Heat Transfer

Watlow
Educational Series
Book One
Heat Transfer
Contents

Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Heat Transfer Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Review of Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Watt Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Factors Affecting Conduction Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Thermal Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Surface Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Factors Affecting Convection Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Surface Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Forced Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Convection Factors Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Factors Affecting Radiation Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Emissivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
View Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Booklet Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Answers to Reviews and Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

© 1995 Watlow. This document is protected under U.S. copyright law. Any
duplication, other than by Watlow employees, without the express written
consent of the publisher is forbidden.

2
 Watlow Educational Series
Objectives
After working through this booklet, you will be able to:

¥ DeÞne the terms heat, heat transfer and temperature.

¥ Name and describe the modes of heat transfer.

¥ DeÞne the term watt density and describe its use at Watlow.

¥ Name and explain the factors that affect heat transfer.

¥ Use those factors to better apply Watlow products.

Introduction
Heat is constantly transferred or exchanged all around us...when water is heated
to make that morning cup of coffee...when water is frozen to make ice
cubes...when meals are cooked in the oven or on the stove...and when air condi-
tioning systems keep buildings cool on a hot summer day.

Heat energy (also called thermal energy) plays an important part in our daily
lives, and so it does at Watlow as well. To successfully apply Watlow products,
we must understand heat transfer and its impact on our products. That is the
purpose of this booklet!

Heat
What exactly is ÒheatÓ? Heat is a form of energy. It is the energy transferred from
a high temperature system to a low temperature system due solely to the tem-
perature difference between the two systems. Therefore, if two systems are at
the same temperature, no ÒheatÓ will be transferred. LetÕs look at an example to
clarify this a bit.

In Figure 1, a block of aluminum at 200ûF (93ûC) is placed in a beaker of water at

Heat energy transfers from a
high temperature system to a a temperature of 70ûF (21ûC). Will heat energy transfer from the block to the
low temperature system only if water?
a temperature difference exists.
Figure 1

3
Heat Transfer
Heat (con’t)
Yes, heat energy from the hot aluminum block (high temperature system) trans-
fers to the beaker of cool water (low temperature system). What causes this trans-
fer or ÒßowÓ of heat energy? The temperature difference between the block and
water is the only reason that heat energy transfers into the water.

After some time, the aluminum block cools and water warms to a point where
their temperatures are the same. Will heat continue to transfer from the block to
the water? No. Why? What must be present for heat energy transfer to take
place? There MUST be a temperature difference between the two ÒsystemsÓ (alu-
minum block and water). No temperature difference - no heat transfer.

Temperature
How are temperature and heat energy related? Any material above absolute zero
(-460ûF or -273ûC) has some energy. The higher the materialÕs energy level is, the high-
er its temperature will be. In other words, if two identical samples of material have
two different temperatures, we are certain that the high temperature sample will
have a higher energy level than the low temperature sample.

Temperature measures the inten-
sity of heat in a system, not the
quantity of heat energy in the
system.
Can the temperature of the system tell us the quantity of heat energy a system has
or is producing? An example should help us out.
Figure 2a shows a huge wood Þre. Figure 2b shows a small match burning. Both
of these Þres are burning at a temperature of 1000ûF (540ûC). Which of these Þres
is producing more heat? Which would you risk sticking your Þnger into?

Figure 2

a. b.

Obviously, a match burn is nothing compared to burning your Þnger in a large

Þre! The wood Þre (Figure 2a) is deÞnitely producing a much greater quantity of
heat than the match. Yet, the match and the Þre are burning at the same
temperature!

You have just ÒscientiÞcallyÓ proven that temperature only tells us the energy
level of a system. Temperature does not tell us the quantity of heat energy in a
system.

Why do we care about temperature and heat? Every time you apply a Watlow
heater, you will evaluate the temperature and heat energy requirements of the
thermal system. The operating temperature will tell you which types of heaters
you can (and canÕt) use. The amount of heat energy required will tell you how
large the heater will have to be.

4

Heat Transfer Modes
Conduction
Conduction is heat transfer from
a high temperature region to a
low temperature region in a solid
(or between two solids in physi-
cal contact).
Figure 3
Heat is Conducted Up the Spoon
Handle
Watlow Educational Series
What then is Òheat transferÓ? Heat transfer is the study of the processes by which
heat energy transfers or ÒßowsÓ from one system to another. There are 3 ways or
modes by which heat transfer takes place: conduction, convection and radiation.
All industrial heating (and cooling) applications make use of one or more of these
modes of heat transfer. We take a brief look at these next.
Conduction is heat transfer within a solid substance from a high temperature
region to a low temperature region, or from a high temperature solid to a low
temperature solid in physical contact with it.*
If you place an ice-cold metal rod in your hand, your hand gets cold very
quickly. Why? Your hand is in contact with the metal rod. Heat energy trans-
fers by conduction from your warm hand (lowering its temperature) to the cold
metal rod (raising its temperature).
Another example of conduction is seen in Figure 3. A metal spoon is in a hot
cup of coffee or tea. The hot coffee heats up the part of the spoon immersed in
it. The metal material in the spoon quickly conducts the heat throughout the
spoon handle making it hot to the touch. Figures 4 and 5 show other conduc-
tion examples.
Figure 4 Figure 5
Heat is Conducted from the Heaters Heat is Conducted from the Heaters
Through the Metal Mold to the Part Through the Metal Griddle to the
Hamburger Meat
Cartridge Heaters
Griddle
Heaters
That is all that conduction is: heat transfer within a solid or between two solids
in contact, where temperature differences exist.
Now the question is HOW does heat transfer from high to low temperature
areas in a solid? ItÕs quite simple really.
All materials are made up of atoms. These atoms are all vibrating. You can
visualize this by imagining the atoms of an object being attached to one
another by a network of coiled springs. Any changes in vibration by one atom
are Òpassed alongÓ to the other atoms nearby.
* Although conduction heat transfer takes place in stagnant (non-moving) liquids and
gases, we will focus only on conduction in solids.
5
Heat Transfer
Conduction (con’t)
In Figure 6a, the atoms are all at the same temperature and thus are all vibrating
with the same intensity.

Figure 6a Figure 6b

To illustrate conduction, letÕs light a torch and place it against the object. The
torchÕs ßame adds heat energy to the atoms at the surface of the object (Figure 6b).
What happens to these atoms? These atoms begin vibrating much more violent-
ly because of the added heat energy. This greatly increases their temperature.

These higher temperature atoms now tug more violently on the springs connect-
ing low temperature atoms (Figure 6b). The low temperature atoms begin vibrat-
ing more intensely, increase in temperature, and tug more violently on other low
temperature atoms connected to them. This Òchain reactionÓ continues as long as
a temperature difference between atoms or regions in a material exist. That, basi-
cally, is how conduction heat transfer works.

Convection
Convection is heat transfer from a high temperature solid surface to a low tem-
perature ßuid (gas or liquid) in motion, or from a high temperature region in a
ßuid to a low temperature region as a result of ßuid motion.*

Note that convection heat transfer takes place through movement of the molecules
Convection is a special case of within the gas or liquid heated. The heat transfer is similar to conduction, except
conduction where a mixing
now the high temperature molecules and atoms are free to move about and mix
action of fluids causes heat
transfer between high and low with other low temperature molecules to transfer heat energy.
temperature regions in the fluid.
An example of convection is a water heater (Figure 7). An electric heater heats the
water in contact with it. The water picks up heat energy and rises. As it rises, it
transfers some of its heat energy to the surrounding cold water through mixing
and contact. This process continues until all the water is heated.
When liquids (and gases) are
heated, they become lighter and
Figure 7 Figure 8
rise. This explains why hot air
balloons rise.

Heat Source

Hot Airflow
Fan

*Fluid is a general term which refers to both gases and liquids.

6

Convection (con’t)
Radiation
Radiation is heat transfer (by
electromagnetic waves) caused
by a temperature difference
between two separate bodies in
a vacuum or low density
medium.
The term “electromagnetic
wave” may sound strange to
you. Common names for elec-
tromagnetic waves are:
• microwaves
• light
• x-rays
• infrared radiation
• radio waves
A hot object does not radiate
“heat”, it emits electromagnetic
waves. When another object
absorbs these waves, electro-
magnetic energy is converted
into heat energy. This causes
the object to heat up.
Watlow Educational Series
In a food warming bin (Figure 8), a heater heats air blown across it by a fan. The
food is warmed as hot air moves past it. In both examples, there is movement and
mixing in the ßuid. This convection assists heat energy transfer from high tem-
perature regions in the ßuid to low temperature regions.
Radiation is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves caused by a tempera-
ture difference between two separate bodies in a vacuum or low density medium
(such as air).
Did you ever wonder how the sunÕs energy gets to earth? Radiation heat trans-
fer!! Sure! The sunÕs energy (Figure 9), in the form of electromagnetic waves,
travels millions of miles through the vacuum of space. The earth and its
atmosphere intercept the waves. When this happens a large portion of the elec-
tromagnetic energy is converted into heat energy. This then heats our planet and
atmosphere. Figure 10 illustrates radiant heaters used to keep food warm in a
warming bin.
Figure 9 Figure 10
What exactly are electromagnetic waves? Atoms are made up of positively and
negatively charged particles. Each of these particles has a magnetic Þeld around
itself. As we discovered earlier on page xx, all atoms are vibrating. Atomic vibra-
tion disturbs the magnetic Þelds around the particles. This ÒdisturbanceÓ in the
magnetic Þelds is called an electromagnetic wave.
How does radiant heat transfer work? Electromagnetic waves generated by a
high temperature object travel through a vacuum (like outer space) or low densi-
ty medium (like air). At some point, the electromagnetic waves strike a cool
object. The vibrational forces created by the waves tug at the atoms of the cool
object. This Òtugging actionÓ (remember Figure 6b!) causes the ÒcoolÓ atoms to
vibrate more intensely.
What happens when atoms vibrate more intensely? Right! The temperature of
the atoms (and thus the object) increases. In this way, electromagnetic energy is
transformed into heat energy in the cool object.
Note that radiant energy transfers between two objects without physical contact
between them and without any medium in between. In comparison, conduction
and convection must have a medium (something in between) to work.
7
Heat Transfer
Review of Heat Transfer
LetÕs see how you are doing. Read the statements below. Choose the correct
answer without looking back at the text. Then go into the text and Þnd answers
to the questions you are unsure about. Check your answers on page 33. Go back
and review any questions you answered incorrectly. Multiple choice questions
may have more than one correct answer.

1. Heat transfer only occurs when a temperature difference exists. True or false.

2. Temperature measures how much heat energy a system has. True or false.

3. Conduction heat transfer is heat transfer...

a. Due to electromagnetic waves.

b. Between high and low temperature solids in contact with one another.
c. Between high and low temperature regions in a solid.
d. Due to moving gases and ßuids.

4. Radiation heat transfer...

a. Is heat transfer due to electromagnetic waves from a high temperature

object striking a low temperature object.
b. Only takes place if the objects are in physical contact.
c. Is preferred over convection because less mixing of ßuids is required.

5. Atoms in an object are always vibrating. The more violently or intensely the
atoms vibrate, the higher the temperature of the atoms (and thus the object).
True or false.

6. Below is a list of words. Draw a line matching the heat transfer mode with
the key words which describe it. You should have a total of 9 lines.

Convection Electromagnetic waves

Solids
Liquids and gases
Figure 11 Mixing
Radiation Physical contact
Heat transfer from a surface to a liquid
Temperature differences within a solid
Vacuums and gases
Conduction Objects separated by some distance

7. Figure 11 at left shows an oven you might Þnd in any home. A tubular heat-
ing element is suspended about 1 inch (25 mm) off of the oven ßoor.

a. When the oven is used to bake something, what is the main mode of heat
transfer from the oven to the food being baked?

b. What other modes of heat transfer also exist in the oven? Name them
and brießy explain your answer.

8

Watt Density
For our purposes, we can say
that “power” and “heat energy”
are basically the same thing.
Their only difference is that
power (in watts) tells us the rate
of heat energy production. If we
use a 100 watt heater for one
hour, 100 watt-hours of heat
energy are produced. The high-
er a heater’s wattage, the more
energy it will produce in any
given time period.
Watlow Educational Series
Before we begin taking a closer look at heat transfer and the factors that affect it,
we must Þrst understand watt density. You may already have heard this term
and even used it to Þnd heater solutions to customer applications. But you may
not recognize its true signiÞcance. That is the purpose of this section.
What is Òwatt densityÓ? It is nothing mysterious. Watt density is just the power
rating of an electric heater. SpeciÞcally, it is the amount of power in watts which
a heater produces per square inch of heated surface area. The metric system uses
watts per square centimeter. Only watts per square inch will be used throughout
the remainder of this booklet.
For example, if a strip heater has a heated surface area equal to 10 inches by 10
inches (255 x 255 mm) and is rated to produce 1000 watts, what is the heaterÕs
watt density rating?
Watt density = watts/square inches = 1000 W / (10 in x 10 in) = 10 W/in2
If we increase the wattage rating of the heater to 2000 watts, what is the new watt
density rating of the strip heater?
Watt density = watts/square inches = 2000 W / (10 in x 10 in) = 20 W/in2
Notice that the wattage rating of the heater directly impacts the watt density. If
wattage goes up, watt density goes up. If wattage goes down 25%, watt density
also goes down 25%. Now you try it.
Exercise One
A radiant panel heater has a heated surface area equal to 25 inches by 15
inches (635 x 380 mm). The heater is rated for 3,750 watts. What is the
heater’s watt density rating? Calculate your answer in the space below follow-
ing the format used above. Check your answer on page 33.
We will bypass the details on how to calculate watt densities for each type of
Watlow heater. This is found in Watlow Technical Letters.
What concerns us now is the question: WHY do we bother to calculate watt den-
sity? What good is it to us? How can we better serve our customers knowing the
watt density of a heater?
Many of the factors which affect heat transfer directly affect the watt density (and
thus the wattage) we can use for a heater. When we know what these factors are
and how to apply them, we will always apply heaters correctly in any given appli-
cation. If we or our customers ignore the watt density limits for a speciÞc appli-
cation, we are setting ourselves up for some problems.
9
Heat Transfer
Watt Density (con’t)
One way to extend heater life is
to ensure that it has a watt den-
sity at or below the maximum for
a given application.
Factors Affecting
Conduction Heat
Transfer
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity is the mea-
sure of a material’s ability to
conduct heat energy.
10
Referring to Exercise One, what if the maximum watt density for the application
is 15 W/in2? Can we use the radiant panel? The answer is yes. Why? We did
not exceed the 15 W/in2 limit (the radiant heater has only 10 W/in2).
What if the maximum watt density is only 8 W/in2? Now we have a problem.
Why? The radiant heater produces 10 W/in2, which is over the maximum of
8 W/in2. Operating the heater over the maximum rating causes the heater to
overheat and burn out more quickly.
How can we increase heater life? One easy way is to reduce the watt density from
10 to 8 W/in2. What happens to heater wattage as a result of lowering the watt
density?
Exercise Two
What will the wattage rating of the heater in Exercise One be at 8 W/in2?
Calculate it in the space below. Refer to page 33 to check your calculations.
Now at 3000 watts, the radiant panel will have a long life. This is a simplistic
example, but you can plainly see the importance of watt density as it relates to the
heater AND the application.
Simply put, we use watt density to make sure that the heater we recommend
and sell will work for a long time in the customerÕs application.
Conduction is the transfer of heat within a solid or by direct contact of solids
where temperature differences exist. The factors which affect conduction are
thermal conductivity and surface contact.
Thermal conductivity is the measure of a materialÕs ability to conduct thermal
(heat) energy. A material with a high thermal conductivity conducts heat very
quickly. A low thermal conductivity material conducts thermal energy slowly.
The charts in Figure 12 show thermal conductivity values for various
materials.
 Watlow Educational Series
Thermal Conductivity (con’t)
Figure 12

Properties of Non-Metallic Solids Properties of Metals

Specific Thermal Specific *Thermal

Heat Conductivity Heat Conductivity
Density BTU BTU-in Density BTU BTU-in
Material lb./ft3 lb.-°F hr.-ft2-°F Material lb./ft3 lb.-°F hr.-ft2-°F
Carnauba Wax 62.4 0.8
Aluminum 1100-0 169 0.24 1536
Cement, Portland Loose 94 0.19 2.04
Aluminum 2024 173 0.24 1344
Cerafelt Insulation 3 0.25 @ 1000˚ 1.22
Antimony 413 0.049 131
Ceramic Fiber 10-15 0.27 ***
Babbitt-Lead Base 640 0.039 165.6
Chalk 112-175 0.215 5.76
Babbitt-Tin Base 462 0.071 278.4
Ethyl Cellulose 67-74 0.32-0.46
Brass (70-30) 525 0.10 672
Fiberglass 0.75 0.28
Brass (Yellow) 529 0.096 828
Microlite Duct Insulation
Bronze
Fiberglass 3 0.26
(75% Cu, 25% Sn) 541 0.082 180
Spin-Glas 1000 Insulation
Cadmium 540 0.055 660
Marinite I @ 400˚F 46 0.29 0.89
Monel 400 551 0.11 151
Melamine Formaldehyde 93 0.4 3
Muntz Metal
Mica 185 0.20 3
(60% Cu, 40% Zn) 523 0.096 852
Nylon Fibers 72 0.4-0.5
Nickel 200 554 0.11 468
Paper 58 0.45 0.82
Nichrome
Vinylite 73 0.29 (80% Ni, 20% Cr) 524 0.11 104.4
Wood, Oak 50 0.57 1.2
Steel, Mild Carbon 490 0.12 456
Wood, Pine 34 0.67 0.9
Steel, Stainless
304, 316, 321 500 0.12 105.6
Steel, Stainless 430 475 0.121 150
Tantalum 1036 0.036 372

Note the differences in the thermal conductivity of each material. Write down
the thermal conductivity values of the following materials. Answers are on
page 34.

Brass (70/30) _________Btu-in/hr-ft2-F Mica __________Btu-in/hr-ft2-F

Fiberglass __________Btu-in/hr-ft2-F Carbon Steel _________Btu-in/hr-ft2-F

Why is thermal conductivity important? In a thermal system, materials with

High thermal conductivity metals
are often used to “transport” heat
energy from the heater to the
processed material.
both high and low thermal conductivities are used.* High thermal conductivity
materials (many metals) are often used to quickly ÒtransportÓ heat energy from
the heater to the material requiring the heat.

An example of this is the cast iron plates used in waffle irons. The iron plate
transfers the heat from the heater to the waffle batter. Another common exam-
ple is a household iron. The metal bottom plate transfers heat from a heater
buried in the iron to the clothes being ironed.

* A thermal system is any heating system consisting of a heater, the medium to be heated (or work
load) and a controller to regulate the heater and/or work load temperature.

11
Heat Transfer
Thermal Conductivity (con’t)
An industrial example, pictured in Figure 13, is a steel mold used for plastic
molding machines. The steel mold transfers heat energy generated by the heaters
to the molten plastic inside the mold cavity. This type of heating is also used in
die casting of low temperature metals as well.

Figure 13
Heating a Steel Mold

Heaters
T.C. Sensors

Upper Mold
Series 985 & MDR
Bas e
Upper
15" 10"
Platen 2"
Upper

Mold 6"
Mold
9" 6"
Lower P
laten
2"
Lowe
r Bas
e
Lower Mol
Series 985
To Heaters
To Power
and Fusing
Insulation

Watlow heaters are used in the examples above and in other applications. The
heaters are either inserted into or clamped on to these metals. Because metal is a
good thermal conductor, we can use fairly high watt density heaters. High watt
density heaters provide quick heat ups and fast response to heating requirements.
This, in turn, gives the customer higher quality, consistent products.

Low thermal conductivity
materials are often used to
prevent heat losses. This makes
equipment more efficient.
Low thermal conductivity materials (like Þberglass) are typically used to reduce
heat losses from a thermal system. Low conductivity materials are often called
thermal insulators, or simply, insulation. Insulation reduces conducted heat loss-
es from a thermal system to other parts of the equipment. Insulation also covers
exposed high temperature surface areas to reduce heat losses due to radiation and
convection.

Materials with low thermal conductivities are used to insulate the waffle iron and
the handle of the clothes iron. Without insulation, you would burn your hand
every time you wanted to use them. In Figure 13, a layer of insulation is used to
prevent conduction of heat energy from the upper and lower platens to the metal
base and framework.

These examples show the usefulness of low thermal conductivity materials. They
keep heat energy in the thermal system making it more efficient. This saves the
customer money as well as making equipment safe to use.

It follows then that in a thermal system, we prefer to use temperature sensors in

or on a high thermal conductivity metal. Why? These metals transfer tempera-
ture changes very quickly to the sensor. This allows the sensor and control to
respond quickly to temperature changes, thus providing good thermal system
control.

12
Heat Transfer
Surface Contact
Air gaps between heater and
part surfaces cause the heater
to operate at higher tempera-
tures, thus shortening heater life.
Watlow Educational Series
Recall that conduction heat transfer can take place between a high and a low tem-
perature object in contact with one another. In thermal systems the high temper-
ature object is typically the heater. The amount of contact between the heater and
part surfaces determines how quickly heat is transferred from the heater to the
part. The more contact, the more quickly heat is transferred.
Why is the amount of surface contact so important? If the heater and part sur-
faces are not touching, what is between them? Air. Is air a good thermal con-
ductor? To answer this, compare the thermal conductivity of air at 0.18 Btu-
in/hr-ft2-F to the materials you found on page 11. Is air a good or bad thermal
conductor?
Air is a terrible thermal conductor! ItÕs even worse than Þberglass insulation! If
air gaps insulate the heater, what happens to the temperature of the heater? Since
insulation basically traps heat, the heater temperature increases dramatically.
What happens if a heater operates hotter than it is supposed to? It quickly burns
out. Now you know why surface contact is so important!
When a heater heats a part by conduction, air gaps between heater and part sur-
faces will shorten heater life.
How do we solve this air gap problem? Simple. We either provide more surface
contact between the heater and part, or we reduce the watt density of the heater.
Reducing the watt density means the heater generates less heat. If it generates
less heat, it operates at a lower temperature, thus increasing heater life. LetÕs
apply this to see how it works.
Exercise Three
Two identical Firerod cartridge heaters are inserted into metal blocks 1 and 2
per Figure 14. Block 1 has a hole which is just large enough to allow Firerod
1 to fit inside. There is excellent surface contact between them. Block 2 has a
hole which is much larger than Firerod 2. There is very little surface contact
between Firerod 2 and block 2. Write down the answers to the following ques-
tions below. After you have written down your answers, continue reading.
a) Which block will reach a specific temperature more quickly?
b) Which Firerod heater will last longer for the customer?
c) Which Firerod heater will operate at a higher internal temperature?
d) What must we do to increase the life of Firerod 2?
13
Heat Transfer
Surface Contact (con’t)
Reducing a heater’s watt density
will always lower its internal
operating temperature in any
given application.
14
Figure 14
Firerod Cartridge Heaters in Metal Blocks
Hole Hole
Air Gap
FIREROD FIREROD
Cartridge Heater Cartridge Heater
Block 1 Block 2
Firerod 1 Firerod 2
Block 1 will reach temperature the quickest. Why? Surface contact (heater-to-
part-Þt) is excellent. There is hardly any air gap between heater and block. Heat
generated by Firerod 1 is rapidly transferred into block 1. This keeps Firerod 1Õs
operating temperature low, giving it a much longer life than Firerod 2.
Firerod 2 will operate at a much higher internal temperature than Firerod 1.
Why? There is very little surface contact. The huge air gap insulates Firerod 2
increasing its internal operating temperature. In addition, the layer of air insula-
tion slows heat transfer to block 2. This heat transfer delay means that block
2 takes a lot longer than block 1 to reach a speciÞc temperature.
To increase the life of Firerod 2, we have to either increase surface contact or
reduce heater watt density. To increase surface contact, reduce the air gap
(between heater and block) by using a larger size heater or using a smaller hole
size. The other option (reduce watt density) will lower the operating temperature
of the heater, thus increasing heater life.
Exercise Four
Two strip heaters are clamped on to metal plates per Figure 15. Strip heater
A is clamped very tightly on the ends. When the heater gets hot, it expands.
Because the clamps are so tight, the heater “pops up” in the middle. Strip
heater B is properly clamped. When it expands it is able to slide under the
clamps. It has good surface contact with plate B. Answer the following ques-
tions below. After answering the questions, continue reading.
a) Which plate will reach a specific temperature more quickly?
b) Which strip heater will last longer for the customer?
c) Which strip heater will operate at higher internal temperatures?
d) How can we increase the life of strip heater A?
 Watlow Educational Series
Surface Contact (con’t)
Figure 15
Strip Heaters Clamped On Metal Plates

Strip heater A on plate A Strip heater B on plate B

Based on your observations from the Firerod example, you probably said that
Plate B will heat up quicker. If you did, you are correct! Strip heater B will also
have the longest life. The good surface contact ensures good heat transfer which,
in turn, keeps the heater temperature low.

Strip heater A has some problems! The air gap between strip heater and plate
does a beautiful job of insulating the heater. Therefore, strip heater A will oper-
ate at a much higher temperature than strip heater B. The air gap also slows the
heating of plate A.

To increase the life of strip heater A, the easiest thing to do is to loosen the clamp
on one end a little to allow the heater to expand and still stay pressed against the
plate. If the heater is permanently deformed, though, it is best to buy a replace-
ment and clamp it properly. Another alternative is to reduce the watt density of
the heater. This will lower the heater temperature, thus increasing heater life.

The exercises above are classic examples of applying your knowledge about sur-
face contact to an application. This is intelligent sales support!

Air gaps also insulate temperature sensors. If a sensor is insulated, will it respond
quickly to temperature changes? No. There will be a delay in heat transfer from
the part to the sensor. The result is that the control system cannot react fast
enough to temperature changes. This increases the possibility of an application
producing poor quality products.

To review, there are 2 factors which affect conduction heat transfer:

¥ Thermal conductivity. High conductivity materials are generally used to

ÒtransportÓ heat. Low conductivity materials are generally used to insulate
against heat losses.

¥ Surface contact. The more physical contact there is between two surfaces, the
more quickly heat energy will transfer. Air gaps are insulation which slow heat
transfer and increase heater temperature. For long heater life, we want to
increase the amount of surface contact or use a lower watt density heater.

15
Heat Transfer
Factors Affecting
Convection Heat Convection is similar to conduction, except that the high temperature regions of
Transfer a gas or liquid move and mix with low temperature regions to transfer heat ener-
gy. The factors which affect convection are surface orientation, forced convection
and ßuid viscosity.*

Surface Orientation
ÒSurface orientationÓ describes how a surface is positioned. The orientation of
most surfaces can be described as either horizontal or vertical. Referring to
Figure 16 below, we see that convection heat transfer varies depending on a sur-
faceÕs position. The convection multipliers show us, for example, that a horizon-
tal upward-facing surface transfers about 29% more heat than a vertical surface
(1.29 versus 1.0).

Figure 16
Strip Heaters Clamped On Metal Plates

a. Horizontal - Facing Up b. Vertical c. Horizontal - Facing Down

Convection Multiplier = 1.29 Convection Multiplier = 1.0 Convection Multiplier = 1.29

A horizontal heated surface facing downward transfers only 0.63 (or 63%) as
much heat as a vertical surface. Why the differences? An upward-facing surface
lets hot air rise as soon as it is heated. A vertical surface does this too, but not as
well. Finally, hot air underneath a heated downward-facing surface must Þrst
move toward the edges before it can rise past the surface edges. This Òhot air
pocketÓ reduces convection heat transfer quite a bit.

16
 Watlow Educational Series
Surface Orientation (con’t)
Convection multipliers are used together with the graph in Figure 17 to calculate
the total convection heat losses from an object at a given temperature. LetÕs work
through an example to see how this is done.

Figure 17
Convection Heat Loss Graph

Convection Multipliers: Heat Losses from Uninsulated Surfaces

2000
Losses from Multiply convection
top surfaces or curve value by Convection—Vertical Surface
from horizontal pipes 1.29 Combined Radiation and Convection—
Oxidized Aluminum
Side surfaces Use convection 1800 Radiation—Black Body
and vertical pipes curve directly Combined Radiation and Convection—
Oxidized Steel
Bottom surfaces Multiply
convection curve 1600
value by 0.63

1400
Temperature of Surface—°F

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20 30 40 50 60 80 100

Losses—W/in2

17
Heat Transfer
Surface Orientation (con’t)
Helpful Hint: To convert square
feet into square inches, multiply
square feet by 144.
To maintain a constant tempera-
ture, heat energy lost by a sys-
tem must equal heat added to
the system.
18
Example: A platen used in the manufacture of laminated furniture measures 4
feet by 8 feet (1.2 x 2.4 m). It is insulated on the bottom and sides, but the top is
exposed to open air. If the temperature of the platen is 300ûF (150ûC), how much
heat is lost to the surroundings by convection?
First, we determine the heat loss value. Using the graph shown in Figure 17, the
point where the 300ûF line and the convection-vertical surface curve intersect is
exactly 0.5 W/in2. Because this is a horizontal upward-facing surface, we must
multiply this by the convection multiplier 1.29. Why? The curve on the graph is
only for vertical surfaces. We have to adjust for the horizontal position of the plat-
en. The adjusted heat loss factor then is 0.5 W/in2 x 1.29 = 0.645 W/in2.
Next, we have to determine the area of the platen in square inches:
Surface area = 4 ft x 8 ft = 32 ft2; 32 ft2 x 144 in2/ft2 = 4608 in2
Finally, we multiply the platen surface area by the heat loss value:
Total heat losses = 0.645 W/in2 x 4608 in2 = 2972 watts
The platen convects about 3000 watts to the surrounding air. We follow the same
process for objects which have many exposed surfaces. We just add up the heat
loss from each surface of the object to get the total heat loss. Now itÕs your turn.
Exercise Five
A box measuring one foot (305 mm) cubed is on a floor (5 sides are exposed
to the surroundings). The box temperature is maintained at 200˚F (93˚C).
How much heat is lost due to convection heat transfer? Use the space below
to calculate your answer. Check your answer on page 34.
The next question is: how powerful must the heaters in the box be to maintain the
200ûF temperature? Simple. If heat losses are 190 watts, the heaters must produce
190 watts to maintain 200ûF. If the heaters only produce 100 watts, what happens
to the box temperature? Sure! The temperature goes down. The heaters cannot
replace the heat losses. Conversely, if the heaters produce more than 190 watts,
the box temperature will rise to some higher temperature. Now the heaters are
adding more heat than is lost through convection.
We use surface orientation to more precisely calculate heat losses from a thermal
system.

Forced Convection
Free convection is caused by
hot fluids naturally rising and
mixing with cooler fluids.
Forced convection heat transfer
uses pumps, blowers or other
mechanical means to increase
the rate of convection heat
transfer.
Watlow Educational Series
The type of convection we have explored so far was ÒnaturalÓ or ÒfreeÓ convec-
tion. Natural convection is caused only by a hot liquid or gas rising and mixing
with cooler liquids or gases. You Þnd this type of convection in most household
and industrial ovens and heated tanks of liquids. Natural convection was the
type of heat transfer we examined in the last section.
To be honest, this natural convection heat transfer is pretty slow. To speed up
convection heat transfer we use forced convection. As the name implies, a gas or
liquid is ÒforcedÓ to mix faster. A fan, blower, pump, stirrer or some other mix-
ing device is used for this purpose. Figure 18 shows examples of both free and
forced convection.
Figure 18
Pump
Outlet
Inlet
Heater
Heater
Forced Convection Free Convection
Why is forced convection important to us at Watlow? LetÕs think this one through
using an example. You are walking outside on a sunny day. You are feeling
uncomfortably warm (Figure 19). You would love to drink a cold, tall glass of
water! All of a sudden a big gust of wind comes along. What is your reaction to
the wind? Relief! Why? The wind cools you down. Why does wind cool you
down? Because wind is really forced air convection! The forced air convection
increases your convection heat losses and cools you off. Without wind the nat-
ural convection heat transfer from your body is slow (which makes you feel very
warm).
Figure 19
Free Convection Forced Convection
Think about that a moment... forced convection increases heat losses. How can we
apply this fact to Watlow heaters?
19
Heat Transfer
Forced Convection (con’t)
If forced convection takes more heat energy away from a heater, we can put more
heat energy into that heater. How do we put in more heat energy? You guessed it!
Increase the heater WATT DENSITY. Forced convection letÕs us use higher watt
density heaters than we normally can with natural convection! By increasing
watt density, we can either:

¥ Keep the same wattage rating and reduce the heaterÕs physical size or
¥ Keep the same physical size and increase the total wattage rating.

In either case, by increasing the watt density used, we keep the heater small. This
allows us to offer the customer a better performing, less expensive heater. LetÕs
put this into practice.

The graph below (Figure 20) is from the cartridge heater section of the Watlow
catalog. What is the maximum Firerod watt density for natural or free
convection in air?

Figure 20
Firerod Watt Density in Moving Air

Maximum Allowable Watt Density

in Moving Air

low
4500
Entering Air

ir F
Air Velocity Past Heater—FPM

Up To 200¡F
low
4000

oA
Air F
3500

ar T
cul
el To

3000
ndi
arall

2500
rpe
–Pe
od–P

2000
rod
Firer

1500
Fire

1000

500

20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Watt Density—W/in2

Natural convection is the same as an air velocity of zero FPM (feet per minute).
At 0 FPM the maximum is about 50 W/in2. What is the size of heated surface area
(in square inches) required for a Firerod heater to produce 500 watts? Simple.

Heated area = 500 Watts / 50 W/in2 = 10 in2 heated surface area.

A Firerod with a 10 in2 heated surface area is required. Now you determine what
happens to the watt density and heated surface area when forced convection is
used instead of natural convection.

20
 Watlow Educational Series
Forced Convection (con’t)

Exercise Six

Using Figure 20, determine the maximum watt density for a Firerod if air flow
is perpendicular to the Firerod at 1500 FPM. Then calculate the heated sur-
face area required to produce 500 Watts. Follow the steps used on page 20.
Check your answers on page 34.

Compared to natural convection, what happens to the maximum watt density?

The watt density jumps from 50 to 83 W/in2. Why? Forced convection carries
away more heat energy so we can increase the heater watt density. What happens
to the size of the heated surface area when we increase watt density? The heated
surface area drops from 10 to 6 in2. You have just witnessed the impact of forced
convection on heater size and watt density!

Forced convection increases convection heat transfer. The result is that we can
use higher watt density heaters for gases and the majority of liquids as well.

Viscosity
Viscosity is the tendency of a liquid to resist ßowing. High viscosity liquids are
very thick and ßow very slowly. Molasses and honey are good examples of high
viscosity liquids (Figure 21). If you want to pour honey out of a jar, it takes a fair-
ly long time to empty out. Low viscosity liquids, in comparison, ßow very easi-
ly. Water is a great example of a low viscosity liquid. If you pour it out of a jar,
the water runs out very quickly.

Figure 21

a. Honey b. Water

Why do you think viscosity is important to convection heat transfer? An exam-

ple will give you a clue. One heater is inserted into a tank of water. An identical
heater is inserted into a tank of honey (see Figure 22). The watt density of each
heater is 30 W/in2. Power is applied to the heaters. What happens?

21
Heat Transfer
Viscosity (con’t)
Figure 22

High watt density heaters can Tank of Honey Tank of Water

be used to heat low viscosity liq-
uids. Low watt density heaters
must be used to heat high
viscosity liquids.
Water has a low viscosity and ßows easily. Hot water coming off the heater
immediately rises and mixes with the surrounding cooler water. The heater
temperature remains low, because the heat is immediately carried away.

If water is such a good convection liquid, what can we do to the heater watt den-
sity? We can raise the watt density! In fact, we use Firerod cartridge heaters with
well over 300 W/in2 (!) in some water heating applications. We have used tubu-
lar heaters in applications over 100 W/in2 as well. These are special applications,
but clearly show the affect of waterÕs low viscosity on convection heat transfer.

As we know, honey has a higher viscosity (is thicker) than water. Honey in con-
tact with the heater absorbs heat and rises very slowly because the honey is so
thick. Therefore, convection heat transfer from the heater is very slow as well. If
heat transfer is very slow, what happens to heater temperature? Sure! Heater
temperature increases dramatically. The higher heater temperature will not only
shorten heater life, it will burn the honey making it useless.

As a result, we have to reduce heater watt density when heating honey. In

practice, we can only use about 4 W/in2. Using a higher watt density heater will
burn the honey and/or lead to a shorter heater life.

Why is viscosity important to convection heat transfer? Low viscosity liquids

(like water) allow use of high watt density heaters, whereas, low watt density
heaters must be used for high viscosity liquids (like honey).

Convection Factors
Review As a quick review, answer the following questions. Answers are on page 34.

1. A 5 ft2 (0.46m2) horizontal upward-facing surface is maintained at 400ûF

(205ûC). How much heat (in watts) must be applied to the surface to replace
convection heat losses?

2. A customer wants to heat a certain type of oil using a 30 W/in2 heater.

Checking the Watlow catalog, you discover that 23 W/in2 is the maximum
rating for this oil. What will you recommend to the customer? Why?

22
 Watlow Educational Series
Convection Factors Review
(con’t) 3. What is the maximum watt density that a Firerod can have if air ßow is per-
pendicular and at a rate of 1000 FPM? If a heater with 1,500 watts is required,
how large will the heated surface area of the Firerod be?

Factors Affecting
Radiation Heat Remember what radiation heat transfer is? Radiation heat transfer is the transfer
Transfer of heat from a high temperature object to a low temperature object via electro-
magnetic waves. No medium (like a solid or liquid) is required to transfer heat
energy. The factors which affect radiant heat transfer are emissivity, view factor,
temperature and wavelength.

Emissivity
Is all of the electromagnetic energy intercepted by an object absorbed by that
object? The answer is no. If all the energy is not absorbed, then what happens to
the rest of it? Electromagnetic waves striking an object are either absorbed,
reßected away or transmitted through the object (see Figure 23).

Figure 23

Radiant Heater

Emitted
Energy

Absorbed
Reflected
Energy
Energy
Object

Transmitted
Energy

The measure of a materialÕs ability to absorb electromagnetic energy is called

Emissivity (e) is a measure of
the ability of a material to
absorb or radiate electromag-
netic waves.
emissivity.* If a material reßects 20% of the electromagnetic energy striking it
and absorbs the other 80%, what is its emissivity? The materialÕs emissivity is
said to be 80%, or simply 0.8 (out of 1.0 possible). If a material has an emissivity
of 0.5, how much electromagnetic radiation will it absorb? It will absorb 50%
(0.5/1.0) of the energy it intercepts. The other 50% is either reßected off the
material or transmitted through it.

The emissivity value also tells us how well the material can emit or radiate
energy. A material with an emissivity of 0.8, radiates only 80% of the energy that
a perfect radiator at the same temperature could. A perfect radiator (emissivity =
1.0) is a theoretical material used to determine the emissivities of other materials.

So, emissivity is the measure of a materialÕs ability to absorb and emit radiation.
Why is emissivity important to radiant heat transfer? Performing an experiment
will answer the question.

* Technically, this is called ÒabsorptivityÓ. For our purposes emissivity and absorptivity mean the
same thing.
23
Heat Transfer
Emissivity (con’t)
Three aluminum plates will be heated under a radiant heater (Figure 24).
Aluminum typically has a low emissivity of about 0.2. To increase the emissivity
of plates 1 and 2, we coat them with different materials. The emissivity (e) of each
plate is indicated in Figure 24. Each plate has a temperature of 70ûF (21ûC) before
it is placed under the radiant heater. The plates are placed under the radiant
heater for one minute. After a minute we take a temperature reading. Which
plate reaches the highest temperature?

Figure 24
Radiant Heating of Plates

Watlow Watlow Watlow

Radiant Heater Panel T = 500¡C

Plate Plate Plate

e = 0.9 e = 0.5 e = 0.2•

For radiant heating applications,
the target material’s emissivity
should be as high as possible.
After one minute, plate 1 reaches the highest temperature. WHY? The answer
lies in plate 1Õs emissivity. All 3 plates intercept the same amount of radiation,
but plate 1 absorbs 90% of it (because e = 0.9). If plate 1 absorbs the most energy,
it makes sense that it heats up the quickest as well! Notice the bare aluminum
plate (plate 3) reaches only 100ûF. Why? With its low emissivity (e = 0.2), it
absorbs only 20% of the radiant energy striking it. The other 80% is reßected
away. This explains plate 3Õs small temperature increase.

What can we conclude from our experiment?

When using radiant heating, the target (object to be heated) should have the
highest emissivity possible.

Emissivities of selected materials are shown in Figure 25.

Figure 25
Material Emissivities

Specific Specific Emissivity

Material Heat Emissivity Material Heat Polished Medium Heavy
BTU/lb. °F BTU/lb.-°F Surface Oxide Oxide

Asbestos 0.25-0.2 Blackbody 0.75 1.00

Asphalt 0.40-0.2 Aluminum 0.24 0.09 0.11 0.22
Brickwork 0.22-0.2 Brass 0.10 0.04 0.35 0.60
Carbon 0.20-0.2 Most non-metals: Copper 0.10 0.04 0.03 0.65
Glass 0.20-0.2 0.90 Incoloy 800 0.12 0.20 0.60 0.92

Additional information on emissivities is available

from Watlow.

24

Emissivity (con’t)
View Factor
The closer a radiant heater is
to its target, the more radiant
energy that target will intercept.
If the target intercepts more
energy, it will heat up more
quickly.
Watlow Educational Series
Emissivity is also important for a radiant heater. Why? The higher the emissivity
of the radiant heater, the more energy it can radiate (at any given temperature)
to an object. The more radiant energy striking the object, the quicker it heats up.
Watlow radiant heaters typically have emissivities in the 0.85 to 0.9+ range.
If a material has a low emissivity, we generally avoid using radiant heating.
However, there are many applications where radiant heating is the only
alternative. In these cases, we try to increase emissivity as much as possible.
What are some ways to increase a materialÕs emissivity? Although not always
practical, here are some things to try:
¥ Roughen the surface by sanding it, or if a metal try oxidizing it.
¥ Coat the part with a high emissivity coating. Something as simple as thin layer
of dull (not glossy) paint or oil will do. Anodizing, galvanizing or some other
protective coating can be used on metals.
¥ If a thin Þlm plastic, increase Þlm thickness or use an opaque Þlm.
What happens when you put your hands near a Þre (Figure 26a)? They are close
to the heat source. The radiated energy from the Þre warms them very quickly.
As you move them away from the Þre, what do you feel? The farther away your
hands move, the less heat you feel against them. Did the Þre get colder? No, you
simply moved your hands away from the heat source.
Figure 26a Figure 26b
You have just ÒscientiÞcallyÓ proven an important fact about radiant heat trans-
fer. The smaller the distance between a heater and an object load, the more radi-
ant energy will actually hit the object. If more radiant energy hits the object,
more will be absorbed as well.
Now instead of your hands, you hold a large, ßat plate near the Þre (Figure 26b).
Which intercepts more radiant energy, your hands or the large plate? The plate
intercepts much more radiant energy. Why? The plate has a much larger surface
area than your hands. Thus, more of the radiant energy emitted by the Þre hits
the large plate than hits your relatively small hands.
You have just ÒscientiÞcallyÓ proven another important fact about radiant heat
transfer (Wow! Two discoveries in just a few minutes!). The larger the target
object is, the more radiant energy it will intercept. In other words, the size and
shape of an object affects radiant heat transfer.
25
Heat Transfer
View Factor (con’t)
View factor tells us the percent-
age of radiant energy leaving a
heater which is actually inter-
cepted by the work load.
For purposes of applying radiant heaters, these ÒdistanceÓ and Òsize and
shapeÓ relationships are combined into something called view factor. View
factor tells us the percentage of radiant energy leaving a heater which is actual-
ly intercepted by the work load. The higher the percentage, the quicker the work
load heats up. Figure 27 is the graph used to determine this percentage.
Figure 27
View Factor
‘

8
1.0
M = Heater Width
10.0
4.0
Distance to Object 0.7
2.0
0.5

N= Heater Length 0.4 1.0

Distance to Object 0.3 0.6

0.2 0.4 N
Shape Factor F

0.1 0.2

0.07

0.05 0.1
0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 10 20 ‘
M

Part of your job when working for Watlow or its distributor representatives is
to constantly look for improvements to a customerÕs application. This is part
of the Òintelligent sales supportÓ in our mission statement. We can use the view
factor graph to determine how efficient a customerÕs radiant application is or
will be.

Example: A customer has installed a Watlow radiant panel heater in a machine

Another way to think of view
factor is “the view that the radi-
ant heater has of an object”.
The closer the object is and the
larger its size, the better the
heater can “view” or “see” it.
to heat a 2 x 2 foot (610 x 610 mm) piece of coated sheet steel. The radiant panel
is 2 x 2 foot in size as well. It is positioned 6 inches (150 mm) above the steel sheet
(see Figure 28). Using the graph in Figure 27, we can answer these questions:
1. What percentage of radiant energy from the heater actually hits the sheet?
2. What do we recommend to improve this percentage (thereby increasing
radiant heat transfer)?

Figure 28

Radiant
Heat Source

6"

26 Steel Sheet
 Watlow Educational Series
View Factor (con’t)
Answering the Þrst question requires us to use Figure 27 and some simple math.
The Þrst step is to calculate values for ÒMÓ and ÒNÓ. Use the given information
to do this:

M = Heater width Ö Distance to product = 24 inches Ö 6 inches = 4

N = Heater length Ö Distance to product = 24 inches Ö 6 inches = 4

Both M and N equal 4. Using Figure 27, we Þnd the point where the M line and
N curve intersect. At that point, read across to the left to Þnd the value of the
view factor ÒFÓ. The view factor F is about 0.62. What does 0.62 mean? Under
present conditions, only 62 percent of the radiant energy emitted by the panel is
actually hitting the steel sheet. That means 38% of the energy radiated from the
heater doesnÕt even hit the sheet! It is scattered off somewhere and lost.

What is the answer to the second question? To increase the amount of radiant
energy which the steel sheet intercepts, we must move the heater and steel sheet
closer together. Do the next exercise to see what happens.

Exercise Seven

The smallest distance possible between heater and steel sheet (Figure 29) is
2 inches (50 mm). What percentage of radiant energy leaving the heater
actually strikes the sheet now? Is this better than before? Write down your
answers in the space below. Answers are on page 34.

Figure 29

Radiant
Heat Source

2"

Steel Sheet

Does moving the heater and steel sheet closer together increase efficiency? Yes!
Now 85% of the radiant energy emitted by the heater hits the sheet. Before, only
62% hit the steel sheet. Will the steel sheet heat up more quickly? Sure it will!
The steel sheet now intercepts over 1/3 more energy than it did before. As a
result, the customer can increase his machineÕs processing speed, for example.

Simply put - get the heat source (radiant heater) as close to the target (part to be
heated) as possible. This greatly increases radiant heating efficiency.
27
Heat Transfer
Temperature
Radiant heat transfer occurs when a temperature difference exists between two
objects. It seems reasonable that the greater this temperature difference is, the
more heat transfers from the hot object to the cool object. We see this around us
all the time. For example, a high temperature oven will bake a pie sooner than a
low temperature oven will. Why? The larger temperature difference (between
oven and pie) allows the high temperature oven to transfer or ÒpushÓ more heat
energy into the pie. This bakes the pie more quickly (assuming it doesnÕt burn
Þrst!!).

The temperature difference between heat source and the work load is especially
important in radiant heat transfer. Unlike conduction and convection, a small
increase in heater temperature GREATLY increases the amount of radiant energy
transfer from heater to target object. Figure 30 shows this relationship.

Figure 30
Radiation Energy Transfer Between Uniformly Equally Spaced Parallel Surfacers
(Planes and Concentric Cylinders)

2000

100 W/in2
90 W/in2 1800
80 W/in2

Heater Surface Temperature—¡F

70 W/in2
60 W/in2 1600

50 W/in2

40 W/in2 1400

30 W/in2
1200

20 W/in2
1000

10 W/in2
800
2
/in
W
0

5 W/in2
600
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

Load Temperature—¡F

The graph in Figure 30 assumes that all the energy radiated by the heater hits the
target or load (view factor = 1.0). It also assumes that all the energy which hits
the load is absorbed (emissivity = 1.0). We donÕt Þnd this situation in the Òreal
worldÓ. By using this graph however, we can explore how important tempera-
ture is to radiant heat transfer.

Example: If the surface temperature of a radiant heater is 1000ûF (540ûC) and the
work load surface temperature is 100ûF (38ûC) how much heat energy will trans-
fer through radiation? In Figure 30, follow the 1000ûF heater line to the left until
it intersects the 100ûF load line. The lines intersect at about 15 W/in2. What does
this mean? This means that 15 W/in2 is the net power (or heat energy) transfer
from the heater to the target load (assuming e = 1.0 and view factor = 1.0). Now
itÕs your turn.

28

Temperature (con’t)
Temperature is the “driving
force” in radiant heat transfer.
Increasing radiant heater tem-
perature by just a few hundred
degrees greatly increases the
amount of radiated energy.
Wavelength
Watlow Educational Series
Exercise Eight
At what heater surface temperature will the work load (at 100˚F) absorb a
total of 20 W/in2? Write your answer down below. Check your answer on
page 34.
Temperature to transfer 20 W/in2 =_____________˚F
Only a 100ûF increase in heater temperature causes a 33% increase (20 vs. 15
W/in2) in radiant heat transfer to the work load!! By contrast, there is only an 11%
increase in conduction or convection heat transfer under the same
conditions. Do you see how important temperature is in radiant heat transfer?!
A small increase in heater temperature greatly increases the amount of energy
radiated by a heater and transferred into a work load.
So far we have looked at the affects of increasing heater temperature. What hap-
pens to radiant heat transfer as the work load temperature increases? Does radi-
ant heat transfer increase or decrease? LetÕs Þnd out.
Exercise Nine
Assume a radiant heater (e = 1.0) is maintained at 1000˚F. What is the net
radiant energy transfer to a work load (e = 1.0) at 100˚F? What is it if the load
is at 700˚F (370˚C)? Is there a difference? Answers are on page 34
As the work load gets hotter, it radiates more and more energy back to the heater.
The more the load radiates, the less it keeps of the heat energy it absorbed from
the heater. Therefore, the net transfer of radiant energy decreases as load
temperature increases.
When you work on a radiant heater application, remember:
A small increase in heater temperature greatly increases radiant heat transfer.
Did you know that you can actually see electromagnetic waves? You donÕt real-
ly see a ÒwaveÓ, what you see is light and color. Why can we see these electro-
magnetic waves? Because our eyes recognize those particular wavelengths of
radiation. The wavelength is the peak-to-peak distance between waves (see
Figure 31).
29
Heat Transfer
Wavelength (con’t)
Figure 31

Metals begin to “glow” at about Wavelength

1150˚F (620˚C). At this temper-
ature a portion of the electro-
magnetic waves emitted by the
hot metal is in the visible light
wavelength range. Thus we can
“see” the heat radiation. Electromagnetic waves are identiÞed and grouped by their wavelength (see
Figure 32). The wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation are so small that they
have to be measured in units called ÒmicronsÓ. A micron is equal to 0.000001
meter or about 0.00004 inch. Referring to Figure 32, you probably recognize
many of the groups...radio waves...X-rays...ultraviolet rays...infrared rays...short
wave radio, etc. These are all speciÞc names for electromagnetic radiation at
different wavelengths.

Figure 32
Electromagnetic Spectrum

The length of a micron is very 10

-8
6 X 10 -6 1.4 X 10 -4 1.2 X 10 -2 0.4 0.7 2 10 6 10 7
4 X 10 5X1
small. How small is it? The
diameter of a human hair is

Short Waves
Short Wave
Centimeter

Broadcast
X Rays Infrared
about 50 microns or 0.002 inch.

Waves

Radio

Radio
Cosmic Rays

Ultra
Ultra
GAMMA RAYS Violet

Wavelengths, Microns
0.4 0.7 2.0 4.0 100 400

Sunlight
Visible

Infrared
Short Medium Far
IR IR IR
Violet Red

Notice that Òvisible lightÓ has wavelengths between about 0.4 and 0.7 microns.
Our eyes are designed to detect (or be ÒsensitiveÓ to) electromagnetic waves in
this range only. That is why we can see them and not other types of waves.

The energy radiated by

Watlow heaters (and absorbed
by objects) is in the infrared
wavelength region, from about
0.5 to 100 microns. Infrared
temperature sensors detect
wavelengths in the infrared
range as well.
This is nice to know, but how can we use this information to apply Watlow
heaters? Excellent question! Just as our eyes are only ÒsensitiveÓ to certain wave-
lengths of radiation, a given material is only ÒsensitiveÓ to certain wavelengths,
too. In other words, a given material will only absorb certain wavelengths of
radiation. Other wavelengths of radiation which hit that material are reßected or
transmitted through the material. Why? Because that material cannot ÒseeÓ
those wavelengths, so it doesnÕt absorb them.
If we know which wavelengths of radiation are best absorbed by a material, we
can adjust the heater temperature to radiate most of its energy at those wave-
lengths. This increases the efficiency of the radiant system and keeps our
customers happy.

30

Wavelength (con’t)
Wavelength is a function of tem-
perature. The higher the tem-
perature, the shorter the wave-
length of the electromagnetic
waves.
The Watlow publication entitled
“Radiant Heating With Infrared”
explores radiant heat transfer
topics in more detail. It also
works through radiant heating
applications and gives you
many hints for good oven
design.
Watlow Educational Series
Why will adjusting heater temperature affect radiant energy wavelength? The
wavelength of radiation emitted by a heater is directly related to its temperature.
The higher the temperature, the shorter the wavelength. So, for example, if we
know a material absorbs radiant energy best at short wavelengths, we will choose
a higher temperature heater.
Fortunately, for the majority of radiant applications, we can ignore any affects
that temperature and wavelength have on emissivity. We just use a materialÕs
average emissivity (as shown in Figure 25). One place we cannot ignore this, how-
ever, is when heating plastic Þlms and thin, semi-clear materials. Plastic Þlms
only absorb radiation at certain, speciÞc wavelengths. LetÕs Þnd out why.
Figure 33 shows the transmission spectrum of polyethylene plastic 0.004 inch (0.1
mm) thick. This graph shows the amount of radiant energy transmitted through
the product at various wavelengths. The higher the ÒtransmissionÓ line is on the
graph, the more radiant energy passes through the plastic Þlm. This graph shows
that about 80% of the radiation striking this plastic Þlm passes right through it!
Figure 33
Transmission Spectrum of Polyethylene (0.004 inch thick)
100 Polyethylene
80
Transmissions %
60
40
20
0
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0
Wavelength (microns)
Only at the ÒdipsÓ in the graph (at 3.5, 6.9, and 13.6 to 14 microns) does the poly-
ethylene absorb the majority of radiation striking it. Once we have identiÞed
these wavelengths, the temperature of the radiant heater is set so that it radiates
as much energy possible in the 3.5, 6.9 and 13+ micron wavelengths. Since this is
a rather complex process, the application information is sent in to Watlow appli-
cation specialists. They then determine the optimal heater temperature.
What happens if we disregard the affect of wavelength on the plastic ÞlmÕs emis-
sivity? A radiant heater we recommend may perform badly in the application.
The customer will Þnd that the plastic Þlm is not heating up very much at all.
What should you remember about radiation and wavelengths?
¥ Use average emissivity values provided in tables for most materials.
¥ When plastic Þlms or other thin, semi-transparent material are heated
through radiation, you must get absorption or transmission spectrum graphs
from the material manufacturer. Watlow uses this information to recommend
the best heater temperature for the application.
31
Heat Transfer
Booklet Review
Questions
YouÕve made it!! You have gone from deÞning ÒheatÓ to applying radiant
wavelength relationships. What a journey! What an experience! We are happy
you made it this far. Can you tell?

To see how well you understand and can apply the things you learned in this
booklet, test yourself. Answer the review questions below. Once Þnished,
check your answers on page 35. If you missed a question, go back and review
that section. If that still doesnÕt help, contact your friendly Watlow sales agent
or factory technical personnel.

1. Heat energy transfer takes place regardless of whether there is a tempera-

ture difference or not. True or false.

2. Conduction is heat transfer through a solid or through two solids in contact

with one another; convection is the heat transfer through electromagnetic
waves; radiation is the transfer of heat through the mixing of ßuids.
True or false.

3. A heater is rated for 1000 Watts. The heated surface area of the heater is 10
inches by 5 inches. The maximum watt density for the application is
15 W/in2. Will the heater have a long life? Brießy explain.

4. If a heaterÕs watt density is too high for an application, what can we do to

increase heater life?

5. A thermal system uses various materials having high and low thermal
conductivities. Why are low thermal conductivity materials typically used?
a. They are less expensive and conduct heat more quickly than high
conductivity materials
b. These materials are used to transfer heat energy from the heater to the
material being processed.
c. These materials insulate the thermal system to lower heat losses.

6. The amount of surface contact which a heater has to the part it is heating is
important because:
a. The less contact, the better the heat transfer
b. The more the contact, the better the heat transfer
c. Less surface contact causes the heater to increase in temperature.

7. Using Figure 17, what is the convection heat loss from a horizontal upward-
facing surface which is maintained at 1200ûF (650ûC)?

a. 2.1 W/in2 b. 3.25 W/in2 c. 3.5 W/in2 d. 4.2 W/in2 e. 0 W/in2

8. The most useful effect of forced convection is that:

a. More wattage can be packed into the same size heater.
b. More liquid or gas can be heated due to the use of higher watt densities.
c. Both a. and b. are correct.
32
 Watlow Educational Series

d. None of the above are correct.

9. An application requires high viscosity oil to be heated. Because high
viscosity oils ßow and mix so easily, a high watt density heater is the best
solution. True or false.

10. Which material will absorb the most radiant energy striking it? Use Figure 25
to assist you.
a. Brass (oxidized)
b. Copper (oxidized)
c. Carbon
d. Aluminum (oxidized)

11. A radiant heater (e = 1.0) operates at a temperature of 1100ûF (595ûC). It heats

a part (e = 1.0) from 100 to 300ûF (40 - 150ûC). The customer wants a quicker
heat up time, so heater temperature is increased to 1300ûF (705ûC). Using the
average part temperature, determine the increase in net radiant heat transfer
from 1100ûF to 1300ûF. Use Figure 30 to help.
a. 8 W/in2 b. 12 W/in2 c. 18 W/in2 d. 20 W/in2 e. 22 W/in2

12. When using radiant heat to heat up a plastic Þlm, it is O.K. to ignore the
wavelengths of radiation that a plastic Þlm will absorb. True or false.

13. A 10 x 30 inch (255 x 760 mm) radiant panel heats a part of the same size. The
distance from the heater to the part is 4 inches (100 mm). What percentage of
radiation emitted by the radiant panel strikes the part? Use Figure 27.
a. 40% b. 50% c. 60% d. 70% e. 80%

Answers to Reviews
and Exercises
Answers to Review of Heat Transfer

1. True 2. False 3. b. & c. 4. a. 5. True

6. Convection - Liquids and gases, Mixing, Heat transfer from a surface to a

liquid.
Conduction - Solids, Physical contact, Temperature differences within a solid.
Radiation - Electromagnetic waves, Vacuums and gases, Objects separated by
some distance.

7a. Convection, because the tubular heaterÕs main function is to heat the air in the
oven, which in turn heats the food being baked.

7b. Conduction along the walls of the oven, radiation from the tubular heater and
oven walls to the food; radiation from the heater to the oven walls.

Answers to Exercises

Exercise 1. 3,750 Watts / (25 in x 15 in) = 10 W/in2

Exercise 2. 8 W/in2 x (25 in x 15 in) = 3000 Watts. Notice that to calculate the new
wattage rating, all we did was rearrange the equation used in Exercise One.

Exercises 3 & 4. Answers are in the text following the questions.

33
Heat Transfer
Answers to Reviews and
Exercises (con’t)
Exercise 5. Vertical losses - There are 4 vertical sides, so we use the heat loss value
directly from the graph at 200ûF. Heat loss value equals 0.25 W/in2. Multiply sur-
face area by the heat loss value:

Vertical losses = 0.25 W/in2 x (4 sides x 1 foot x 1 foot) x (144 in2 /ft2 ) = 144 Watts

Horizontal losses - Heat loss value is 0.25 W/in2 x 1.29 convection multiplier =
0.3225 W/in2. Multiply surface area by the heat loss value:

Horizontal losses = 0.3225 W/in2 x (1 side x 1 foot x 1 foot) x (144 in2 /ft2 )
= 46 Watts

Total heat losses to make up: 144 + 46 = 190 Watts.

Exercise 6. Max. W/in2 @ 1500 FPM = about 83 W/in2

New heated surface area = 500 Watts / 83 W/in2 = 6 in2

Exercise 7. First, go back and adjust the M and N values for the new 2 inch
distance:

M = Heater width Ö Distance to product = 24 inches Ö 2 inches = 12

N = Heater length Ö Distance to product = 24 inches Ö 2 inches = 12

Notice that both values for M and N jumped from 4 to 12! Use View Factor graph
to Þnd the view factor F. The point where the M line and N curve meet is at F =
0.85. Thus 85% of the radiation now hits the part. Compared to 62%, this is much
better.

Exercise 8. 1100ûF (595ûC)

Exercise 9. Using the graph in Figure 30, when heater = 1000ûF and work load =
100ûF, the net heat transfer is 15 Win2. At a work load temperature of 700ûF, the
net radiant heat transfer drops to about 10 W/in2.

Answers to Thermal Conductivity Values

Brass (70/30) = 672 Btu¥in/hr¥ft2¥F

Mica = 3 Btu¥in/hr¥ft2¥F
Fiberglass = 0.26 Btu¥in/hr¥ft2¥F
Carbon Steel = 456 Btu¥in/hr¥ft2¥F

Answers to Convection Factors Review

1. 5 ft2 x 144 in2/ft2 = 720 in2; Using the graph in Figure 17, heat loss value at
400ûF = 0.8 W/in2; since a horizontal upward-facing surface is used, multiply
by 1.29 convection multiplier; new heat loss value = 0.8 x 1.29 = 1.03 W/in2.

Total heat that must be applied = 720 in2 x 1.03 W/in2 = 742 Watts.

2. Customer should reduce heater watt density to 23 W/in2 maximum, other-

wise the oil will burn and heater may have a short life.

3. Maximum watt density is about 77 W/in2. 1,500 W/77 W/in2 = 19.5 in2
heated surface area.
34
 Watlow Educational Series
Answers to Reviews and
Exercises (con’t) Answers to Booklet Review

1. False. Heat transfer only take place when a temperature difference exists

2. False. Convection and radiation are reversed.

3. Heater watt density = 1000 watts/(10 in. x 5 in.) = 20 W/in2. This is much
larger than the maximum of 15 W/in2, thus heater will operate at a high
er temperature, providing short heater life.

4. Reduce the heater watt density, make changes in the equipment to increase
heat transfer to the work load, or increase heater size to effectively reduce
watt density

5. c. is correct.

6. b. is correct

7. b. 3.25 W/in2 is correct.

8. c. Both a. and b. are correct.

9 False. High viscosity oils are thick and do not like mixing, thus low watt
density heaters are required.

10. c. Carbon has the highest emissivity, thus absorb most of the radiation
striking it.

11. b. is correct. Increasing temperature from 1100ûF to 1300ûF at an average load

or part temperature of 200ûF increases watt density transferred from 20 to
32 W/in2. Thus additional heat transfer is 12 W/in2.

12. False.

13. c. 0.6 (or 60%) is the F (view factor) value where M = 2.5 and N = 7.5 .

35
 Designer and Manufacturer of Industrial
Heaters, Sensors and Controls

Watlow St. Louis • 12001 Lackland Road • St. Louis, Missouri 63146 USA • Phone: 314-878-4600 • FAX: 314-434-1020

For information on other training books and materials available from

Watlow, please call 314-878-4600 or fax 314-434-1020 COR-WE1-16