: Number of unknown forces and support reactions exceed the
number of static equilibrium equations. first degree if exceeded by one, second degree if
exceeded by 2 and so on.

In strength of materials, all the measurements of physical quantities are expressed in terms of
length, mass and time.

"#"
!!

 set of !! is a set of units for physical quantities from which every other unit
can be generated.

In the language of measurement, _
 are quantifiable aspects of the world, such
as time, distance, velocity, mass, momentum, energy, and weight, and  are used to describe
their measure. Many of these quantities are related to each other by various physical laws, and as
a result the units of some of the quantities can be expressed as products (or ratios) of powers of
other units (e.g., momentum is mass times velocity and velocity is measured in distance divided
by time). These relationships are discussed in dimensional. Those that cannot be so expressed
can be regarded as "fundamental" in this sense.
There are other relationships between physical quantities which can be expressed by means of
fundamental constants, and to some extent it is an arbitrary decision whether to retain the
fundamental constant as a quantity with dimensions or simply to define it as unity or a fixed
dimensionless number, and reduce the number of fundamental constants by one.

For instance, time and distance are related to each other by the speed of light, c, which is a
fundamental constant. It is possible to use this relationship to eliminate either the fundamental
unit of time or that of distance. Similar considerations apply to Planck's constant, h, which
relates energy (with dimensions of mass, length and time) to frequency (dimensions of time). In
theoretical physics it is customary to use such units (natural units) in which c = 1 and = 1.

Slightly different considerations apply to the so-called permittivity of free space, which
historically has been regarded as a separate physical constant in some systems of measurement
but not in others.

In the SI system there are 7 fundamental units: kilogram, meter, candela, second, ampere, kelvin,
and mole.

"#$

  is any influence that causes a free body to undergo a change in speed, a change in
direction, or a change in shape. Force can also be described by intuitive concepts such as a push
or pull that can cause an object with mass to change its velocity (which includes to begin moving
from a state of rest), i.e., to accelerate, or which can cause a flexible object to deform.  force
has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. Newton's second law, F=ma, can
be formulated to state that an object with a constant mass will accelerate in proportion to the net
force acting upon and in inverse proportion to its mass, an approximation which breaks down
near the speed of light. Newton's original formulation is exact, and does not break down: this
version states that the net force acting upon an object is equal to the rate at which its momentum
changes.

Related concepts to accelerating forces include thrust, increasing the velocity of the object, drag,
decreasing the velocity of any object, and torque, causing changes in rotational speed about an
axis. Forces which do not act uniformly on all parts of a body will also cause mechanical
stresses, a technical term for influences which cause deformation of matter. While mechanical
stress can remain embedded in a solid object, gradually deforming it, mechanical stress in a fluid
determines changes in its pressure and volume
"#% &!!

‘quilibrium occurs when the resultant force acting on a point particle is zero (that is, the vector
sum of all forces is zero). When dealing with an extended body, it is also necessary that the net
torque in it is 0.

There are two kinds of equilibrium: static equilibrium and dynamic equilibrium.

' 
 "#(

1.? cefine the following
á? Force
á? ‘quilibrium
á? Static equilibrium
á? Fundamental unit


   )

c 
  

 
 

In modern design offices, a special care is taken at the time of designing a structure that it should
be able to withstand the stresses, under the various load conditions, without failure.

Materials used mostly in the construction of structures includes steel, concrete, wood and plastic.

$#"  *+ , 

The mechanical properties of stainless steels are almost always requirements of the product
specifications used to purchase the product. For flat rolled products the properties usually
specified are tensile strength, yield stress (or proof stress), elongation and Brinell or Rockwell
hardness. Much less frequently there are requirements for impact resistance, either Charpy or
Izod. Bar, tube, pipe, fittings etc. also usually require at least tensile strength and yield stress.
These properties give a guarantee that the material in question has been correctly produced, and
are also used by engineers to calculate the working loads or pressures that the product can safely
carry in service.

$#"#" - .+

-   .+ (-), often shortened to   .+ () or !
.+, is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled
before  , which is when the specimen's cross-section starts to significantly contract.
Tensile strength is the opposite of compressive strength and the values can be quite different.

The UTS is usually found by performing a tensile test and recording the stress versus strain; the
highest point of the curves the UTS. It is an intensive property; therefore its value does not
depend on the size of the test specimen. However, it is dependent on other factors, such as the
preparation of the specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects, and the temperature of
the test environment and material.

Tensile strengths are rarely used in the design of ductile members, but they are important in
brittle members. They are tabulated for common materials such as alloys, composite
materials, ceramics, plastics, and wood.

Tensile strength is defined as a stress, which is measured as force per unit area. In the SI system,
the unit is pascal (Pa) or, equivalently, newtons per square metre (N/m²). The customary
unit is pounds-force per square inch (lbf/in² or psi), or kilo-pounds per square inch (ksi), which is
equal to 1000 psi; kilo-pounds per square inch are commonly used for convenience when
measuring tensile strengths.
$#$#$ c! 
Many materials display linear elastic behavior, defined by a linear stress-strain relationship, as
shown in the figure up to point 2, in which deformations are completely recoverable upon
removal of the load; that is, a specimen loaded elastically in tension will elongate, but will return
to its original shape and size when unloaded. Beyond this linear region, for ductile materials,
such as steel, deformations are plastic.  plastically deformed specimen will not return to its
original size and shape when unloaded. Note that there will be elastic recovery of a ð
  of the
deformation. For many applications, plastic deformation is unacceptable, and is used as the
design limitation.

fter the yield point, ductile metals will undergo a period of strain hardening, in which the stress
increases again with increasing strain, and they begin to neck, as the cross-sectional area of the
specimen decreases due to plastic flow. In a sufficiently ductile material, when necking becomes
substantial, it causes a reversal of the engineering stress-strain curve (curve ); this is because
the  


 is calculated assuming the original cross-sectional area before necking.
The reversal point is the maximum stress on the engineering stress-strain curve, and the
engineering stress coordinate of this point is the tensile ultimate strength, given by point 1.

The UTS is not used in the design of ductile static members because design practices dictate the
use of the yield stress. It is, however, used to for quality control, because of the ease of testing. It
is also used to roughly determine material types for unknown samples

 
Brittle materials, such as concrete and carbon fiber, are characterized by failure at small strains.
They often fail while still behaving in a linear elastic manner, and thus do not have a defined
yield point. Because strains are low, there is negligible difference between the engineering stress
and the true stress. Testing of several identical specimens will result in different failure stresses,
this is due to theWeibull Modulus of the brittle material.

The UTS is a common engineering parameter when design brittle members, because there is
no yield point

&! .  
Tensile strength can be defined for liquids and gases as well as solids. For example, when
drawing water through a straw, the column of water is pulled upwards from the top by suction.
The same holds for the column of air between the top of the water column and the top of the
straw.
In liquids, the force is mostly transmitted down the column by cohesion. Cohesion translates in
mechanical terms as inexpandability (which is in mechanical terms the same thing
as incompressibility). The compression modulus measures the tensile strength of liquids and
gases. Failure can also occur in liquids when cohesion breaks down locally, this is the
phenomenon of cavitation. In gases, there is no cohesion and the material can expand.

  .

Typically, the testing involves taking a small sample with a fixed cross-section area, and then
pulling it with a controlled, gradually increasing force until the sample changes shape or breaks.

When testing metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile strength. This
important relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk metal deliveries
with lightweight, even portable equipment, such as hand-held Rockwell hardnesstesters.
,,, 

Typical mechanical properties of annealed materials are as in the graph of Figure 1. Note that the
high cold work hardening rate of the austenitic grades in particular results in actual properties of
some commercial products being significantly higher than these values. The yield stress (usually
measured as the 0.2% proof stress) is particularly increased by even quite minor amounts of cold
work. More details of the work hardening of stainless steels are given in the section of this
handbook on fabrication.

.!"#Typical Tensile Properties of nnealed Materials

/,, 
n unusual feature of annealed austenitic stainless steels is that the yield strength is a very low
proportion of the tensile strength, typically only 40-45%. The comparable figure for a mild steel
is about 65-70%. s indicated above a small amount of cold work greatly increases the yield
(much more so than the tensile strength), so the yield also increases to a higher proportion of
tensile. Only a few % of cold work will increase the yield by 200 or 300MPa, and in severely
cold worked material like spring temper wire or strip, the yield is usually about 80-95% of the
tensile strength.
c!

The other mechanical property of note is the ductility, usually measured by % elongation during
a tensile test. This shows the amount of deformation a piece of metal will withstand before it
fractures.

.!$#Typical elongations of annealed materials

 
Hardness (measured by Brinell, Rockwell or Vickers machines) is another value for the strength
of a material. Hardness is usually defined as resistance to penetration, so these test machines
measure the depth to which a very hard indenter is forced into a material under the action of a
known force. ‘ach machine has a different shaped indenter and a different force application
system, so conversion between hardness scales is not generally very accurate. lthough
conversion tables have been produced these conversions are only approximate, and should not be
used to determine conformance to standards.
+ , )

The mechanical properties of the majority of the stainless steel wire and bar products are
generally sufficiently described by the tensile strength. These products require mechanical
properties which are carefully chosen to enable the product to be fabricated into the finished
component and also to withstand the loads which will be applied during service. Spring wire has
the highest tensile strength of the wire generally manufactured; it must be suitable for coiling
into tension or compression springs without breaking during forming. However, such high tensile
strengths would be completely unsuitable for forming or weaving applications because the wire
would break on forming. Weaving wires are supplied in a variety of tensile strengths carefully
chosen so that the finished woven screen will have adequate strength to withstand the service
loads, and yet soft enough to be crimped and to be formed into the screen satisfactorily.
Mechanical properties of wire for fasteners are another example where a careful balance in
mechanical properties is required. In this type of product the wire must be ductile enough to form
a quite complex head but the wire must be hard enough so that the threads will not deform when
the screw or bolt is assembled into the component. Good examples are roofing bolts, wood
screws and self-tapping screws; to achieve the mechanical properties required for such
components requires careful consideration of the composition of the steel so that the work
hardening rate will be sufficiently high to form hard threads on thread rolling and yet not so high
as to prevent the head from being formed.

For bar products a compromise must also be made; a large proportion of bar will be machined, so
it is important that the hardness be not too high, but better load carrying capacity is achieved if
the strength is high, and for drawn bar a good bright finish is achieved only by a reduction which
significantly increases strength levels.



Concrete is a composite construction material, composed of cement (commonly Portland

cement) and other cementitious materials such as fly ash and cement, aggregate (generally a
coarse aggregate made of gravels or crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite, plus a fine
aggregate such as sand), water, and chemical admixtures.
Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing with water and placement due to a chemical
process known as hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other
components together, eventually creating a robust stone-like material.

Concrete is used to make pavements, pipe, architectural

structures,foundations, motorways/roads, bridges/overpasses, parking structures, brick/block wal
ls and footings for gates, fences and poles.

, 

There are many types of concrete available, created by varying the proportions of the main
ingredients below. By varying the proportions of materials, or by substitution for the cemetitious
and aggregate phases, the finished product can be tailored to its application with varying
strength, density, or chemical and thermal resistance properties.

The `
  depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete will be mixed and
delivered, and how it will be placed to form this structure.



Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic ingredient of
concrete, mortar, and plaster. ‘nglish masonry worker Joseph spdin patented Portland cement
in 1824; it was named because of its similarity in colour to Portland limestone, quarried from the
‘nglish Isle of Portland and used extensively in London architecture. It consists of a mixture of
oxides ofcalcium, silicon and aluminium. Portland cement and similar materials are made by
heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay, and grinding this product (called  
) with
a source of sulfate (most commonly gypsum).

)

Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of hydration.
The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and allows it to flow more
freely.

Less water in the cement paste will yield a stronger, more durable concrete; more water will give
an freer-flowing concrete with a higherslump. Impure water used to make concrete can cause
problems when setting or in causing premature failure of the structure.

Hydration involves many different reactions, often occurring at the same time. s the reactions
proceed, the products of the cement hydration process gradually bond together the individual
sand and gravel particles, and other components of the concrete, to form a solid mass.
Reaction:
Cement chemist notation: C3S + H ĺ C-S-H + CH
Standard notation: Ca3SiO5 + H2O ĺ (CaO)·(SiO2)·(H2O)(gel) + Ca(OH)2
Balanced: 2Ca3SiO5 + 7H2O ĺ 3(CaO)·2(SiO2)·4(H2O)(gel) + 3Ca(OH)2
... 

Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural gravel and
crushed stone are mainly used for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from construction,
demolition and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial replacements of natural
aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates, including air-cooled blast furnaceslag
and bottom ash are also permitted.

cecorative stones such as quartzite, small river stones or crushed glass are sometimes added to
the surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate" finish, popular among landscape
designers.

The presence of aggregate greatly increases the robustness of concrete over and above that of
cement, which otherwise is a brittle material, and thus concrete is a true composite material.

Redistribution of aggregates after compaction often creates inhomogeneity due to the influence
of vibration. s a result, gradients of strength may be significant


Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression load.
However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can crack, allowing
the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete solves these problems by adding either steel reinforcing
bars, steel fibers, glass fiber, or plastic fiber to carry tensile loads. Thereafter the concrete is
reinforced to withstand the tensile loads upon it. Below is shown reinforcement for a beam
+! 

Chemical
`
 are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the concrete
to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. In normal use,
admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement, and are added to the concrete at the time
of batching/mixing.

The common types of admixtures are

U? ccelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. Typical materials used
are CaCl2 and NaCl. However, use of chlorides may cause corrosion in steel reinforcing and
is prohibited in some countries.
U? Retarders slow the hydration of concrete, and are used in large or difficult pours where
partial setting before the pour is complete is undesirable. Typical polyol retarders are sugar,
sucrose, sodium gluconate, glucose, citric acid, and tartaric acid.
U? ir entrainments add and entrain tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which will reduce damage
during freeze-thaw cycles thereby increasing the concrete's durability. However, entrained air
is a trade-off with strength, as each 1% of air may result in 5% decrease in compressive
strength.
U? Plasticizers increase the workability of plastic or "fresh" concrete, allowing it be placed more
easily, with less consolidating effort. Typical plasticizers are lignosulfonate. Plasticizers can
be used to reduce the water content of a concrete while maintaining workability, and are
sometimes called !


 
 due to this use. Such treatment improves its strength and
durability characteristics. Superplasticizers (also called  

 
!


 
) are a
class of plasticizers that have fewer deleterious effects, and can be used to increase
 workability more than practical with traditional plasticizers. Compounds used as
superplasticizers include sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensate, sulfonated
melamine formaldehyde condensate, acetone formaldehyde condensate, and polycarboxylate
ethers.
U? Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics.
U? Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel bars in concrete.
U? Bonding agents are used to create a bond between old and new concrete.
U? Pumping aids improve pumpability, thicken the paste, and reduce separation and bleeding.

)

cespite its complex chemical nature, wood has excellent properties which lend themselves to
human use. It is readily and economically available; easily machinable; amenable to fabrication
into an infinite variety of sizes and shapes using simple on-site building techniques;
exceptionally strong relative to its weight; a good heat and electrical insulator; and of
increasing importance it is a renewable and biodegradable resource.
However, it also has some drawbacks of which the user must be aware. It is a ³natural´ material
and, as such, it comes with an array of defects (0 , irregular grain, etc.); it is subject to decay
if not kept dry; it is flammable; and it is anisotropic.
In order to understand how best to use wood as a structural material, a few terms must be
understood.
 tree is a marvel of nature; it comes in a variety of species, sizes, shapes, and utilization
potentials.
However, all trees have some basic characteristics in common:

°
  
The portion of wood of a tree produced during one growing season. In the temperate zones this is
also called an





.
‘


 
The portion of a growth ring that is formed early in the growing season. It normally contains
larger cells with thinner walls. ‘arlywood is relatively low in   and is followed by
latewood as the growing season progresses.
˜  

 
The portion of a growth ring that is formed later in the growing season. Cells tend to be smaller
in size and have thicker, denser cell walls.
 

 
The innermost growth rings of a tree; may be darker in color than the outermost growth rings
(called sapwood ). Contains phenolic compounds that in some species impart decay resistance
to the heartwood.



 
The outermost growth rings of a tree; always light brown to cream-colored in all species; never
decay- or insect-resistant. Sapwood and heartwood together make up the ³wood´ of commercial
use.
  
The outside covering of a tree, which protects the tree from invasion by insects, disease, and
decay. The bark is separated from the wood of a tree by a thin layer of cells, the 
`  `

which
is able to produce new cells annually to increase a tree in diameter as an annual ring is added.
 

 
Trees that are deciduous, i.e., trees whose leaves are broad and are generally shed each year in
the temperate zones. Typical hardwoods include oaks, maples, and poplar. It is important to
realize that not all hardwoods are ³hard´; balsa is a hardwood, for example. The major use of
hardwoods is in furniture and cabinet manufacture.



 
Typically ³evergreen´ trees with needle-like leaves. Includes couglas fir, pines, spruces, cedars,
and hemlock. Traditionally softwoods have been used primarily for structural timbers and are
graded specifically for this purpose. The wood of softwoods ranges from soft to quite hard.




 
Long, thin, hollow units that make up wood. Most cells are oriented with their long axis roughly
parallel to the axis of the tree. However, cell orientation may vary, as around a tree branch to
form a knot in a board cut from a tree, and some cells are in groups called ! , which are
oriented horizontally and radiate outward from the center of the tree.


  
 band of cells radiating outward from the center of the tree toward the bark. The long axis of
these ray cells is horizontal; ray cells are used for food storage and horizontal translocation of
fluids in a tree.

+ .+,, !

The general term ³strength´ as loosely applied to timber covers a number of specific strength
properties, or mechanical properties as they are sometimes called, which the timber may possess
to varying degrees. Thus, before the suitability, as regards to µstrength¶, of a particular species
can be assessed, consideration must be given to the specific mechanical properties appropriate to
the proposed use.
Generally, the strength requirements are covered by eight strength properties, which are
discussed briefly below. Values for these properties are obtained from standard tests on samples
free from all defects such as knots, checks, shakes or distorted grain which may be found in
timber of structural sizes; and which influence the strength to a greater or less degree. These
values are basic strength data and from the best foundation for accurate comparison of one
species to another.

In most instances, however, all that is required is a broad comparison between species or an
indication of suitability or any of as regards strength for a particular purpose. For this a grouping
in broad classed for each of four important strength properties namely bending strength,
stiffness, resistance to suddenly applied loads, and compression strength parallel to the grain. 
grouping of hardness, or resistance to indentation has not been included as this property is
closely related to destiny.

"#!. .+1&!2  !3

This property is a measure of maximum stress which timber can momentarily sustain when
loaded slowly and continuously as a beam. It is of primary importance in timbers subjected to
transverse bending.

$# 1!!   3

This property is of importance in determining the deflection of a bream under load -- the greater
the stiffness, the less the deflection. It is usually considered in conjunction with bending strength
, as, for many uses, stiffness is an advantage. The modulus of elasticity is also the critical
property determining the strength of a long column or strut, as distinct from a short column, for
which maximum compressive strength (q.v.) is an essential property.

%# . !

!1)03

This property is a measure of the ability of the timber to absorb energy and is, therefore, of
particular importance where timbers are to be subjected to considerable bending under heavy
loads as with shunting poles, wheel spokes, etc. This property is closely allied to the toughness
of timber.

4#  !,, 1
,3

The standard method of determining this property is to drop a weight from heights on to a beam
supported near the ends. The height of drop at which the beam breaks is a measure of the
property.

n alternative method is to measure the energy absorbed in fracturing by a single blow, a

notched specimen fixed at once end as a cantilever.

 third method which is frequently used, is the toughness test. In this a test piece 10 in. long and
5/8 in. square, freely supported over a span of 8 in., is broken by a single blow centrally applied
by a machine of the pendulum type. The energy absorbed by the test piece during fracture,
calculated from the angle of swing of the pendulum before and after impact, is taken as a
measure of toughness of timber.

Resistance to suddenly applied loads, as measured by these tests is closely related to the
aforementioned property µtotal work¶. Species which rank high in the one usually do so in the
other, but there are exceptions, such as home grown ash and beech. When seasoned, they have
about the same values of maximum drop of weight, but the total work of ash is 50% greater than
for beech. Where toughness in use is particularly desirable, high values for total work should be
considered the more important.

5#!, 2.+ 

This property measures the ability of the timber to withstand loads applied on the end grain and
is of importance where use as short columns or props is contemplated. Resistance to end grain
crushing is required in many types of fastenings and should then be considered in conjunction
with the two following properties.

†#  
1 3

This property is measured by the resistance offered by the timber to indentation to a given depth
by a standard steel ball. The property is of importance when timbers are joined together, and
also in timber to be used for such purposes as sports goods, bearing blocks etc.

lthough often referred to as hardness, this property does not include any measure of resistance
to abrasion, a factor often underlying the everyday use of the word hardness. Special tests have
been devised to measure resistance of timbers to abrasion

6#+..+

This property is a measure of the resistance of the timber when the forces acting on it tend to
make one part slide over another, in a direction parallel to that of the grain. It is of considerable
importance in beams, where the depth is large relative to the length, and, as mentioned above, in
timbers fastened by bolts or other forms of connection.

7#  ,.12.3

 high resistance to splitting is of importance where timbers are to be nailed or bolted. On the
other hand, a low value for this property may be an advantage where timbers have to be cleft
before use. Resistance to splitting, with many species, may vary considerably with the plane of
cleavage, the timber in such instances usually splitting more readily normal to the rings (radially)
than parallel to the rings (tangentially).

8#  !+ , 

Reduction of moisture content from that of the green state to a value generally between 25% -
30% for most species has no effect on the mechanical properties of timber, but further reduction
causes a marked increase in most of the properties referred above. Bending strength, stiffness,
compressive strength, shearing strength, and resistance to indentation are all increased as a result
of seasoning, the degree of increase depending on the property, the species and the final moisture
content. For many timbers, increases of over 100% are shown in compressive strength on
seasoning from green state to a moisture content of 12%.

‘nergy consumed to total fracture, resistance to suddenly applied loads and resistance to splitting
are less affected by reduction of moisture content, some species showing light decreases in these
properties as a result of seasoning.


  

U? Corbell, H.C.; Philip Stehle (1994). Ê




ð

. New York: cover
publications. ISBN 0-486-68063-0.
U? R.S. Khurmi (2000); 
 






New celhi. S. Chand and company Ltd. 110055
U? Cutnell, John d.; Johnson, Kenneth W. (2004). 


 . Hoboken, NJ: John
Wiley & Sons Inc.. ISBN 041-44895-8.
U? Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. B., Sands, M. (1963). ˜





. ddison-
Wesley. ISBN 0-201-02116-1.
U? Halliday, cavid; Robert Resnick; Kenneth S. Krane (2001). 

. New York: John
Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-32057-9.
U? Parker, Sybil (1993).  ð




ð

. Ohio: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-
051400-3.
U? Sears F., Zemansky M. & Young H. (1982). å

. Reading, M: ddison-
Wesley. ISBN 0-201-07199-
U? § International Bureau of Weights and Measures (2006), |


 

`

å

 (8th ed.), ISBN 92-822-2213-6

U? § Resolution of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures establishing the
International System of Units
U? § Official BIPM definitions
U? § ‘ssentials of the SI: Introduction