C3 REVISION NOTES

Chapter 1 – Algebraic Fractions

This will involve simplifying, combining algebraic fractions and polynomial
division.

Simplifying and Combining Algebraic Fractions

• Make sure you factorise any quadratics

• Don’t expand brackets
• When combining you need a common denominator – just combine all the
denominators you already have and compare this with the individual
denominators you began with – whatever is missing from this to your
common denominator, multiply the numerator by this.

Examples:

x+ 2 x+ 1
Simplify: − 2
x − x − 12 x + 5x + 6
2

Step 1: Factorise the quadratics

x +2 x +1
−
(x +3)(x − 4) (x +2)(x +3)

Step 2: Look for a common denominator by combining all the different factors
in the current denominators – this gives a denominator of (x – 4)(x + 2)(x + 3)

Step 3: Sort out the numerators

The x + 2 numerator has (x + 2) missing from the bottom, so multiply (x + 2)
by (x + 2)
The x + 1 numerator has (x – 4) missing from the bottom, so multiply (x + 1)
by (x – 4)
(x + 2)2 −(x +1)(x − 4)
(x − 4)(x + 2)(x + 3)

Step 4: Simplify the numerator and if possible factorise

x2 + 4x + 4 − (x2 − 3x − 4) 7x + 8
=
(x − 4)(x + 2)(x + 3) (x − 4)(x + 2)(x + 3)

Step 5: At this point look for any common factors to cancel that appear in the
numerator AND the denominator – in this case there are none, so this is the
final answer.
 4x3 − 6x2 + 8x − 5 D
Show that can be written in the form Ax2 + Bx+ C +
2x + 1 2x + 1

This requires polynomial division

2x2 -4x +6
2x +1 4x3 -6x2 +8x -5
4x3 +2x2
-8x2 +8x
-8x2 -4x
12x -5
12x +6
-11
So, A = 2, B = -4, C= 6 and D = -11
4x3 − 6x2 + 8x − 5 11
≡ 2x2 − 4x + 6 −
2x + 1 2x + 1

Chapter 2 – Functions

Key Words:
DOMAIN – The values you are allowed to put INTO a function (the x-values)
RANGE – The possible values that can come OUT of a function (the y-values)
MANY TO ONE FUNCTION – A function where 2 or more values of the domain
give the same value in the domain (eg a quadratic function).
ONE TO ONE FUNCTION – A function where one and only one value in the
domain maps on to each member of the range.
INVERSE – This reverses a function. Only One to One functions have inverses.
The domain of an inverse function in the range of the original function and
vice-versa.
COMPOSITE FUNCTION – This is a where one function feeds into other
functions.

Inverses
To find an inverse, first you must make sure that the function is a one-to-one
function. If not, you can alter the domain to make it one-to-one. For example
in the quadratic function y = x2 where x can be any real number, this is not
one-to-one because for example when x = 2 and x = -2, both these give the
same value in the range (4). If we changed the domain by only considering
half of it (for example saying x ≥ 0), this now makes it one-to-one and it can
now possess an inverse.

Example
Find f-1(x) if f(x) = x2 + 10x – 2, x ≥ -5
Step 1: Write as y = x2 + 10x – 2.
Step 2: Make x the subject. If your function is quadratic, use completing the
square.
y = (x + 5)2 – 52 – 2
y = (x + 5)2 – 21 (Range of original function: f(x) ≥ -21)
y + 21 = (x + 5)2
y +21 =x +5
−5 + y +21 =x
Step 3: Change x and y around to give the inverse function:
f-1(x) = − 5 + x + 21 (domain is x ≥ -21, range is f-1(x) ≥ -5)
If you have to draw the inverse, remember it is a reflection of the original
function in the line y = x.
Composite Functions
This is when you combine two or more functions. The output from the first
function becomes the input of the next function and so on. You need to be
able to work out outputs of composite functions and normal numbers and as
functions of x.

If f(x) = 3x + 1 and g(x) = , find (a) gf(2) (b) fg(x)

Start with the INSIDE function and work outside

(a) find f(2) first then feed this answer into the g function.
f(2) = 3(2) + 1 = 7, now g(7) = , so fg(2) = -14/17

(b) Start with the g function. Feed this into the f function – this means replace
each x in the f function with the g function.
fg(x) = 3( )+ 1 = +1

If you see f2(x) this does NOT mean square the f function it means ff(x) (Feed f
back into itself.)

Chapter 3 – Exponentials and Natural Logarithms

y = ex and y = lnx are inverses of
each other.

lnx is the logarithm to the base e of x. The graph of y = ex is asymptotic about

the x-axis and is never negative and intersects the y-axis at 1. The graph of y
= lnx is asymptotic about the y-axis and you cannot have x ≤ 0. It intersects
the x-axis at 1.

Remember from C2, the laws of logarithms as these often crop up with
questions involving lnx.
 loga b = c ⇔ ac = b
loga +log b =log(ab)
a
loga −log b =log 
 b
loga = nloga
n

Examples
The function f is defined by f(x) = ln(5x – 2) (x ∈ℜ, x > 2/5)
(a) Find an expression for f-1(x)
(b) Write down the domain of f-1(x).
(c) Solve, giving your answer to 3 decimal places ln(5x – 2) = 2

(a) Find the inverse: y = ln(5x – 2) We need to make x the subject.

Reverse the ln by taking exponentials of both sides
ey = 5x – 2
ey + 2 = 5x
ey + 2
=x
5
ex + 2
So: f −1 (x) =
5
(b) Domain of f-1(x) is the range of f(x) which means x ∈ℜ (as f(x)∈ℜ )
(c) ln(5x – 2) = 2
e2 + 2
x= = 1.878
5

Trees in a certain location are infected by a disease. The number of unhealthy

trees, N, was observed to change over time t (years) as given by
− t 20
N = 2 0 0− A e
(a) If there are 91 unhealthy trees after 10 years, find the value of A.
(b) How many unhealthy trees were there initially?
(c) What is the limiting value of N as time increases?

(a) N = 91 and t = 10 so we are solving to find A

− 1020
9 1= 2 0 0− A e
−1
Ae 2 = 109
1
A = 1 0 e9 2 = 148.15
(b) Initially means that t = 0
1 1 −t 10− t
A = 109e 2 so N = 200− 109e 2 e 20 = 200 − 109e 20

(You could use 148.15 if you want)

1
When t = 0, N = 200− 109e 2 = 51.85 = 51/52
(c) This means that t is approaching infinity. This means the e part will get
closer and closer to 0, which means N will tend towards 200.

Chapter 4 – Numerical Methods

You will need to determine how many roots an equation does graphically, show
there is a root between two values, find an iteration formula, use this formula
to find the root to a required degree of accuracy and prove it is a root to that
degree of accuracy.

Graphical Method of finding the number of roots – sketch the graphs (there will
be two) and the number of roots will be the same as the number of
intersections.

Example Determine the number of roots to the equation lnx = ex.

Draw the graphs y = lnx and y = ex and you will find they intersect
in one place which means there is only 1 root.

Showing there is a root between two values.

Example Show that the equation lnx = ex has a root between 1.7 and 1.8.
Make sure your equation = 0 so either move the lnx or the ex to the
other side.
Put in your two values and write down the answer you get.
If there is a change of sign, then there is a root between these two
values.
Make sure you write a statement to explain this as this carries a
mark too.

Finding an iteration formula - Usually you are given the iteration formula you
are aiming for.

You will need to rearrange your formula (from above) to make x the subject.
Sometimes there will be different ways to do this – these often lead to iteration
formulas that either work out a different root or lead to a diverging sequence
where you can’t find the root.

Finding the root using the iteration formula

Use your calculator using the starting point you are given. You feed your
previous answer back into your iteration formula to get your next value.
Usually you are told to work out a number of iterations. If not, you need to
keep going till you are sure you have the root to the required accuracy. You
need to write down and use the full calculator display.

Proving the root is accurate to the required accuracy.

Example Prove that 1.247 is a root accurate to 4 significant figures.

The possible answers either side of this are 1.246 and 1.248

1.246 1.247 1.248

1.2465 1.2475
Root has to lie between
These two values if
It is correct to 4 sf.

Put these two values into your original equation (the one you would use to
prove a root exists between two values – in other words NOT the iteration
formula.) Again you are looking for a change of sign and need to follow this up
with a statement.
Chapter 5 – Transformation of Graphs

You have to deal with transformations of y = f(x) – often these will be trig
functions in C3, but not exclusively so.
Remember, when the transformation is OUTSIDE the bracket, it affects the y-
coordinate and does exactly what it appears to do. When it occurs INSIDE the
bracket, it affects the x-coordinate and does the OPPOSITE of what you think.
(It if it looks like a x2, it divides by 2)

y = f(x) + a a is added to the y-coordinate

y = f(x + a) a is subtracted from the x-coordinate
y = af(x) the y-coordinate is multiplied by a
y = f(ax) the x-coordinate is divided by a
y = -f(x) reflection in the x-axis
y = f(-x) reflection in the y-axis

For example the transformation y = 2f(x - 3) means that you add 3 to the x-
coordinate and the y-coordinate is doubled.

y = f(1/3x) + 8 means the x-coordinate is multiplied by 3 and you add 8 to the

y-coordinate.

The Modulus Function – this strips the negative away from whatever it is
around. It only works when the function becomes negative – it has no effect
when it is positive.

y = |f(x)| - when you draw the graph, the portion ABOVE the x-axis is normal.
The part BELOW the x-axis is reflected in the x-axis.
y = f(|x|) – when you draw the graph, the portion to the RIGHT of the y-axis
(the positive x-axis part) is normal. The rest of the graph disappears and the
portion to the right is also reflected in the y-axis.

When solving equations involving the modulus function.

Solve |3x + 2| = 2x
Consider it as two solutions – when the modulus part is not being used, in this
case, solve the equation 3x + 2 = 2x. Then consider when the modulus
function is being used, in this case solve the equation –(3x + 2) = 2x

Solve 4|x3| + 7 = 2
Solve 4x3 + 7 = 2 and -4x3 + 7 = 2

Often it helps to draw the graphs of the two functions that make up the
equation (the left hand side and right hand side of the equation) and you can
see where the solutions should lie.

Chapters 6 and 7 – Trigonometry

This is the largest (and probably most difficult) section of C3. A number of the
trig identities are given in the formula book, others are not. The ones below
marked with ** are NOT in the formula book and you need to either remember
them or remember how to derive them. Often, they are derived fairly simply.

sin2x + cos2x = 1 **
1 + tan2x = sec2x **
1 + cot2x = cosec2x **
sin(A ± B) = sinAcosB ± cosAsinB
cos(A ± B) = cosAcosB  sinAsinB
tanA ± tanB
tan(A ± B) =
1 tanAtanB
sin2A = 2sinAcosA **
cos2 A − sin2 A
cos2A = 2cos2 A −1 **
1 − sin A
2

2tanA
tan2A = **
1 − tan2 A
(The double angle formulas can easily be derived using the compound formulas
from above and sin2x + cos2x = 1 in the case of the last two cos2A formulae)
A 1
cos2 = (1 + cosA) **
2 2
A 1
sin2 = (1 − cosA) **
2 2
(These half angle formulae can be found by changing 2A for A and A for ½ A in
the double angle formula and rearranging)
A+B A−B
sinA + sinB = 2sin cos
2 2
 A+B A−B
sinA − sinB = 2cos sin
2 2
A+B A−B
cosA + cosB = 2cos cos
2 2
A+B A−B
cosA − cosB = −2sin sin
2 2
1 1 1
cosecx = ** secx = ** cot x = **
sinx cos x tanx

Harmonic form formulae:

Solving equations of the type acosθ + bsinθ = Rsin(θ + α)
Expand the right hand side which will be a compound formula.
Equate coefficients of cosθ and sinθ to get two equations involving R and α.
To eliminate R and find α, divide one by the other to get tanα and cancel R.
To eliminate α and find R, square both equations and add. This will give you
cos2α + sin2α which is of course 1. This will leave you with R = a2 + b2

Chapter 8 – Differentiation

You will need to be able to use some derivatives (the ones not given in the
formula book are marked with **) and three different techniques for
differentiating – the chain rule, product rule and quotient rule.
Only the quotient rule is given in the formula book.

Derivatives to use

Function Derivative
sinx cosx **
cosx -sinx **
tankx ksec2x
secx secxtanx
cotx -cosec2x
cosecx -cosecxcotx
1
lnkx
x
ekx kekx

Techniques

CHAIN RULE – this is when an expression is one function of another function.

For example y = sin(x2 + 2x – 1)

Let u = the initial function – in this case x2 + 2x – 1
This means y = sin u (the second function)

Differentiate both expressions and multiply the answers, changing u back to

what it was originally – this gives dy/dx
y = sin(x2 + 2x – 1) u = x2 + 2x – 1 y = sinu
du/dx = 2x + 2 dy/du = cosu
dy/dx = du/dx x dy/du = (2x + 2)cosu =
(2x+2)cos(x2 + 2x – 1)
PRODUCT RULE – this is when you have one function, u multiplied by another
function, v.
Find the derivatives of u and v, u’ and v’ and the formula to use is:
dy/dx = vu’ + uv’

QUOTIENT RULE – this is when you have one function, u, divided by another
function, v.
Find the derivatives of u and v, u’ and v’ and the formula to use is (it is give in
formula book):
dy vu'−uv'
=
dx v2

Remember for turning points, find dy/dx and make it = 0. Find the values of x
and sub these back into the ORIGINAL equation to find the y-part of the
coordinates of the turning points.

For tangents and normals, you need a coordinate (x1 , y1) and a gradient, m.
(dy/dx gives the gradient of a tangent. If you want the normal gradient, it is
the negative of its reciprocal).
Then use the formula y – y1 = m(x – x1)