1

Met-2023: Concepts of Materials Science I

Sample Questions & Answers,(2009)
( Met, PR, FC, MP, CNC, McE )

Q-1.Define the following.

(i) Point Defects (ii) Burgers Vector (iii) Slip and Slip system
(iv) Interplanar spacing (v) Frenkel Defect (vi) Schottky defect

Q-2.Design a heat treatment that will provide 1000 times more vacancies in copper than are
normally present at room temperature. About 20,000 cal/mol are required to produce a
vacancy in copper.The lattice parameter of FCC copper is 0.36151 nm.

Q-3.Determine the number of vacancies needed for a BCC iron lattice to have a
density of 7.87 g/cm . The lattice parameter of the iron is 2.866 x 10-8 cm.
(at. Wt. for Fe- 55.847 g/mol )

Q-4.(a) The planar density of the ( 1 1 2 ) plane in BCC iron is 9.94 x 10 1 4 atoms/cm 2 .
Calculate (i) the planar density of the ( 1 1 0 ) plane and (ii) the interplanar spacings
for both the (112) and (110) planes. On which plane would s l i p normally occur?

(b) Calculate the length of the Burgers vector in the following materials:
(i) BCC niobium ( a0 – 3.294 Aº )
(ii) FCC silver ( a0 – 4.0862 Aº )
(iii) FCC copper ( a0 – 3.6151 Aº )

Q-5.(a) Define Schmid's law.

(b) An aluminum crystal slips on the (111) plane and in the [110] direction with a 3.5
MPa stress applied in the [ 1 1 1 ] direction. What is the critical resolved shear stress?

Q-6.(a) Calculate the number of vacancies per cm3 expected in copper at 1085°C (just
below the melting temperature). The energy for vacancy formation is 20,000 cal/mol.
( a0 –for Cu - 3.6151 Aº )

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(b) The fraction of lattice points occupied by vacancies in solid aluminum at 660c C is
10-3. What is the energy required to create vacancies in aluminum ?

Q-7. The density of a sample of FCC palladium is 11.98 g/cm3 and its lattice parameter
is 3.8902 A . Atomic mass of Pd is 106.4 g/mol. Calculate
(a) the fraction of the lattice points that contain vacancies and
(b) the total number of vacancies in a cubic centimeter of Pd.

Q-8.(a) Define the rate of Diffusion of “ Fick's First Law”.

(b) Atoms are found to move from one lattice position to another at the rate of 5
x 1 O 5 jumps per second at 400 c C when the activation energy for their movement is
30,000 cal/mol. Calculate the jump rate at 750°C.

Q-9.(a) Define (ii) diffusion and (ii) diffusion coefficient.

(b) Consider a diffusion couple set up between pure tungsten and a tungsten-1 at %
thorium alloy. After several minutes of exposure at 2000° C, a transition zone of 0.01 cm
thickness is established. What is the flux of thorium atoms at this time if diffusion is
due to (a) volume diffusion, (b) grain boundary diffusion, and (c) surface diffusion?
The lattice parameter of BCC tungsten is 3.165A°.
Diffusion Coefficient for Thorium in Tungsten

Surface 0.47 exp(-66,400/RT)

Grain boundary 0.74 exp(-90,000/RT)
Volume 1.00exp(-120,000/RT)

Q-10.(a) Define “ Activation energy”.

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(b) The diffusion coefficient for Cr in Cr 2 O 3 is 6 x 10 cm2 /s at 727°C and is 1x10 – 9
cm2 /s at 1400°C. Calculate
(i) the activation energy and ( ii ) the constant Do.

Q-11.The surface of a 0.1% C steel is to be strengthened by carburizing. In carburizing, the steel

is placed in an atmosphere that provides 1.2% C at the surface of the steel at a high
temperature. Carbon then diffuses from the surface into the steel. For optimum properties, the
steel must contain 0.45% C at a depth of 0.2 cm below the surface. Design a carburizing heat
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treatment that will produce these optimum properties. Assume that the temperature is high enough
(at least 900°C) so that the iron has the FCC structure.

Q-12.(a) Define “ Fick's Second Law”.

(b) We find that 10 h are required to successfully carburize a batch of 500 steel gears at
900°C, where the iron has the FCC structure. We find that it costs $ 1000 per hour to operate
the carburizing furnace at 900°C and $ 1500 per hour to operate the furnace at 1000° C. Is it
economical to increase the carburizing temperature to 1000°C?

Q-13.A 0.001 in. BCC iron foil is used to separate a high hydrogen gas from a low
hydrogen gas at 650°C. 5 x 108 H atoms/ cm3 are in equilibrium with the hot side of the
foil, and 2 x 103 H atoms/cm3 are in equilibrium with the cold side. Determine
(a) the concentration gradient of hydrogen and
(b) the flux of hydrogen through the foil.

Q-14.What temperature is required to obtain 0.50% C at a distance of 0.5 mm beneath

the surface of a 0.20% C steel in 2 h, when 1.10% C is present at the surface? Assume
that the iron is FCC.

Q-15.A 0.15% C steel is to be carburized at 1100°C, giving 0.35% C at a distance of

1mm beneath the surface. If the surface composition is maintained at 0.90% C, what
time is required?

Q-16.A 0.02% C steel is to be carburized at 1200°C in 4 h, with a point 0.6 mm beneath

the surface reaching 0.45% C. Calculate the carbon content required at the surface of the
steel.

Q-17.A 1.2% C tool steel held at 1150°C is exposed to oxygen for 48 h. The carbon
content at the steel surface is zero. To what depth will the steel be decarburized to
less than 0.20% C?

Q-18.A BCC steel containing 0.001% N is nitrided at 550°C for 5 h. If the nitrogen content
at the steel surface is 0.08%, determine the nitrogen content at 0.25 mm from the surface.

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Q-19.Define the following.

(i) % Elongation (ii) Endurance limit (iii) Endurance Ratio
(iv) Fatigue life (v) Elastic deformation

Q-20.(a) Define Engineering Stress, True stress and Engineering Strain, True Strain.
(b) A force of 100,000 N is applied to a 10 mm x 20 mm iron bar having a yield
strength of 400 MPa and a tensile strength of 480 MPa. Determine
(i) whether the bar will plastically deform and
(ii) whether the bar will experience necking.

Q-21.An aluminum alloy that has a plane strain fracture toughness of 25,000 psi-√in .fails
when a stress of 42,000 psi is applied. Observation of the fracture surface indicates that
fracture began at the surface of the part. Estimate the size of the flaw that initiated
fracture. Assume that f = 1 . 1 .

Q-22.Define Hooke's law and Poisson's ratio.

Q-23.A 0.4-in. diameter, 12-in. long titanium bar has a yield strength of 50,000 psi,
a modulus of elasticity of 16 x 106 psi, and Poisson's ratio of 0.30. Determine the length
and diameter of the bar when a 500-Ib load is applied.

Q-24.A 3-in.diameter rod of copper is to be reduced to a 2-in. diameter rod by being

pushed through an opening. To account for the elastic strain, what should be the
diameter of the opening? The modulus of elasticity for the copper is 17 x 106 psi and the
yield strength is 40,000 psi.

Q-25.Which factors does depend on the ability of a material to resist the growth of a
crack?

Q-26.Define the following.

(i) Tensile strength (ii) Yield strength (iii) Ductility

Q-27.A ceramic part for a jet engine has a yield strength of 75,000 psi and a plane strain
fracture toughness of 5,000 psi - √in. . To be sure that the part does not fail, we plan to
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assure that the maximum applied stress is only one-third the yield strength. We use a
nondestructive test that will detect any internal flaws greater than 0.05 in. long.
Assuming that f = 1.4, does our nondestructive test have the required sensitivity?
Explain.

Q-28.A large steel plate used in a nuclear reactor has a plane strain fracture toughness of 80,000
psi- √in and is exposed to a stress of 45,000 psi during service. Design a testing or
inspection procedure capable of detecting a crack at the surface of the plate before the crack
is likely to grow at a catastrophic rate.

Q-29.A 850-lb force is applied to a 0.15-in. diameter nickel wire having a yield strength of
45,000 psi and a tensile strength of 55,000 psi. Determine
(a) whether the wire will plastically deform and
(b) whether the wire will experience necking.

Q-30.A solid shaft for a cement kiln produced from the tool steel must be 96 inches long and
must survive continuous operation for one year with an applied load of 12,500 lb. The shaft
makes one revolution per minute during operation. Design a shaft that will satisfy these
requirements.

NOTES;(1) For question no. 11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18, need to provide error function

Table 2-3 and Diffusion Coefficient Table 2-1
(2) For question no. 30, need to provide Figure 3-13. The stress-number of
cycles to failure (S-N) curves for a tool steel and an aluminum alloy.

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Met-02023 Concepts of Materials Science I

Sample Questions and Answers, (2009)

Q-1.Define the following.

(i) Point Defects (ii) Burgers Vector (iii) Slip and Slip system
(iv) Interplanar spacing (v) Frenkel Defect (vi) Schottky defect

(i) Point Defects

Point defects are localized disruptions of the lattice involving one or, possibly,
several atoms. These imperfections, shown in Figure, may be introduced by
movement of the atoms when they gain energy by heating, during processing of the
material, by introduction of impurities, or intentionally through alloying.
Point defects are (1) vacancy, (2) interstitial atom, (3) substitutional atom, (4) Frenkel
defect, and (5) Schottky defect. All of these defects disrupt the perfect arrangement of the
surrounding atoms.
(ii) Burgers vector ( b )
The direction and the distance that a dislocation moves in each step.
The length of Burgers vector (b) is equal to the repeat distance.

(iii) Slip and slip system

The process by which a dislocation moves and causes a material to deform is
called slip.
The direction, in which the dislocation moves is the s l i p direction and the plane in
which the dislocation moves is the s l i p plane.
The combination of slip direction and slip plane is the slip system.

(iv) Interplanar spacing

The distance between the two adjacent planes of atoms with the same Miller indices is
called the interplanar spacing d(hkl) and the general equation ,
a0
d (h k l ) =
h2 + k 2 + l 2
where, a0 = the lattice parameter or lattice constant
h,k,l = Miller indices of adjacent planes of atoms

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(v) Frenkel Defects

A Frenkel defect is a vacancy-interstitial pair formed when an ion jumps from a normal
lattice point to an interstitial site, leaving behind a vacancy.

(vi) Schottky Defects

A Schottky defect is a pair of vacancies in an ionically bonded material; both an
anion and a cation must be missing from the lattice if electrical neutrality is to be
preserved in the crystal. These are common in ceramic materials with the ionic bond.

Q-2. Design a heat treatment that will provide 1000 times more vacancies in copper than are
normally present at room temperature. About 20,000 cal/mol are required to produce a
vacancy in copper. The lattice parameter of FCC copper is 0.36151 nm.
Solution
The lattice parameter of FCC copper is 0.36151 nm.
The number of copper atoms, per cm3 is
4 atoms / cell
= 8.47 x1022 copper atoms/cm3
( 3.6151 x 10−8 cm)3
At room temperature, T = 25 + 273 = 298 K:

n v = (8.47 x 1022) exp [(- 20,000)/ (1.987) (298)]

= 1.815 x 108 vacancies/cm3
We wish to produce 1000 times this number, or nv= 1.815 x 1011 vacancies/cm3.
We could do this by heating the copper to a temperature at which this number of
vacancies forms:
nv = 1 . 8 1 5 x 1011 = (8.47x 1022) exp (-20,000/1.987T)
exp (- 20,000/1.987T ) = 1.85x10 11 /(8.47x 1022) = 0.214x10 -11
T = 20,000 / (1.987)(26.87) = 375 °K = 102 °C

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By heating the copper slightly above 100°C, then rapidly cooling the copper back to
room temperature, the number of vacancies in the structure may be one thousand times
greater than the equilibrium number of vacancies.

Q-3. Determine the number of vacancies needed for a BCC iron lattice to have a
density of 7.87 g/cm . The lattice parameter of the iron is 2.866 x 10-8 cm.
(at. wt. for Fe = 55.847 g/mol )
Solution
Theoretical density of iron can be calculated from the lattice parameter and the atomic
mass.
Since the iron is BCC, two iron atoms are present in each unit cell.
theoretical density of iron ;
2 atoms / unit cell x 55.847 g / mole
density = -8 3 23
= 7.8814 g / cm3
(2.866x10 cm ) x (6.02x10 atoms/ mol)
Let's calculate the number of iron atoms and vacancies that would be present in
each unit cell for the required density of 7.87 g/cm3.

(atoms / unit cell ) x (55.847 g / mole)

density = = 7.8814 g / cm3
(2.866x10-8 cm )3 x (6.02x1023 atoms/ mol)

7.8814 g / cm3 x (55.847 g / mole)

atoms / unit cell = = 1.997 atoms
(2.866x10-8 cm )3 x (6.02x1023 atoms/ mol)

no. of vacancies per unit cell = 2 – 1.9971 = 0.0029

Or, there should be 0.0029 vacancies per unit cell.
The number of vacancies per cm3 is
Vacancies/cm 3 = 0.0029 vacancies per unit cell / (2.866xl0 -8cm)3
= 1.23x10 20 vacancies/cm 3

Q-4.(a)The planar density of the ( 1 1 2 ) plane in BCC iron is 9.94 x 10 1 4 atoms/cm 2 .

Calculate (i) the planar density of the ( 1 1 0 ) plane and (ii) the interplanar spacings
for both the (112) and (110) planes. On which plane would s l i p normally occur?

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(a)

(b) Calculate the length of the Burgers vector in the following materials:
(i) BCC niobium ( a0 – 3.294 Aº )
(ii) FCC silver ( a0 – 4.0862 Aº )
(iii) FCC copper ( a0 – 3.6151 Aº )

(i) For BCC niobium , a0 = 3.294 Aº

The directions of the Burgers vector, are in [l 1 1 ] f o r B C C m e t a l
The repeat distance is along the [l l 1 ] directions and is equal to one-half of the body
diagonal, since lattice points are located at corners and centers of body.
Body diagonal distance = 3 a = 3 x (0.3294 nm ) = 0.5705 nm
The length of the Burgers vector, or the repeat distance, is:
1
b= x ( 0.5705 nm ) = 0.2852 nm
2

(ii) For FCC silver, a 0 = 4.0862 Aº

The directions of the Burgers vector, are in [l 1 0 ] f o r F C C m e t a l

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The repeat distance is along the [l l 0 ] directions and is equal to one-half of the face
diagonal, since lattice points are located at corners and center of the face.
Face diagonal distance = 2 a = 2 x (0.40862 nm ) = 0.5778 nm
The length of the Burgers vector, or the repeat distance, is:
1
b= x ( 0.5778 nm ) = 0.2889 nm
2

(iii) Copper is FCC , a 0 = 0.36151 nm

The directions of the Burgers vector, are of the form(l 1 0 ) .
The repeat distance along the ( l l 0 ) directions is one-half the face diagonal, since
lattice points are located at corners and centers of faces.
Face diagonal distance = 2 a = ( 2) x (0.36151) = 0.51125 nm
The length of the Burgers vector, or the repeat distance, is:
1
b= x ( 0.51125 nm) = 0.25563 nm
2

Q-5.(a) Define Schmid's law.

Schmid's law
The relationship between shear stress, the applied stress, and the orientation
of the slip system and the resolved shear stress ι in the slip direction is
F
τ= Cosφ Cosλ , τ = σ Cosφ Cosλ
A
where , τ = the resolved shear stress in the slip direction
σ = the applied stress
φ = the angle between the direction of the force and the normal to the slip plane,
λ = the angle between the direction of force and the slip direction.

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Q-5.(b) An aluminum crystal slips on the (111) plane and in the [110] direction with a 3.5
MPa stress applied in the [ 1 1 1 ] direction. What is the critical resolved shear stress?

[111] applied stress direction and

normal to slip plane
(111) slip plane

[110] slip direction

Solution
Aluminum crystal
slips plane - (111) plane
slip direction - [110] direction
stress applied σ - 3.5 MPa
applied stress direction - [ 1 1 1 ] direction.
the critical resolved shear stress ι = ?

τ = σ Cosφ Cosλ

From the Fig:

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the applied stress direction and the direction of the normal to the slip plane are
the same,
the angle φ = 0 , Cos 0 = 1

2a 2
Cos λ = = = 0.8165
3a 3

2
τ = 3.5 x 1 x = 2.875 MPa
3
the critical resolved shear stress, τ = 2.875 MPa

Q-6.(a) Calculate the number of vacancies per cm3 expected in copper at 1085°C (just
below the melting temperature). The energy for vacancy formation is 20,000 cal/mol.
( a0 = for Cu - 3.6151 Aº )
Solution
(a) copper metal, FCC structure, 4 atoms/ unit cell ,
a0 = 3.6151 A°, = 3.6151 x 10−8 cm, Q = 20, 000 cal / mol , R = 1.987 cal / mol.D K

T = 1085 DC + 273 = 1358 D K , nv = ?

−Q
nv = n x exp
RT
no.of atom per unit cell
n=
volume of unit cell

4 atom per unit cell 4

n= = = 1.106 x 1024 atom / cm3
( a0 ) 3
( 3.6151x 10−8 cm)3

−Q − 20, 000
nv = n x exp ( ) = 1.106 x1024 x exp ( )
RT 1.987 x1358
= 5.12 x 1019 vacancies / cm3

Q-6.(b) The fraction of lattice points occupied by vacancies in solid aluminum at

660 c C is 10-3 .What is the energy required to create vacancies in aluminum ?
Solution
Aluminium metal is FCC structure, 4 atoms/ unit cell ,
nv
T = 660D C + 273 = 933 D K , = 10−3 , Q = ?
n
−Q
nv = n x exp
RT
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nv −Q
= exp
n RT
−Q
10−3 = exp ( )
1.987 x 933
Q = 12800 cal / mol

Q-7. The density of a sample of FCC palladium is 11.98 g/cm3 and its lattice parameter
is 3.8902 A . Atomic mass of Pd is 106.4 g/mol. Calculate
(a) the fraction of the lattice points that contain vacancies and
(b) the total number of vacancies in a cubic centimeter of Pd.
Solution
FCC Pd – density = 11.98 g/cm3 , 4 atoms/ unit cell
At. wt. of Pd - 106.4 g/mol
a0 = 3.8902 A = 3.8902 x 10−8 cm
nv n
(a ) = ?, (b) v 3 = ?
n cm
mass of unit cell
theoretical density =
volume of unit cell
4 atoms per unit cell x 106.4 g / mol
ρ= −8 3 23
= 12.0085 g / cm3
(3.8902 x10 cm) x (6.02 x10 atom / mol )

For theoretical density 12.0085 g/cm3, 4 atoms/ unit cell

For the given density 11.98 g/cm3, ? atoms/ unit cell
For the given density 11.98 g/cm3, 3.9905 atoms/ unit cell
no. of vacancies per unit cell (nv ) = 4 – 3.9905 = 0.0095
nv = 0.0095
n = no. of atom per unit cell = 4
nv 0.0095
(a) = = 2.375 x10−3
n 4
nv no.of vacancies per unit cell 2.375 x 10−3
(b) = = = 1.6 x1020 vacancies / cm3
cm3 volume of unit cell (3.8902 x 10−8 cm)3

Q-8.(a) Define the rate of Diffusion of “ Fick's First Law”.

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The rate at which atoms diffuse in a material can be measured by the flux J, which is
defined as the number of atoms passing through a plane of unit area per unit time.
Fick's first law explains the net flux of atoms:
+c
J = − D.
+x
where, J is the flux (atoms/cm2.s),
D is the diffusivity or diffusion coefficient (cm2/s), and
Δc/Δx is the concentration gradient (atoms/cm3.cm).

Q-8.(b) Atoms are found to move from one lattice position to another at the rate of
5 x 1 0 5 jumps per second at 400 c C when the activation energy for their movement is
30,000 cal/mol. Calculate the jump rate at 750°C.
Solution
the rate of diffusion = 5 x 1 0 5 jumps per second at 400 c C
the activation energy Q = 30,000 cal/mol.
the jump rate at 750°C = ?
T1 = 4000D C + 273 = 673 D K

T2 = 750D C + 273 = 1023 D K

−Q
By the equation , Rate of diffusion = c0 .exp ( )
RT
−Q
5 x 105 = c0 exp ( ) ----- eq. (1)
RT1
−Q
x = c0 exp ( ) ----- eq. (2)
RT2
eq. (2) ÷ eq.(1)
−Q −Q
x = c0 exp ( ) / 5 x 105 = c0 exp ( )
RT2 RT1
−30, 000 −30, 000
x = c0 exp ( ) / 5 x 105 = c0 exp ( )
1.987 x 673 1.987 x 1023

x = 1.08 x 109 jump / sec

Q-9.(a) Define (i) diffusion (ii) diffusion coefficient.

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(a) (i) Diffusion

Diffusion is the movement of atoms within a material. The rate of diffusion is
governed by the Arrhenius relationship — that is, the rate increases exponentially with
temperature.
−Q
Rate of diffusion = c0 exp ( )
RT1
where, Q is the activation energy (cal/mol)
R is the gas constant (1.987 cal/mol.K)
T is the absolute temperature in (K)
Co is a constant for a given diffusion system

(ii) Diffusion coefficient (D)

The diffusion coefficient D is related to temperature by an Arrhenius equation.
The diffusion coefficient depends on temperature and activation energy.
−Q
D = D0 exp ( )
RT
where, D is the diffusion coefficient ( cm2/ s )
Q is the activation energy (cal/mol)
R is the gas constant (1.987 cal/mol.K)
T is the absolute temperature in (K)
Do is a constant for a given diffusion system

Q-9.(b) Consider a diffusion couple set up between pure tungsten and a tungsten-1 at %
thorium alloy. After several minutes of exposure at 2000° C, a transition zone of 0.01 cm
thickness is established. What is the flux of thorium atoms at this time if diffusion is
due to (a) volume diffusion, (b) grain boundary diffusion, and (c) surface diffusion?
The lattice parameter of BCC tungsten is 3.165A°.
Diffusion Coefficient for Thorium in Tungsten

Surface 0.47 exp(-66,400/RT)

Grain boundary 0.74 exp(-90,000/RT)
Volume 1.00exp(-120,000/RT)

Solution

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The lattice parameter of BCC tungsten is 3.165A°.

the number of tungsten atoms/cm3 is:
no. of W atoms per unit cell / vol. of unit cell
= 2 atom per cell / (a0 )3 = 2 / (3.165 x 10 -8 cm )3
= 6.3 x 1022 W atoms/cm3
In the tungsten -1 atom % thorium alloy, the number of thorium atoms is:
CTh = ( 0.01 ) ( 6.3 x 1022) = 6.3 x 1020 Th atoms/cm3
In the pure tungsten, the number of thorium atoms is zero. Thus, the
concentration gradient is:
ΔC / Δx = 0 - 6.3 x 1020 / 0.01 cm = - 6.3 x 1022 Tho atom / cm3.cm
T = 2000 C + 273 K = 2273 K
(a) for volume diffusion, D = 1.00exp(-120,000/RT) cm2/ s
J = - D.Δc/Δx
= - 1.00exp(-120,000/1.987 x2273 ) x (- 6.3 x 1022 )
= 1.82 x 1010 Th atoms/cm2 .s
(b) for grain boundary , D = 0.74 exp(-90,000/RT) cm2/ s
J = - D.Δc/Δx
= - 0.74 exp(-90,000/1.987 x2273 ) x (- 6.3 x 1022 )
= 10.3 x 1013 Th atoms/cm2 .s
(c) for surface diffusion , D = 0.47 exp(-66,400/RT) cm2/ s
J = - D.Δc/Δx
= - 0.47 exp(-66,400/1.987 x2273 ) x (- 6.3 x 1022 )
= 12.2 x 1015 Th atoms/cm2 .s

Q-10.(a) Define “ Activation energy”.

Activation Energy (Q)
The atom is originally in a low-energy, relatively stable state. In order to move to a new
location, the atom must overcome an energy barrier. This energy barrier is the activation
energy Q. This energy is gained by heat supply.
In diffusion, the activation energy is related to the energy required to move an
atom from one lattice site to another.
The activation energy Q is expressed in (cal/mol).

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-15
Q-10.(b) The diffusion coefficient for Cr in Cr2 O 3 is 6 x 10 cm2 /s at 727°C and is
1x10– 9 cm2 /s at 1400°C. Calculate (i) the activation energy and ( ii ) the constant Do.

Solution
The diffusion coefficient for Cr in Cr2 O 3
-15
D = 6 x 10 cm2 /s at T1 = 727°C + 273 K = 1000 K
D = 1 x10– 9 cm2 /s at T2 = 1400°C + 273 K = 1673 K
(i) the activation energy Q = ? ( ii ) the constant Do. = ?
−Q
D = D0 exp ( )
RT
−Q
6 x 10−15 = D0 exp ( ) ----- eq. (1)
RT1
−Q
1 x 10−9 = D0 exp ( ) ----- eq. (2)
RT2
eq. (1) ÷ eq.(2)
−Q −Q
6 x 10−15 = D0 exp ( ) /1 x 10−9 = D0 exp ( )
RT1 RT2
−Q −Q
6 x 10−15 = D0 exp ( ) / 1 x 10−9 = D0 exp ( )
1.987 x 1000 1.987 x 1673
Q = 59230 cal / mol

−Q
(ii) 1 x 10−9 = D0 exp ( )
RT2

−59230
1 x 10−9 = D0 exp ( )
1.987 x 1673

D0 = 0.055 cm 2 / sec

Q-11.The surface of a 0.1% C steel is to be strengthened by carburizing. In carburizing, the steel is

placed in an atmosphere that provides 1.2% C at the surface of the steel at a high temperature.
Carbon then diffuses from the surface into the steel. For optimum properties, the steel must
contain 0.45% C at a depth of 0.2 cm below the surface. Design a carburizing heat treatment that
will produce these optimum properties. Assume that the temperature is high enough (at least
900°C) so that the iron has the FCC structure.

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Solution
Cs = 1.2 % C , Cx = 0.45% C , C0 = 0.1% C , x = 0.2 cm
Given:
t = ? ,T = ?
By Fick's second law ,
Cs − C x x
= erf [ ]
C s − C0 2 Dt
1.2 − 0.45 0.2
= 0.68 = erf [ ]
1.2 − 0.1 2 Dt
From Table 2-3 , we find that,
0.2 0.1
= 0.71 or = 0.71
2 Dt Dt
0.1 2
D.t = ( ) = 0.0198
0.71
Any combination of D and t whose product is 0.0198 will work.
For carbon diffusing in FCC iron, the diffusion coefficient is related to temperature by:
−Q
D = D0 exp ( )
RT
From the table 2-1, D0 = 0.23 , Q = 32,900 cal/mol
− 32900
D = 0.23 exp ( )
1.987 T
Therefore, the temperature and time of the heat treatment are related by:
0.0198
t=
D
0.0198
t=
0.23exp ( −16558 / T )

Some typical combinations of temperatures and times are:

If T = 900°C = 1173 K, then, t = 1 16,174 s = 32.3 hr
If T= 1000°C = 1273 K, then, t = 36,360 s = 10.7 hr
If T = 1100°C = 1373 K, then, t = 14,880 s = 4.13 hr
If T = 1200°C = 1473K, then, t = 6,560 s = 1.82 hr

Q-12.(a) Define “ Fick's Second Law”.

Composition Profile (Fick's Second Law)

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Fick's second law describes the dynamic or non-steady state diffusion of atoms
by the differential equation dc/dt = D (d c/dx2), whose solution depends on the
boundary conditions for a particular situation. One solution is
Cs − C x x
= erf [ ]
C s − C0 2 Dt
where,
Cs - concentration of the diffusing atoms at the surface of the material
Cx - the concentration of the diffusing atom at location x below the surface after time t.
C0 - the initial uniform concentration of the diffusing atoms in the material
t - the diffusion time in (s)
x – the depth from the surface of the material ( cm )
D - the diffusion coefficient

Q-12.(b) We find that 10 h are required to successfully carburize a batch of 500 steel gears at
900°C, where the iron has the FCC structure. We find that it costs $ 1000 per hour to operate
the carburizing furnace at 900°C and $ 1500 per hour to operate the furnace at 1000° C. Is it
economical to increase the carburizing temperature to 1000°C ?
Solution
T = 900°C + 273 K = 1 173 K , t1173 = 10 hour
T = 1000°C = 273 K = 1273 K. , t 1273 = ?
For carbon diffusing in FCC iron, from Table,
the activation energy Q = 32,900 cal/mol. for the same carburizing treatment at
1000°C as at 900°C:
D1273 .t 1273 = D1173 .t1173
.t 1273 = D1173 .t1173 / D1273
(10h) exp(−32,900) /(1.987).(1173)
t1273 =
exp(−32,900) /(1.987).(1273)
t1273 = 3.299 hour

At 900°C, the cost per part is ($ 1000/h) (10h)/500 parts = $ 20/part

At l000°C, the cost per part is ($1500/h) (3.299h)/500 parts=$ 9.90/part
Considering only the cost of operating the furnace, increasing the temperature reduces
the heat-treating cost of the gears and increases the production rate.

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Q-13. A 0.001 in. BCC iron foil is used to separate a high hydrogen gas from a low
hydrogen gas at 650°C. 5 x 108 H atoms/ cm3 are in equilibrium with the hot side of the
foil, and 2 x 103 H atoms/cm3 are in equilibrium with the cold side. Determine
(i)the concentration gradient of hydrogen and
(ii)the flux of hydrogen through the foil.
Solution
In BCC iron foil, the flux of hydrogen through the foil, from hot side to cold side.
at 650°C., T = 650 + 273 = 923 K
Cinitial = 5 x 108 H atoms/ cm3
Cfinal = 2 x 103 H atoms/cm3
thickness - Δx = 0.001 in. = 0.001 in x 2.54 cm
(i) the concentration gradient (Δc/Δx) = ?
(ii) the flux of hydrogen through the foil = ?
2 x103 − 5 x108
(i) the concentration gradient (Δc/Δx) =
(0.001) x(2.54)
= - 1969x10 8 H atoms/ cm3
(ii) the flux of hydrogen through the foil , J = - D.Δc/Δx
−Q
D = D0 exp ( )
RT
From Table 2-1, H in BCC iron, D 0= 0.0012 , Q = 3600
D = 0.0012 exp( −36,00 / 1.987.923) =

J = - D.Δc/Δx
= - 0.0012 exp( −36,00 / 1.987.923) x (- 1969x108 )
= 0.33 x108 H atoms/ cm2.s

Q-14. What temperature is required to obtain 0.50% C at a distance of 0.5 mm beneath the
surface of a 0.20% C steel in 2 h, when 1.10% C is present at the surface? Assume
that the iron is FCC.
Solution
Cs = 1.1% C , Cx = 0.5% C , C0 = 0.2 % C , x = 0.5 mm = 0.05 cm
Given:
t = 2 hr x 3600 = 7200sec , T = ?

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By Fick's second law

Cs − C x x
= erf [ ]
C s − C0 2 Dt
1.1 − 0.5 0.05
= 0.667 = erf [ ]
1.1 − 0.2 2 Dt
From Table 2-3 , we find that,
0.05
= 0.685
2 Dt
0.05
D.t = ( x 0.685) 2 = 0.00133
2
−Q
D = D0 exp ( )
RT
From the table 2-1, C in FCC iron, D0 = 0.23 , Q = 32,900 cal/mol
D = 0.23 exp( −32,900 / 1.987.T )
D.t = 0.00133 , D = 0.00133/ t , D = 0.00133/ 7200
D = 0.23 exp( −32,900 / 1.987.T ) and D = 0.00133/ 7200
0.00133/ 7200 = 0.23 exp( −32,900 / 1.987.T )
T = 1180 K = 1180 – 273 = 907 C

Q-15. A 0.15% C steel is to be carburized at 1100°C, giving 0.35% C at a distance of

1mm beneath the surface. If the surface composition is maintained at 0.90% C, what
time is required?
Solution
Cs = 0.9 % C , Cx = 0.35% C , C0 = 0.15% C , x = 1 mm = 0.1 cm
Given;
T = 1100 DC + 273 = 1373 D K , time(t ) = ?
By Fick's second law
Cs − C x x
= erf [ ]
C s − C0 2 Dt
0.9 − 0.35 0 .1
= 0.733 = erf [ ]
0.9 − 0.15 2 Dt
From Table 2-3 , we find that,
0.1
= 0.786
2 Dt

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D.t = [ 0.1/2 x 0.786 ]2 = 0.00405

−Q
D = D0 exp ( )
RT
From the table 2-1, C in FCC iron, D0 = 0.23 , Q = 32,900 cal/mol
D = 0.23exp(-32,900 /1.987.1373) = 1.332 x 10-6 cm 2 / s
D.t = 0.00405 ,
t = 0.00405 / D = 0.00405 / 1.332 x 10-6 = 3040 s
time ( t ) = 3040 sec = 51 min

Q-16. A 0.02% C steel is to be carburized at 1200°C in 4 h, with a point 0.6 mm beneath

the surface reaching 0.45% C. Calculate the carbon content required at the surface of the
steel.
Solution
Cs = ?, Cx = 0.45% C , C0 = 0.02 % C , x = 0.6 mm = 0.06 cm
Given;
T = 1200 DC + 273 = 1473 D K , time(t ) = 4 hr = 4 x3600 = 4400sec
By Fick's second law
Cs − C x x
= erf [ ]
C s − C0 2 Dt
Cs − 0.45 0.06
= erf [ ]
Cs − 0.02 2 Dt
0.06
erf [ ] = ?
2 Dt
−Q
D = D0 exp ( )
RT
From the table 2-1, C in FCC iron, D0 = 0.23 , Q = 32,900 cal/mol
D = 0.23 exp( −32,900 / 1.987.1473) = 3.019 x 10-6 cm2 /s
0.06
erf [ ] = erf [0.144]
2 3.019 x10−6 x.4.x3600.
From Table 2-3 , we find that,
x x
= 0.144 , erf [ ] = 0.161
2 Dt 2 Dt
Cs − 0.45
= 0.161
Cs − 0.02
Cs = 0.53 C %

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Q-17. A 1.2% C tool steel held at 1150°C is exposed to oxygen for 48 h. The carbon
content at the steel surface is zero. To what depth will the steel be decarburized to
less than 0.20% C ?
Solution
Cs = 0.% C , Cx = 0.2 % C , C0 = 1.2 % C , x( cm) = ?
Given;
T =1150 DC + 273 = 1423 D K , time(t ) = 4 hr = 4 x3600sec = 4400sec
By Fick's second law
Cs − C x x
= erf [ ]
C s − C0 2 Dt
0 − 0. 2 x
= 0.1667 = erf [ ]
0 − 1 .2 2 Dt
x
erf [ ] = 0.1667 , From Table 2-3 , we find that,
2 Dt
x
= 0.149 ,
2 Dt
−Q
D = D0 exp ( )
RT
From the table 2-1, C in FCC iron, D0 = 0.23 , Q = 32,900 cal/mol
D = 0.23 exp( −32,900 / 1.987.1423) = 2.034 x 10-6 cm2 /s

D.t = 2.034 x10−6 x.48.x.3600 = 0.5929 ,

x x
= 0.149 , = 0.149 , x = 0.177 cm
2 Dt 2 x0.5929

Q-18. A BCC steel containing 0.001% N is nitrided at 550°C for 5 h. If the nitrogen content
at the steel surface is 0.08%, determine the nitrogen content at 0.25 mm from the surface.
Solution
Cs = 0.08 N % , Cx = ? N % , C0 = 0.001N % , x = 0.25 mm = 0.25 cm
Given;
T = 550 DC + 273 = 823 D K , time(t ) = 5 hr = 5 x3600sec = 8000sec

By Fick's second law

Cs − C x x
= erf [ ]
C s − C0 2 Dt

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0.08 − C x x
= erf [ ]
0.08 − 0.001 2 Dt
−Q
D = D0 exp ( )
RT
From the table 2-1, N in BCC iron, D0 = 0.0047 , Q = 18,300 cal/mol
D = 0.0047 exp( −18,300 / 1.987.x.823) = 6.488 x 10-8 cm2 /s

D .t = 6.488.x.10−8.x.5.x.3600 = 0.0342 ,
x 0.025
erf [ ] = erf [ ]
2 Dt 2 x0.0342
x x
= 0.3655 , erf [ ] = 0.394
2 Dt 2 Dt
0.08 − C x x
= erf [ ] = 0.394
0.08 − 0.001 2 Dt
Cx = 0.049 N%

Q-19. Define the following.

(i) % Elongation (ii) Endurance limit (iii) Endurance Ratio
(iv) Fatigue life (v) Elastic deformation

(i) % Elongation - The total percentage increases in the length of a specimen during
a tensile test.
l f − l0
% Elongation = x 100 %
l0
where l f – final length of the specimen
l0 – initial length of the specimen

(ii) Endurance limit - The stress below which a material w i l l not fail in a fatigue test.

(iii) Endurance Ratio - The endurance l i m i t divided by the tensile strength of the
material. The ratio is about 0.5 for many ferrous metals.
Endurance lim it
Endurance ratio = ≅ 0.5
trnsile strength
The endurance ratio allows us to estimate fatigue properties from the tensile test.

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(iv) Fatigue life - The number of cycles permitted at a particular stress before a material
fails by fatigue. Fatigue life tells us how long a component survives at a particular stress.

(v) Elastic deformation - Deformation of the material that is recovered when the applied
load is removed.

Q-20. (a) Define Engineering Stress, True stress and Engineering Strain, True Strain.
(b) A force of 100,000 N is applied to a 10 mm x 20 mm iron bar having a yield
strength of 400 MPa and a tensile strength of 480 MPa. Determine
(i) whether the bar will plastically deform and
(ii) whether the bar will experience necking.

Solution
(a) Engineering Stress - The applied load, or force, divided by the original cross
sectional area of the material.
force F
Engineering stress = =σ =
initial.cross sec tional.area A0
True stress - The load divided by the actual cross-sectional area of the
specimen at that load.
F1 F2
True stress = σ 1 = , σ2=
A1 A2

Engineering Strain - The amount that a material deforms per unit length in a tensile test.
l − l0
Engineering strain = ε =
l0
where l – final length of the specimen
l0 – initial length of the specimen
True Strain - The strain, given by ε t = ln (l/l0), produced in a material.
⎡l ⎤
True Strain ε t = ln ⎢ ⎥
⎣ l0 ⎦
where l – final length of the specimen
l0 – initial length of the specimen

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Solution
Q-20.(b) Applied force = 100,000 N
(i) area of iron bar = 10 mm x 20 mm = 200 mm2
yield strength - 400 MPa
tensile strength - 480 MPa.
force F
Engineering stress = =σ =
initial.cross sec tional.area A0
σ = 100,000 N / 200 mm2 = 500 N/mm2
1 MPa = 1 N/mm2 , 500 MPa
applied stress σ is greater than yield strength ( 500 MPa > 400 MPa ),therefore,
the iron bar will plastically deform.
(ii) applied stress σ is greater than tensile strength ( 500 MPa > 480 MPa ),therefore,
the bar will occur necking.

Q-21. An aluminum alloy that has a plane strain fracture toughness of 25,000 psi-√in .fails
when a stress of 42,000 psi is applied. Observation of the fracture surface indicates that
fracture began at the surface of the part. Estimate the size of the flaw that initiated
fracture. Assume that f = 1 . 1 .
Solution
plane strain fracture toughness Kc = 25,000 psi-√in .
stress σ = 42,000 psi is applied.
the fracture began at the surface of the part.
the size of the flaw = ?. Assume that f = 1 . 1 .
K IC = f .σ. π .a
25,000 = 1.1 x 42,000 x π .a
a = 0.093 in
the initial flaw size on the surface – 0.093 in

Q-22. Define Hooke's law and Poisson's ratio.

Hooke's law
The relationship between stress and strain in the elastic portion of the

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stress-strain curve. The modulus of elasticity, or Young's modulus, E, is the slope of

the stress-strain curve in the elastic region. This relationship is Hooke's law :
σ
E=
ε
where E - Young's modulus
σ - engineering stress
ε - engineering strain

Poisson's ratio
The ratio between the lateral and longitudinal strains in the elastic
region. Poisson's ratio, μ, relates the longitudinal elastic deformation produced by a
simple tensile or compressive stress to the lateral deformation that occurs simultaneously:
− ε (lateral )
μ= , ( μ is about 0.3)
ε (longitudional

Q-23. A 0.4-in. diameter,12-in. long titanium bar has a yield strength of 50,000 psi,
a modulus of elasticity of 16 x 106 psi, and Poisson's ratio of 0.30. Determine the length
and diameter of the bar when a 500-Ib load is applied.
Solution
a titanium bar ,
diameter = 0.4-in., length = 12-in.
yield strength = 50,000 psi,
modulus of elasticity E = 16 x 106 psi,
Poisson's ratio μ = 0.30.
the length = ? and the diameter of the bar = ? when a 500-Ib load is applied.
F = 500 lb
the stress σ = F/A = 500 lb / (π/4 )(0.4 in.)2 = 3979 psi
σ
By Hook's Law, E =
ε
σ
the strain ε= = 3979 psi / 16 x 106 psi = 0.00024868 in/in
E
l f − l0 l f − 12
Engineering strain = ε = == = 0.00024868
l0 12

l f = 12.00298 in

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−ε (lateral )
Poisson's ratio: μ = = − 0.3
ε (longitudional
ε(lateral) = - (μ )x ε(longitudinal) = - (0.3 ) (0.00024868) = -0.0000746 in/in
D f − D0 D f − 0.4
= = - 0.0000746 in / in
D0 0.4

D f = 0.39997 in

the length of the bar = 12.00298 in

the diameter of the bar = 0.39997 in

Q-24. A 3-in.diameter rod of copper is to be reduced to a 2-in. diameter rod by being

pushed through an opening. To account for the elastic strain, what should be the
diameter of the opening? The modulus of elasticity for the copper is 17 x 106 psi and the
yield strength is 40,000 psi.
Solution
A copper rod is to be reduced in diameter,
D 0 = 3-in. , D 1 = 2-in. dia ,
the diameter of the opening ?
modulus of elasticity for the copper, E = 17 x 106 psi
yield strength σ = 40,000 psi.
To get 2 in diameter bar, the diameter of the opening must be smaller than the
final dia.
σ
E= , ε = σ / E = 40,000 / 17 x 106 = 0.00235
ε
l − l0 D − D0
ε = 0.00235, Engineering strain = ε = =
l0 D0
D = 2 in. , D0 = ?
2 − D0
0.00235 = , D0 = 1.995 in
D0
the diameter of the opening die = 1.995 in.

Q-25.Which factors does depend on the ability of a material to resist the growth of a crack?
Solution
The ability of a material to resist the growth of a crack depends on a large number
of factors:
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1). the larger the flaws size, the smaller the permitted stress.
2). Increasing the strength of a given metal usually decreases ductility and gives a
lower fracture toughness.
3).Thicker, more rigid materials have lower fracture toughness than thin materials.
4). Increasing the rate of application of the load, such as in an impact test, typically
reduces the fracture toughness of the material.
5). Increasing the temperature normally increases the fracture toughness, just as in the
impact test.
6). A small grain size normally improves fracture toughness, more point defects and
dislocations reduce fracture toughness.

Q-26.Define the following.

(i) Tensile strength (ii) Yield strength (iii) Ductility
Solution
(i) Tensile strength
The stress obtained at the highest applied force is the tensile strength, which is the
maximum stress on the engineering stress-strain curve.

(ii) Yield strength

The stress applied to a material that just causes permanent plastic
deformation.

(iii) Ductility
The ability of a material to be permanently deformed without breaking when a force is
applied. Ductility measures the amount of deformation that a material can withstand
without breaking.

Q-27. A ceramic part for a jet engine has a yield strength of 75,000 psi and a plane strain
fracture toughness of 5,000 psi - √in. . To be sure that the part does not fail, we plan to
assure that the maximum applied stress is only one-third the yield strength. We use a
nondestructive test that will detect any internal flaws greater than 0.05 in. long.
Assuming that f = 1.4, does our nondestructive test have the required sensitivity ?
Explain.
Solution
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A ceramic part for a jet engine ,

yield strength σ = 75,000 psi
plane strain fracture toughness K IC = 5,000 psi - √in. .
the maximum applied stress = one-third the yield strength. = 1/3 x 75,000 psi
internal flaw size = 2.a , f = 1.4,
K IC = f.σ. π .a
5000 = 1.4 x 1/3 x 75,000 . π .a
a = 0.0065 in
the length of internal flaw = 2.a = 2 x 0.0065 in = 0.013 in
Non- destructive test can detect the flaw size of length = 0.05 in.
Now, the flaw size is 0.013 in. and therefore, our nondestructive test have no the
required sensitivity.

Q-28. A large steel plate used in a nuclear reactor has a plane strain fracture toughness of 80,000
psi- √in and is exposed to a stress of 45,000 psi during service.Design a testing or
inspection procedure capable of detecting a crack at the surface of the plate before the crack
is likely to grow at a catastrophic rate.
Solution
steel plate used in a nuclear reactor,
applied stress σ = 45,000 psi
plane strain fracture toughness K IC = 80,000 psi - √in.
surface crack = a = ? , f = 1,
Under these condition, to determine the minimum size of crack.
K IC = Kc = f.σ. π .a
80,000 = 1 x 45,000 x π .a
a = 1 in.
This minimum crack size ( 1 in.) on the surface can be observed visually.
If the growth rate of the crack is slow, the inspection is performed by regular
method.

Q-29. A 850-lb force is applied to a 0.15-in. diameter nickel wire having a yield strength of
45,000 psi and a tensile strength of 55,000 psi. Determine

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(a) whether the wire will plastically deform and

(b) whether the wire will experience necking.
Solution
nickel wire,
yield strength = 45,000 psi , tensile strength = 55,000 psi.
applied force = 850-lb , initial diameter D0 = 0.15-in.
(i)whether the wire will plastically deform and
(ii)whether the wire will experience necking.
force F
Engineering stress on the wire = =σ =
initial.cross sec tional.area A0
σ = 850 lb / (π/4) (d )2 = 48,100 Psi
(i) Applied stress σ is greater than yield strength ( 48,100 Psi > 45,000 Psi ),
therefore, the nickel wire will plastically deform.
(ii)Applied stress σ is less than tensile strength ( 48,100 Psi < 55,000 Psi ),
therefore, the nickel wire will no necking occur.

Q-30. A solid shaft for a cement kiln produced from the tool steel must be 96 inches long and
must survive continuous operation for one year with an applied load of 12,500 lb. The shaft
makes one revolution per minute during operation. Design a shaft that will satisfy these
requirements.
Solution
a tool steel solid shaft for a cement kiln,
length L = 96 in. , applied load ( F ) = 12,500 lb.
continuous operation for one year, and one revolution per minute during operation.
Design a shaft that will satisfy these requirements.
It means that minimum diameter of the shaft (d ) = ?
1 cycle.x.365.days.x 24.hr.x.60.min
Number of cycle / year = N =
1.min .x.1. year.x.1.day.x.1.hr.
N = 5.265 x 105 cycles/year
From Fig. 3-13 , S-N curve for tool steel,
N = 5.265 x 105 ,,, applied stress σ = 72,000 Psi or 72 Ksi.
applied stress σ must be less than 72,000 Psi or 72 Ksi.

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10.18.L.F
By the equation, σ=
d3
10.18.x.96.x.12500
72, 000 =
d3
d = 5.54 in
For these conditions, the diameter of the shaft 5.54 in. will operate for one year.
But, safety is required in the design without failure.
In Fig. endurance limit 60,000 Psi, < 72,000 Psi., this condition is minimum diameter required
to prevent failure.
10.18.x.96.x.12500
60, 000 =
d3
d = 5.88 in
The condition that will operate for more than one year.
without failure, the minimum diameter of the shaft (d ) is 5.88 in

* * * * * * * * * * * * *END* * * * * * * * * * * *

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