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1.j Define ͚evolution͛ and ͚natural selection͛.
a.j Evolution is any change the in the frequency of alleles within a gene pool from
one generation to the next.
b.j Natural selection is the variation in hereditary traits between and within
populations that determine probabilities of survival until reproduction.
2.j Explain how natural selection leads to evolution, including the conditions required for
natural selection to occur.
a.j As animals of a species that have suitable traits for their environment survive to
reproduce, over time suitable traits will become more and more common until
most of a population has the trait. The population will then be a new species and
we say that the population has evolved by natural selection.
b.j Natural selection will only occur if there are:
Êj pelective pressures by the environment.
Êj More offspring than the environment can support.
Êj Diversity within a species.
Êj There must be competition among the species.
3.j ptate the consequence of the overproduction of offspring.
a.j More offspring than the environment can support creates competition within a
population.
4.j Explain how sexual reproduction promotes variation in a species.
a.j Meiosis allows a huge variety of genetically different gametes to be produced by
each individual.
b.j Fertilization allows alleles from two different individuals to be brought together
in new combinations in one new individual.
5.j Contrast Lamarck͛s theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics with Darwin͛s
theory of natural selection.
a.j Lamarck͛s theory: a species will adapt to its environment in order to survive by
gaining or losing a trait and passing the traits on to their offspring. He said that a
trait was gained lost through organ use/disuse and the gained or lost trait would
show in the offspring.
b.j Darwin͛s theory: an individual does not evolve, a population does. Evolution is a
process that happens over generations. Organisms that do not have suitable
traits for their environment will be less likely to pass on their traits. Organisms
with suitable traits for their environment will pass on their traits, as they are
more likely to survive. After many generations, most of the population will have
the suitable trait and will form a new species that can no longer reproduce with
the original species due to a change in their gene pool, as the unsuitable trait will
no longer be existent.
c.j MAIN DIFFERENCEp:
Êj phort time vs. long time
Êj Organ use/disuse vs. survival of successful traits
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Êj Individual vs. population

6.j Explain two examples of evolution in response to environmental change.
a.j Malaria and sickle cell anemia
b.j White coat on an arctic fox

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1.j Outline the evidence for evolution provided by the fossil record, selective breeding of
domesticated animals, embryology, molecular biology/biochemistry and comparative
anatomy.
a.j Fossil record:
Êj More and more diverse fossils the closer the layer is to the surface,
showing more species as organisms evolved.
Êj Fossils of more complex organisms are found in upper/shallower layers.
b.j pelective breeding of domesticated animals:
Êj Experimental natural selection
Êj For choosing desirable traits
Êj Organisms with desirable traits are allowed to survive
c.j Embryology:
Êj To determine evolutionary relationships.
Êj Comparative embryology is the similar development of embryos in
closely related species.
d.j Molecular biology/biochemistry:
Êj Comparison of DNA and protein structures.
Êj The more similar the sequences are, the more closely related the
species are.
e.j Comparative anatomy:
Êj Comparison of bone structures
Êj Common bone structures show a common ancestor.
2.j Outline the method for dating rocks and fossils using radioisotopes, with reference to
14
C and 40K.
a.j Half-life for C-14 is 5730 years
b.j Half-life for K-40 1.3 billion
c.j Age = % radioisotope remaining × half-life
3.j Define half-life.
a.j The amount of time it takes for a radioactive substance to break down to half of
its original amount.
4.j Deduce the approximate age of materials based on a simple decay curve for a
radioisotope.
a.j Age = % radioisotope remaining × half-life
5.j Explain the difference between natural and artificial selection.
a.j Natural selection is by the environment, artificial by humans
b.j Artificial selection picks desirable traits
c.j Natural selection picks suitable traits for the current environment
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6.j Distinguish, with examples, between homologous, analogous and vestigial structures.
a.j Homologous structures are formed in similar ways during embryonic
development and share similar arrangements; however, they have somewhat
different forms and functions.
Êj human, bat, chicken, cat
b.j Analogous structures - pome apparently unrelated animals have organs with
similar functions, yet are very different in structure and form.
Êj bats and butterflies
c.j Vestigial structures - Gradual changes have occurred through time that have, in
some cases, reduced or removed the function of some body structures and
organs.
Êj penguins wings
7.j Discuss ideas on the pace of evolution, including gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.
a.j Gradualism - Over a short period of time it is hard to notice. pmall variations that
fit an organism slightly better to its environment are selected. Very gradually,
over a long time, the population changes. Change is slow, constant, and
consistent.
b.j Punctuated equilibrium - change comes in spurts. There is a period of very little
change, and then one or a few huge changes occur, often through mutations in
the genes of a few individuals. Because these mutations are so different and so
helpful to the survival of those that have them, the proportion of individuals in
the population who have the mutation/trait and those who don't changes a lot
over a very short period of time. The species changes very rapidly over a few
generations, then settles down again to a period of little change.
8.j Explain why transitional fossils are a particularly important piece of evidence in support
of evolution as a gradual process.
a.j Transitional fossils show that animals and plants became more complex and
diverse over time. The shallower the layer, the more diverse the fossils are
showing that animals and plants evolved over time to become less and less
related to each other.

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1.j Explain the biochemical evidence provided by the universality of DNA and protein
structures for the common ancestry of living organisms.
a.j There are remarkable similarities between living organisms in their biochemistry.
Êj All use a nucleic acid as their genetic material.
Êj All use the same universal genetic code, with only a few insignificant
variations.
Êj All use the same 20 amino acids in their proteins.
Êj All use left-handed amino acids.
b.j This suggests that all organisms evolved from a common ancestor that had these
characteristics.
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2.j Explain how variations in specific molecules can indicate phylogeny.

a.j Changes the number of differences in their sequence, comparatively.
3.j Discuss how biochemical variations can be used as an evolutionary clock.
a.j The closely the protein sequences show that the species must have common
ancestor
b.j The number of differences indicate how long ago species split, the more
differences the longer the time since the species split from a common ancestor.
4.j Define clade and cladistics.
a.j Clade - a group of organisms that have evolved from a common ancestor
b.j Cladistics ʹ a method of classifying organisms based on the construction and
anlysis of cladograms.
5.j Outline the methods used to construct cladograms and the conclusions that can be
drawn from them.
a.j Involves extremely complicated calculation done by computers.
b.j Calculate differences in base or amino acid sequences as a result of smallest
mutations.
Êj Known as parsimony ʹ it gives a clue when changes occurred but not
how
6.j Construct a simple cladogram using morphological or biochemical data.
7.j Analyze cladograms in terms of phylogenetic relationships.
a.j Cladograms are based on  in DNA/RNA base and amino acid
sequences indicating where speciation took place.
b.j Phylogenetic trees are based on  in sequences of bases and amino
acids indicating that the species have a common ancestor.
8.j Discuss the relationship between cladograms and the classification of living organisms.
a.j pimilarities:
Êj Classification of many groups has been re-examined using cladograms.
Êj In many cases cladograms have confirmed existing classification.
Êj ÷ust like phylogenetics, cladograms too are attempting to reflect on
evolutionary origins. 
b.j Differences
Êj Cladograms tell when the changes occur [speciation] and this is difficult
to fit in with the traditional phylogenetic approach. Nodes can occur at
any time and difficult to fit into a hierarchy of taxa.
Êj In some cases cladistics suggest a different phylogeny. pcientists find it
difficult which one to follow.
Êj The strength of cladistics is that it is based on molecular differences.
c.j Weakness:
Êj is that molecular differences is based on probabilities.

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1.j Define population, allele frequency, genotype frequency and gene pool.
a.j Population - a group of organisms of the same specieswho live in the same area
at the same time.
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b.j Allele Frequency - the frequency of an allele, as a proportion of all the alleles of
the gene in the population.
c.j Genotype Frequency - the frequency of the genotype, as a proportion of the all
genotypes for a particular trait in an interbreeding population.
d.j Gene Pool - total collection of the genes in an interbreeding population.
2.j Define evolution in terms of allele frequencies.
a.j Evolution always involves a change in the allele frequency in the population͛s
gene pool: These bring about small changes in population: evolution at a smaller
scale called microevolution.
3.j Explain three ways in which natural selection can affect allele frequencies.
a.j ptabilizing pelection
Êj Typically occurs in stableenvironments.
Êj puch environments tend to reduce variation in phenotypes.
Êj The extreme ends of the traits are eliminated resulting in the organisms
having a reproductive disadvantage.
Êj ptabilizing selection prevails most of the time in most populations.
Êj E.g. ptabilizing selection keeps most human new borns in range 3-4 kg.
Lighter weight and heavy weight babies have higher mortality rates.
b.j Directional pelection
Êj It is most common during periods of environmental change or when
members of species move to a new location.
Êj E.g. insects exposed to insecticides, Bacterial resistance to antibiotics
c.j Disruptive pelection
Êj Typical when environmental conditions favor organisms at extreme
ends of phenotype range.
Êj It leads to a population having two or more contrasting phenotypes for
a trait in the population.
Êj E.g. In a population of African seed crackerfinches, [feed by cracking
seeds], large billed birds and small billedbirds would be at an advantage.
4.j Explain the meaning of the terms in the HardyʹWeinberg equation.
a.j p and q are two different alleles.
b.j p2 is the frequency of homozygous dominant.
c.j 2pq is the frequency of heterozygous.
d.j q2 is the frequency of homozygous recessive.
5.j Calculate allele, genotype and phenotype frequencies for two alleles of a gene, using the
HardyʹWeinberg equation.
6.j ptate the assumptions made when the HardyʹWeinberg equation is used.
a.j There is random mating in the population.
b.j Natural selection is NOT at play: no higher mortality of one specific allele
individuals.
c.j There is NOmutation
d.j The population Iplarge [not small]
e.j There is no immigration or emigration [no gene flow between populations]
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1.j Distinguish between macroevolution and microevolution.
a.j Microevolution is evolution occurring on its smallest scale. It is changes in
frequency of alleles in a gene pool over a long period of time.
b.j Macroevolution is evolution on a scale of separated gene pools.
2.j Explain how the Hardy-Weinberg principle helps identify the conditions under which
evolution can occur.
a.j Members breed at random
Êj Recall sexual selection
b.j Population is large
Êj pmall populations show fluctuation of allele frequencies
c.j There is no natural selection
Êj Is always at play as reproductive successes and differential survival
happen all the time.
d.j There is no gene flow between populations- immigration & emigration
Êj Individuals move in and out of populations and add or remove alleles
e.j No mutations
Êj Mutations alter, delete or add alleles to gene pool.
3.j Explain the roles of genetic drift, non-random mating, mutations and gene flow in
microevolution.
a.j Genetic drift:
Êj Large populations have tendency to keep stable allele frequency than
small populations.
Êj Therefore smaller the population, greater is the variation of its allele
frequencies from generation to generation.
Êj GENETIC DRIFT is change in gene pool of population DUE TO CHANCE.
Êj The pMALLER the population, the GREATER the genetic drift.
Êj Genetic driftreduces variation in population through such loses
b.j Non-random mating& Gene flow:
Êj Allele frequencies can change as a result of gene flow.
Êj Populations may gain or lose alleles when fertile individuals move into or
out of a population.
Êj Or when gametes are transferred between populations.
Êj Gene flow may add alleles not favorable to the specific environment.
c.j Mutations:
Êj Only those traits that are  are inherited.
Êj ! originate by :- a  in the  sequence
of DNA.
Êj [ therefore serves as a ! for evolution.
Êj Mutations may occur in  or  - only those in 
are .
Êj These will account for any variation in the gene pool:- 

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4.j Distinguish between transient and balanced polymorphisms using an example for each.
a.j POLYMORPHIpM is when a population has two alleles of a gene in the gene pool.
b.j When one allele is gradually replacing the other, then the population is showing
TRANpIENT POLYMORPHIpM.
Êj e.g. Peppered moth: ´

In Britain and Up: melanic
[

and

] form was more common in 19th century: recall
industrial revolution- air was polluted and dark- dark forms had
reproductive advantage. The dominant allele was favored.
c.j pometimes two alleles of a gene can persist indefinitely in the gene pool for a
long period of time. This is called balanced polymorphism.
Êj e.g. sickle cell anemia is the best studied example.
Dominant individuals do not have sickle cell anemia
but are susceptible to malaria.
Recessive individuals develop sickle cell anemia and
areresistant to malaria [ alllele produced by gene
mutation]
Heterozygous individuals do not develop sickle cell
anemia and are resistant to malaria.
—j pince heterozygous individuals have a reproductive advantage
over the other two, both the alleles have remained in the gene
pool of population.
—j In malaria stricken areas, about 40% of individuals are
heterozygous

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1.j Discuss the definition of the term species.
a.j Morphological species concepts͙.morphology [ physical traits]
Êj Based on observable and measureable physical traits such as shape, size,
etc
Êj This helped to distinguish one species from another
Êj It can be applied to those which have asexual reproduction
Êj It can be applied to fossils.
Êj Does not consider interbreeding.
Êj This definition does not explain how species evolve.
b.j Biological species concepts͙. Interbreeding
Êj Aspecies is a group of actually or potentially interbreeding populations
with a common gene pool, which are reproductivelyisolated from other
such groups.
Êj Therefore two separated populations are capable of interbreeding, then
they can be considered to be classified as one species.
Êj The biological species concept helps to understand how these discrete
groups of organisms arise and are maintained by reproductive isolation.
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Êj Many sibling species have been found- that is species that cannot
interbreed even if they have no significant differences in appearance.
Êj pome pairs of species will interbreed even if they show different
characteristics.
Êj pome species always reproduce asexually and DO NOT interbreed. These
are classified using Morphological species concept.
Êj Fossilscannot be classified according to biological species definition as it
is impossible to determine if they could have interbred.
c.j Ecological species concepts͙.ecological niches͙where they live and what they
feed on.
Êj This concept identifies species in terms of their ecological niche.
Êj It focuses on their unique adaptations.
d.j Phylogenetic species concepts͙.morphology and DNA sequence
Êj It defines a species as the smallest group of individuals that share a
common ancestor and forms one branch in the tree of life.
Êj The phylogenetic history is traced using morphology and DNA sequence.
2.j Explain the mechanisms of speciation and the biological barriers to reproduction
between different species.
a.j Prezygotic Isolation
Êj Prevention of Mating
—j ecological isolation ʹ species occupy separate habitats so do not
encounter one another to reproduce
—j temporal isolation ʹ the species reproductive cycles occur at
different times
—j mechanical isolation ʹ structural differences in reproductive
organs
Êj Prevention of Fertilization
—j gametic isolation ʹ gametes are unable to fuse to form a zygote
—j behavioural isolation ʹ a distinct mating ritual by one species does
not attract members of another species
b.j Postzygotic Isolation
Êj zygote mortality ʹ after fertilization, some incompatibility (usually
chromosomal) results in the zygote failing to develop properly
Êj hybridinviability ʹ if the embryo develops, the resulting hybrid
experiences severely reduced fitness and does not live long
Êj hybrid infertility ʹ hybrids that become strong and fit adults are likely to
be infertile, failing to undergo successful meiotic division
3.j Explain how polyploidy can contribute to speciation.
a.j Tetraploid plant will have all parts of its
b.j body with tetraploidcells.
c.j Gametes produced will be diploid [2n].
d.j pelf fertilization will produce tetraploids.
e.j Tetraploids can reproduce with tetraploids.
f.j But tetraploids cannot produce fertile offspring with diploids.
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g.j They produce triploids which are sterile.

h.j Production of tetraploids is an instantaneous example of speciation, with
production of new species [ 4n ] which cannot interbreed with its parent species
[2n].
4.j Compare allopatric and sympatric speciation.
a.j Allopatric ppeciation - the evolution of populations into separate species as a result of
geographic isolation.
b.j pympatric ppeciation - the evolution of populations within the same geographic
area into separate species.
5.j Compare convergent evolution, divergent evolution and coevolution.
a.j Convergent Evolution - a process by which two or more unrelated species
become increasingly similar in phenotype in response to similar selective
pressures.
Êj Analogous features are a result of convergent evolution.
b.j Divergent Evolution - a process by which species that were once similar to an
ancestral species become increasingly different.
Êj Occurs when populations change as they adapt to different
environmental conditions.
Êj Homologous features are a result of divergent evolution.
c.j Coevolution - a process in which two species of organisms that are tightly linked
evolve together.
6.j Outline the process of adaptive radiation.
a.j If species in a group diverge rapidly, it is called adaptive radiation.
b.j This can happen when, due to competition, the group must find new
opportunities that would present less competition and allow them, and their
genome, to be continued.

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1.j Define the term ͚primary abiogenesis͛.
a.j Primary abiogenesisis the theory that life evolved here on Earth from inorganic
matter.
2.j Describe four processes needed for the spontaneous origin of life on Earth.
a.j Inorganic to organic molecules - chemical reactions to produce simple organic
molecules such as amino acids from simple inorganic molecules as water, carbon
dioxide and ammonia.
b.j Polymerization to protein - assembly of these organic molecules into polymers.
E.g. polypeptides from amino acids.
c.j Polymerization to genetic material - formation of polymers that can replicate-
allowing inheritance of traits
d.j Development of membrane bound spherical droplets - development of
membranes to form spherical droplets with internal chemistry different from
surrounding.
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3.j Describe the conditions thought to have existed on pre-biotic Earth.

a.j Extremely high temperatures
b.j High ultra-violet (UV) light levels
c.j Reducing atmosphere - recall reduction in chemistry (absence of O2)
d.j Frequent lightning storms- provided necessary energy to initiate chemical
reactions
e.j Conditions on Earth were extremely harsh but ideal to initiate chemical reactions
that could have changed simple inorganic molecules to organic molecules.
4.j Outline the experiments of Miller and Urey into the origin of organic compounds.
a.j Created conditions that probably existed on Earth in prebiotic times
b.j Mixed gases ammonia, methane and hydrogen to create reducing atmosphere
inside apparatus
c.j Electrical discharges and boiling and condensation of water- created lightning
conditions.
d.j One week later- clear water had turned murky
e.j Analysis of water revealed many simple organic molecules including 15 amino
acids.
5.j Discuss possible locations where conditions would have allowed the synthesis of organic
compounds, and if applicable, how those compounds would have then arrived on Earth.
a.j Could have occurred on surface of earth, in atmosphere and in water.
b.j In hypothermal vents deep in the ocean where conditions are unusual.
c.j pome suggest that organic molecules could have an extraterrestrialorigin.
d.j Expts. by NApA have indicated that organic molecules and proto cells could have
formed in the cold interstellar space.
e.j These might have been delivered to earth by meteorites, comets or
interplanetary dust. These organic molecules then developed into first living
organisms.
Êj Proof: There was heavy bombardment of meteorites 4000 million years
ago
6.j Outline two properties of RNA that would have allowed it to play a role in the origin of
life.
a.j RNA catalyses many chemical reactions :- taking the role of proteins [ enzymes]
in organisms living presently on earth.
b.j RNA is capable of self replication: - one strand of RNA can act as a template to
create many more copies.
7.j Describe protobionts and explain how they may have formed.
8.j Outline the contribution of prokaryotes to the creation of an oxygen-rich atmosphere.
9.j Discuss the endosymbiotic theory for the origin of eukaryotes, including the evidence
that supports it.

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1.j Describe the major anatomical features that define humans as primates.
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2.j Outline the trends illustrated by the fossils of °

   

 
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.
3.j ptate that, at various stages in hominid evolution, several species may have coexisted.
4.j Discuss the incompleteness of the fossil record and the resulting uncertainties about
human evolution.
5.j Discuss the correlation between the change in diet and increase in brain size during
hominid evolution.
6.j Distinguish between genetic and cultural evolution.
7.j Discuss the relative importance of genetic and cultural evolution in the recent evolution
of humans.