Group 3: Energy Sources

Angela Araneta, Ciara Cheng, Jovic Sy, Mary Tan

I. Brief History

Historical Outline: Innovators1

Year Energy Innovator Brief Description
Source
2000 BC Coal Chinese The Chinese used coal for heating and cooking.

200 BC Water (Hydro) Europeans The Europeans used water wheels to crush
grain, tan leather, smelt and shape iron, saw
wood, and other industrial purposes.
1st Century Petroleum (oil) Chinese The oil was obtained through seepages found in
certain areas of China. They used oil lamps,
lubricants, medicine and military functions.
10th Century Wind Persians The Persians invented the wind mill to grind
corn, raise water from streams to irrigate the
gardens, and other forms of agricultural use.
1712 Coal (Used in Thomas Newcomen The steam engine was used to pump out water
steam engine) in the underground coal mines because of
flooding. This innovation sparked the industrial
revolution where coal was used for different
sorts of steam engines like trains and machines
for industries.
1859 Commercial Oil Edwin L. Drake He thought of drilling for oil that was run by a
steam engine. By using this, he was able to get
tons of oil which was used for kerosene lamps,
and other uses for the oil.
1860 Solar Power Augustine Mouchot He used well placed mirrors in order to produce
steam from water to run a steam engine.
1876 Solar Power Grylls Adams He discovered that solid materials can store
(Selenium) electricity through sun light using Selenium.
1921 Geothermal John D. Grant He constructed a geothermal plant to provide
(Geyser electricity for lighting.
Steam)
1953 Solar Power Gerald Pearson, They developed the first silicon solar cell that
(Silicon) Daryl Chapin, could generate measurable amounts of
Calvin Fuller electricity.

II. Industry Analysis

1
"Historical Timeline - Alternative Energy - ProCon.org." Alternative Energy.
http://alternativeenergy.procon.org/view.resource.php?resourceID=002475 (accessed
November 26, 2010).
Power Industry in the Philippines

Table 1

Legend:

1 = Residential, 2 = Commercial, 3 = Industrial, 4 = Others

5 = Total Sales of Electricity

Table 2

Legend:
 1 = Luzon, 2 = Visayas, 3 = Mindanao, 4 = Total

Table 3

Legend:
1 = Oil based, 2 = Oil-thermal, 3 = Diesel, 4 = Gas-turbine, 5 = Hydro, 6 = Geothermal
7 = Coal, 8 = Other renewable sources (e.g., wind, solar, biomass), 9 = Natural Gas
10 = Total

As we can see from table 1, over the past three years, there has been an increasing demand for
energy consumption here in the Philippines. The country needs to produce more electricity in order to
support the public demand. Therefore, we need more efficient ways of harnessing energy and which of
course should follow the trend of the popular renewable energy to save the mother earth.
As for table 2, we can see that Luzon is still the capital producing part here in the Philippines.
This is primarily because of a larger demand and population which presides in the northern area of the
country.
On table 3, the three main source of electricity as of now is natural gas, coal and geothermal
energy. This shows that we still rely heavily of fossil fuels to produce electricity which would definitely
harm the environment. However, almost a third of the production comes from geothermal energy which is
a cleaner way of harnessing power as it is considered a renewable source of energy.

III. Sources of Energy

Fossil Fuel Energy

Fossil fuels are hydrocarbon fuels found on the earth’s crust. They are formed from the remains
of plants and animals that lived a long time ago which are converted into coal, crude oil and natural gas. 2
Fossil fuels are a non-renewable energy source because it will take a million years before fossil fuels are
formed.
The most common and important solid fossil fuel is coal. Coal is a sedimentary rock composed of
mainly carbon along with other substances like sulfur and nitrogen. It is the largest single source of
electricity world-wide.3 Coal is relatively abundant and cheap; however, it releases a lot of carbon dioxide

2
"Fossil fuel." Science Daily: News & Articles in Science, Health, Environment & Technology.
http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/f/fossil_fuel.htm (accessed November 18, 2010).
3
"Sources Of Organic Compounds | Tutorvista.com." Tutorvista.com - Online Tutoring,
Homework Help for Math, Science, English from Best Online Tutor.
http://www.tutorvista.com/chemistry/sources-of-organic-compounds (accessed November
that can contribute to the greenhouse effect and global warming. There are different types or grades of
coal ranging from peat – lignite –bituminous –anthracite. Peat is the first stage in coal formation. It has a
low carbon content of approximately 20-30% and has poor burning efficiency compared to the other types
of coal. It is usually used in producing charcoal. As a result of high pressure and temperature, peat is
converted to lignite which has better burning properties because of slightly higher carbon content (40-
50%). With the passage of time, lignite converts itself to bituminous coal which has 60-70% carbon.
Anthracite coal is the most superior among all the types since it has the highest carbon content and best
burning properties as fuel. It is commonly used as industrial fuel.4
Crude oil or petroleum is formed from the remains of biodegraded organic material. The remains
of animals that died under the sea many years ago were gradually covered by layers of very fine dirt
ocean floor. As the years passed, pressure from the layers built up and compressed the organic material,
forming the oil.5
Compared to coal and petroleum, natural gas is relatively clean-burning because it contains only
small portions of sulfur and nitrogen. Natural gas consists of other materials such as ethane, propane,
butane, sulfur and carbon dioxide. Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, it must undergo processing
to remove all the other products except methane.6

Solar Energy
Solar energy is an alternative source of energy coming from the sun in the form of solar radiation
which is converted to solar or electrical energy on earth. 7 The Sahara Desert is about 9,000,000 square
kilometres8 and the sun gives off so much solar power that if we covered just 1% of the Sahara desert
with solar panels, we can actually generate enough electricity to power the whole world! However, we
cannot directly use the sun’s light or heat to run our appliances or produce electricity. We first have to
convert the solar energy into forms of energy that we can use through solar panels. Solar panels are
made up of many individual energy collectors called solar cells or photovoltaic cells. 9

Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy as the etymology of the name implies is energy coming from the earth’s heat
(“geo” –earth, “thermal” –heat). If we recall, the earth has four main layers: crust, mantle, outer core and
inner core. The heat source comes from the margin of the crust and mantle. In between those two layers,
melted magma is found where most of the energy source comes from. Since the heat of our earth moves
outwards, the mantle continuously heats this layer, making it an abundant source of energy. 10
The Philippine itself is the 2nd largest producer of geothermal energy in the world, and makes up
27% of the power generation mix in the country. 11 A main reason is because the Philippines is located in

20, 2010).
4
"Coal - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia." Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal (accessed November 18, 2010).
5
"Petroleum." Library Think Quest. library.thinkquest.org/20331/types/fossil (accessed
November 23, 2010).
6
"Natural gas - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia." Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas (accessed November 20, 2010).
7
"What is Solar Energy?." wiseGEEK: clear answers for common questions.
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-solar-energy.htm (accessed November 24, 2010).
8
The Great Sahara Desert | Photography in Travel Spots!." Photography in Travel Spots!.
http://www.photography-edu.com/2009/06/the-great-sahara-desert.html (accessed
November 24, 2010).
9
"How solar power works - an introduction to solar cells and solar panels." Explain that stuff!
Science and technology made simple. http://www.explainthatstuff.com/solarcells.html
(accessed November 24, 2010).
10
"Iraq & Our Energy Future - Geothermal Energy." Academic Program Pages at
Evergreen. http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/heidtken.html (accessed
November 27, 2010).
11
"PHILIPPINE GEOTHERMAL: World's 2nd biggest geothermal energy producer." World Class
Filipino. www.worldclassfilipino.com/sections/wc-phils/content/62-philippine-geothermal-
worlds-2nd-biggest-geothermal-energy-producer (accessed November 27, 2010).
the Ring of Fire were tectonic plates usually collide and make volcanic activity. An advantage of this
renewable energy is that it requires less space as compared to wind energy or solar energy systems, and
creates less pollution. Usually geothermal power plants don’t harm the environment or add up to the
greenhouse effect since it doesn’t produce any byproducts. However, plants cannot be just build
anywhere, there are certain areas that have available hot rocks and some even dry out in the long run.
The process of drilling for geothermal sites should be done properly in order for any hazardous materials
not to escape from the ground.

IV. Scientific Background

Combustion of fossil fuels

Combustion is a chemical reaction in which a process of burning occurs.12 For combustion to
occur, the substance to be burnt must be combustible and there must be a supporter which in this case is
oxygen. In a combustion reaction, the species reacting with oxygen is the one oxidized because oxygen is
very electronegative. Typically, the general equation for the combustion of fossil fuels is:
hydrocarbon + O2(g) = CO2(g) + H2O(g) + energy
A simple combustion reaction for methane has the chemical reaction:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) à CO2(g) + 2H2O(g).
This combustion process consists of a reaction between methane and the oxygen in the air. One
molecule of methane combines with two molecules of oxygen and react to form carbon dioxide and 2
molecules of water. Water is usually given off as steam or water vapour during the reaction.13

Another example would be the combustion of coal where the carbon in coal is burnt.
C(g) + O2(g) à CO2(g)
Coal is mainly made up of carbon but has small amounts of nitrogen and sulfur. When coal is burned, the
oxygen in air can unite with sulfur to form sulfur dioxide and nitrogen to form nitrogen dioxide. When
gaseous sulfur dioxide combines with water, sulflurous acid is produced. Excess amounts of this can
cause abnormal amounts of acid rain.14
SO2(g) + H2O(l) à H2SO3(aq)
Insufficient amount of oxygen during combustion such as burning coal in a closed environment
without ventilation produces carbon monoxide. Since the oxygen is depleted, the reaction C(g) + CO2(g) à
2CO(g) becomes possible. As we all know, carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas that it takes the place of
oxygen in the blood supply in our lungs when breathing.15
Bond Energy
During chemical reactions, energy is either released (exothermic reaction) or absorbed
(endothermic reaction) to/from the environment. Bonds are broken in the reactants and new ones are
formed in the products. Bond-breaking is an endothermic process and bond-making is an exothermic
process. The overall energy change, the enthalpy of reaction (∆H), is the difference of all the energy
absorbed in bond-breaking and all the energy released in bond-making. A negative ∆H indicates that the
reaction is heat producing which can be used directly or be converted to other energy forms. The formula
for computing for ∆H is given below.16

12
"Combustion process." Tutor Vista. www.tutorvista.com/content/chemistry/chemistry-i/air-
mixture/combustion-process.php (accessed November 14, 2010).
13
"Combustion." Elmhurst College: Elmhurst, Illinois.
http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/511natgascombust.html (accessed November
18, 2010).
14
"Acid rain." Library Think Quest. library.thinkquest.org/20331/types/fossil/ (accessed
November 22, 2010).
15
"Environmental Decision Making, Science, and Technology." Mac OS X Server.
http://telstar.ote.cmu.edu/environ/m3/s3/09fossil.shtml (accessed November 26, 2010).
16
"Energy from Fossil Fuels." Western Oregon University.
http://www.wou.edu/las/physci/GS361/Energy_From_Fossil_Fuels.htm (accessed November
24, 2010).
 In this combustion reaction, methane and oxygen bonds are broken to form carbon dioxide and
water. Following the formula and solving for the enthalpy of reaction, the overall energy change is -810
kJ. This means that every mole of methane (16g) releases 810 kJ of energy upon burning.

Energy content of Fossil Fuels

Combustion energetics can be estimated from the bond energies that are broken and formed for
all the types of fossil fuels. The amount of energy released is dependent on the oxidation state of the
carbons in the hydrocarbon. The more hydrogen per carbon, the lower the oxidation state and the more
energy that will be released during the oxidation reaction, thus the greater the H/C ratio, the more energy
release on combustion.17

The average hydrogen/carbon ratios show that the degree of unsaturation increases from natural
gas through petroleum to coal. As the amount of unsaturation increases, the amount of carbon dioxide
released per mole also increases. From the data above, it would appear that burning coal would have a
larger greenhouse effect than burning natural gas.

Solar Energy: How Photovoltaic (PV) Cells Produce Electricity

PV cells are made up of semiconductors, specifically silicon. A portion of light is absorbed and
transferred to the semiconductor when light strikes the cell. The light energy now knocks the electrons of
the semiconductor loose, allowing them to flow freely. Photovoltaic cells also have one or more electric
fields that act to force electrons freed by light absorption to flow in a certain direction or in other words,
produce electric current. By placing metal contacts on the top and bottom of the PV cell, current can be
drawn for external use. This current, together with the cell’s voltage which is a result of its built-in electric
field or fields, defines the power or wattage that the solar cell can produce.18

17
"Energy from Fossil Fuels." Western Oregon University.
http://www.wou.edu/las/physci/GS361/Energy_From_Fossil_Fuels.htm (accessed November
24, 2010).
18
Toothman, Jessika. "HowStuffWorks "Photovolatic Cells: Converting Photons to Electrons"."
Howstuffworks "Science". http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/energy/solar-
 A Silicon atom has 14 electrons arranged in three different shells. The first shell holds two
electrons while the second shell holds eight electrons. The outer shell, however, has only four electrons
and needs four more to become stable. Because of this, a Silicon atom will always look for ways to fill up
its last shell and this is what forms the crystalline structure of Silicon. Silicon in its crystalline form has
some chemical properties that are important to a PV cell. Pure crystalline silicon is a poor conductor of
electricity though because none of its electrons are free to move around unlike electrons in better
conductors like copper. This is why the impurities present in the silicon crystal are actually desirable in the
creation of solar cells. The silicon in a solar cell has impurities in which other atoms were purposefully
mixed with the silicon atoms. The process of adding impurities on purpose is called doping. The impurities
doped in silicon crystals are Phosphorous and Boron. When energy is added into pure silicon, it can
cause a few electrons to break free of their bonds and leave their atoms. These electrons are called free
carriers. When the electrons leave the atom, a hole is left behind and the electrons wander randomly
around the crystalline looking for another hole to fall into. However, in pure silicon, there are only a few of
them that they don’t become very useful. What happens when impurities are added is then better.
First, take a look at Phosphorous. Phosphorous has five electrons in its outer shell instead of the
four that silicon has. When phosphorous is added to pure silicon, it may still bond with silicon but
phosphorous has one electron that doesn’t have a partner electron to bond with. Compared to what
happens when energy is added to pure silicon, it takes a lot less energy to knock loose one of the “extra”
phosphorous electrons because they aren’t bonded with any neighboring atoms and there are then a lot
more free carriers. When pure silicon is doped with phosphorous, the resulting silicon is called N-type (“n”
for negative) because there are many free electrons. N-type doped silicon is a much better conductor
compared to pure silicon.
The other part of a solar cell is doped with Boron. Boron only has three electrons in its outer shell
instead of four. Instead of having free electrons, Boron then has free openings and carries the positive
charge. Boron becomes the P-type silicon as it carries the opposite (positive) charge.
Two separate pieces of silicon are electrically neutral and have no electric field. An electric field forms
when the N-type and the P-type silicon come into contact. The free electrons on the N side see all the
openings in the P side and rush to fill them in. However, not all the free electrons fill all the free holes.
Right at the junction, the P-type and the N-type mix and form something like a barrier, making it difficult
for electrons on the N side to cross over to the P side. Equilibrium is eventually reached and an electric
field now separates the two sides. The electric field is called a diode, which allows the electrons to flow
from the P side to the N side.
When light hits the solar cell, its energy breaks apart electron-hole pairs. Each photon with
enough energy will normally free exactly one electron, causing a free hole. If this happens close enough
to the electric field, or if the free electron and the free hole happen to wander into its range of influence,
the field will send them to the N side and the P side respectively. The electron flow provides the current
and the cell’s electric field causes a voltage. With current and voltage now present, power is produced.
Silicon is a very shiny material which can allow photons to bounce away before its job is done. This is why
an antireflective coating is applied to reduce these losses. Also, in order to protect the cell from the
weather, the cell is installed with a glass cover plate.19

V. Unit Operations

Fossil Fuel Energy

Fossil energy is generated through the burning of fossil remains such as coal. The fossil fuel that
is burned is used as a source of heat to make steam out of water. The steam from the boiling water spins
the turbines that power a generator, thereby manufacturing electricity:20

cell1.htm (accessed November 24, 2010).

19
Toothman, Jessika. "HowStuffWorks "Anatomy of a Solar Cell"." Howstuffworks "Science".
N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2010.
<http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/energy/solar-cell3.htm>.
20
"Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels." Andy Darvill's Science site: Home.
http://www.darvill.clara.net/altenerg/fossil.htm (accessed November 23, 2010).
Solar Energy
Solar energy is generated when sunlight hits the solar panels or the
Photovoltaic panel. Once sunlight hits the panel, some of the energy it
brings is captured by the semiconductor (silicon) material. That energy
makes the electrons loose and allows them to flow freely. Electric fields
created by the photovoltaic cell then force the loose electrons to create
current. 21The direct current then passes through an inverter, which converts
the current into alternating current (AC) electricity needed to power almost
all uses of electricity in the home. 22

Geothermal Energy
A basic model of a geothermal power plant is a dry steam plant, however advancements of this
model has led to more types such as flash steam plant and binary cycle plants, the differences lies on the
depth and temperature of the heat source; and the use of water as its fluid. Before actual operations,
dynamites are placed at the bottom of each well so that the rocks will be fractioned, making it easier for
water to pass through. All types have an injection well where water is pumped down so that it comes of as
steam in the production well.

Dry Steam Plants

The steam (about1050°F - 1220° F) that comes out
powers up the turbine and generate electricity. The steam
that passed the turbine is directed to the condenser, where
the water takes its liquid form and is pushed down to the
injection well again which takes more time.23

Flash Steam Plants

While this is true for dry steam plants, flash steam plants
have a different approach.Flash steam plants use a lesser
21
GREENPOWERSCIENCE. " YouTube - Solar Photovoltaic Cells Part 1 ." YouTube - Broadcast
Yourself. . http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fixI-xZ3U_M&feature=related (accessed
November 24, 2010).
22
Power, using a renewable source of, and such as sunlight. "Diverse Power | Photovoltaic
Rebate Program."Diverse Power A Touchstone Energy Cooperative. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Nov.
2010. <http://www.diversepower.com>
23
Ibid.
temperature (about 300° F). Eventually not pure steam comes out of the production well. Hot and high-
pressured water is depressurized or “flashed” to produce steam and goes through the same process as a
dry steam plant. Since there is water at the production well, abrine filters out mineral deposits and sends it
back down to the injection well. This may also be composed ofminute amounts of carbon dioxide, nitric
oxide, and sulfur emissions, but still less than fossil fuels. A flash steam plant is the widely used type of
geothermal energy today. 24

Binary Cycle Plants

To go a level higher, binary cycle plants uses an even
lower temperature of steam (100° F – 300° F). From the
name itself (binary) it uses two fluids: water and a
working fluid. Due to the lower temperature, this means
that the water injected comes out as hot water and not
as steam. This hot water passes through a heat
exchanger and heats up the working fluid, which has a
lower boiling point than water. This is usually
hydrocarbons like isobutene and isopentane. The
working fluid is the one vaporized and powers the
turbine. Remainders are recycled back through the heat
exchanger. The advantage of this kind of plant is that it
is self-contained, meaning no emissions; and less depth
to drill the holes.25
VI. Testing

Fossil Fuel Energy

Trace elements in fossil fuels are receiving increasing attention from users because of the
potential hazard and negative impact they bring when released into the environment. The accuracy of the
analyses can be checked by means of comparing it with certified reference materials.26
The determination of As, Hg and Se in coal is carried out through Flow Injection Inductively
Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (FI-ICP-MS). The release of these elements in the combustion of
coal is harmful to humans and to the environment. Mercury appears to impact the neurological
development in fetus and small children and Arsenic and Selenium acts as a poison to the human body.
This instrument is a type of mass spectrometry that is capable of determining a range of metals and non
metals at concentrations below one part per trillion. It is based on coupling together an inductively
coupled plasma as a method of producing ions and with a mass spectrometer as a method of separating
and detecting the ions.27 NIST 1632a and NIST 1632b are the certified reference materials used for coal
samples.
ICP is an analytical technique used to detect trace metals in environmental samples. Its goal is to
get elements to emit characteristic wavelength specific light which is then measured. 28 The sample is
introduced into the system in the form of an aerosol. The sample undergoes ionization by Argon plasma.
Argon is used as the mode of ionization because it is abundant in the atmosphere and relatively cheap. It
also has the advantage of having a higher first ionisation potential (the "reluctance" of an atom or ion to
surrender an electron) than all other elements except He, F and Ne.29
24
Ibid.
25
Ibid.
26
"SpringerLink - Microchimica Acta, Volume 123, Numbers 1-4." Welcome to SpringerLink.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/r11540041n6515u0/ (accessed November 26, 2010).
27
"Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia."
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry (accessed
November 26, 2010).
28
"Inductively coupled plasma." Traci Bradford and M. Nicole Cook.
www.cee.vt.edu/ewr/environmental/teach/smprimer/icp/icp.html (accessed November 26,
2010).
29
"Ionization potential: Encyclopedia of chemistry, analytics & pharmaceutics with 64,557
 A radio frequency potential is applied to the inductive coil to produce an electromagnetic field. A
short electrical discharge from a wire inside the torch provides electrons to ignite the plasma. The
electrons in the electromagnetic field of the coil accelerate and collide with Ar atoms in the Argon gas
flowing through the torch, creating Ar+ ions and free electrons. Collisions cause Ar atoms to be ionized
and result in the formation of the plasma.30
The torch consists of 3 channels: outer, intermediate and central flow. The main gas flows
through the outer tube which provides most of the plasma-flowing Ar. The auxiliary gas flows through the
intermediate tube to control the position of the plasma relative to the front end of the torch. The nebulizer
gas flows through the central tube to carry the sample aerosol into the middle of the plasma.31
Once introduced into the centre of the plasma, the sample is vaporized, atomised and ionised.
The ions produced are then transferred to the mass spectrometer which acts as a mass filter that
separates ions according to their mass/charge ratio. In the first stage of the mass spectrometer ions are
removed from the plasma by a pumped extraction system. A quadrupole mass filter made up of four metal
rods aligned in a parallel diamond pattern is used. Alternating and direct current electrical potential is
applied to the rods having a net negative or positive potential. When the DC and AC voltages are set to
certain values, only one particular ion is able to continue on a path between the rods and the others are
forced out of this path.32

Solar Energy
The output that solar panels produce is dependent on how much light there is available.
Because of this, it is important to test how much power a solar panel gives in a certain place in order to
make sure that the appliance or gadget connected to the solar panel is receiving the right amount of
voltage and won’t be over-powered or under-powered as it might get destroyed. A digital multimeter is
an electrical diagnostic tool which measures Volts, amps, resistance, etc. which may be used to test
and measure how much solar energy a solar panel may provide. 33 To use the multimeter, it is first
important to find the positive and negative wires from the solar panels. They’re normally indicated with
signs like in batteries. The positive alligator clip then of the multimeter is clipped to the positive wire of
the solar panel and the negative clip of the multimeter is clipped to the negative wire of the panel. Once
that is done, a reading will be shown on the screen of the multimeter. This reading is the actual amount
of solar energy that comes from the solar panels. Compare the efficiency of the actual output to the
output claimed by the manufacturer of the solar panel. (this is normally seen at the back of the solar
panel).The actual output of the solar panels is not exactly the same as how much the manufactures
claim them to be. This is because of transmission loss which is may have been caused by a few factors
such as the amount of sunlight received by the solar panel. 34

Geothermal Energy
Flushing the system before operations enables to maintain its cleanliness. It can remove debris,
pipe shavings and foreign contaminants that can damage the water flow. Purging the pipes of trapped air
helps the system not to corrode metallic components and block water flow. This lessens the chances of
operation failures. Flow rates are also important because it limits the amount of water to be pushed down

entries http://www.chemie.de/lexikon/e/Ionization_potential/ (accessed November 28, 2010).

30
"ICP-MS Short-course: Part 1." University of Cape Town / Welcome.
http://web.uct.ac.za/depts/geolsci/facilities/icpms/lectures/lec1.html (accessed November
28, 2010).
31
"Plasma Sources." Eindhoven University of Technology - Applied Physics.
http://www.phys.tue.nl/EPG/epghome/polylab/sources.htm (accessed November 28, 2010).
32
"ICP-MS." The Charles Edward Via, Jr. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering.
http://www.cee.vt.edu/ewr/environmental/teach/smprimer/icpms/icpms.htm (accessed
November 28, 2010).
33
"How to Calculate Solar Panel Output | eHow.com." eHow | How To Do Just About
Everything! | How To Videos & Articles. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2010.
<http://www.ehow.com/how_6139397_calculate-solar-panel-output.html>.
34
"How can you test the solar panels performance? | Article Connect." Article Connect - Free
Article Directory. http://www.articleconnect.info/home-family/home-improvement/how-can-
you-test-the-solar-panels-performance/ (accessed November 24, 2010).
to the ground so that the generator would not overheat or cause the turbine to rotate beyond its
capacity.35

35
"Geothermal : Testing.” Geothermal : Home.
http://www.alliantenergygeothermal.com/WorkingWithIt/Operating/000344 (accessed
November 28, 2010).