Chapter 1

Introduction to materials and

family of materials

Chapter 1 (Callister)
 Study outcomes:
•Appreciate the development and increase in diversity of
materials.
•Know and define material properties
•Know the five family of materials
•Understand the classification system for a material .
•Know the three families of processing of a material
•Understand the classification system of the process.
•Process property interaction
•Specify a material and /or process for manufacturing of a
given component
1.1 Materials , process and choice.

• Why do we need materials???

• To make something out of material you

need a process.

• Process has to be compatible with the

material you plan to use.
Figure 1.1 The development of materials over time. The materials of pre-history, on the left, all occur naturally; the
challenge for the engineers of that era was one of shaping them. The development of thermochemistry and (later) of
polymer chemistry enabled man-made materials, shown in the colored zones. Three—stone, bronze and iron—were of
such importance that the era of their dominance is named after them.
 1.2 Material properties
• Mechanical properties
• Thermal properties
• Electrical, magnetic and optical properties
• Chemical properties
 1.2.1 Mechanical Properties
Some of the important mechanical property terms:
1)E: Elastic Modulus indicates the stiffness of material.
For example steel has E of 207Gpa and polyethylene
has1.08Gpa
2) Yield strength Strength at which permanent
deformation start to occur. Examples Al alloys has
107Mpa Lead has 5.5 Mpa
3) Tensile strength :is defined as the highest value of
engineering stress
examples High strength steel 3000 MPa , Al-500 MPa
4) Fracture toughness: measure of resistance to crack and
fracture. Glass epitomizes brittleness;it has low K1c
0.77Mpa*(m)1/2 and steel has 54Mpa *(m)1/2.
 1.2.1 Mechanical Properties
5) Ductility : It is the maximum deformation to
fracture
6) Hardness : It is the resistance to plastic
deformation when object under load penetrates
the material.
7) Resilience :It is the measure of the amount of
energy that can be absorbed under elastic
loading conditions and which is released
completely when loads are removed.
Fig shows consequences of various mechanical properties
mentioned above.
 1.2.2 Thermal properties
Properties of material change with temperature. With
increasing temperature it starts to creep, it may oxidize
or degrade and there is loss of strength.
1) There is a limiting temperature called the maximum
service temperature Tmax for use of material.
2) Thermal expansion coefficient __. Materials expand
when heated but by differing amount which depend on
this factor. Its unit is (C-1)
Thermal conductivity and heat capacity are the two
factors responsible for the feel of the material.
Thermal conductivity λ measures the rate at which heat
flows through the material . Unit is W/m K.
Heat capacity Cp is the measure of the amount of heat
that it takes to make temperature of material rise by a
given amount .Unit is J/K
Uses of materials with high and low thermal conductivity
and heat capacity
Thermal diffusivity : The property governing transient
heat flow (when temperature varies with time) is the
thermal diffusivity, a (units : m2/sec)
Various aspects of thermal properties
 1.2.3.Electrical, magnetic and
chemical properties
• Electrical conduction
• Resistivity. It is the inverse of electrical conductivity.
The materials for conductors and insulators.
• Dielectric properties

• Electric current induce magnetic fields.

• Hard magnets and soft magnets and their uses
• Optical properties
• Products often have to function in hostile environment.
 Design- limiting properties
The performance of a component is limited by certain
properties of material of which it is made. Materials are
chosen by identifying design limiting properties and
applying limits to them.
 1.3 Classifying materials
• Conventionally
materials are
classified into five
broad families.
1. Metals
2. Polymers
3. Ceramic / Glasses
4. Composites
5. Advanced materials
Examples of each material family
• Members of each family have
certain characteristics in
common:
1. Metals : Have high stiffness, they are tough
with usefully high fracture toughness. They are
made strong by alloying ,mechanical process
and heat treatment. They are reactive and so
most of them corrode if not protected.
the key feature that distinguishes metal from
non metals is their bonding. Metallic materials
have free electrons that are free to move easily
from one atom to next
• Metals are mainly grouped into two
categories
• Ferrous metals and alloys examples are
irons , carbon steel, alloy steels , stainless
steel , tool steel and die steels
• Non ferrous metals and alloys
Examples are Aluminum, copper, nickel,
titanium precious metals, super alloys and
others alloys
Typical examples of metals and its family
2 Ceramics : They are non metallic inorganic
solids. They are typically crystalline in nature
and are compounds formed between metallic
and non metallic elements ex Alumina, silicon
nitride
The two most common chemical bonds in
ceramic materials are covalent and ionic bond
They are stiff hard abrasion resistant and
retain their strength to high temperatures. Most
of them are good insulators. They have low
K1c value.
• Typical examples of ceramics are
• Structural clay products (bricks, roofing ,
wall tile etc)
• Refractories, cements, abrasives, cutting
tools
• Graphite , sand
3 Glasses : Are noncrystalline solids.
Commonest are borosilicate glasses and
sodalime. Lack of crystal structure
suppresses plasticity. They are hard and
remarkably corrosion resistant . They are
excellent insulators and transparent to
light. But like ceramics they are brittle .
• Uses : flat glass for windows, container
glass (bottles) pressed and blown glass
(Dinnerware), glass fibers (home
insulation)
4 Polymers : are organic solids based on long chain of
carbon atoms. They are characterized by low density
and low moduli E. They are easy to shape. Few
polymers have useful strength above 1500C
the polymer is a long chain of covalent bonded atoms
and secondary bonds then hold group of polymer
chains together
Industrially important polymeric materials are plastics
plastics can be subdivided into two groups
thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics
Examples of thermoplastics are polyethylene,
polypropylene, polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride
Examples of thermosetting polymers include alkyds,
phenolic resins, epoxies, polyurethanes and
unsaturated polyesters
5 Composites (Hybrids): a composite is
usually defined as a combination of two or
more distinct materials, each of which
retains its own distinctive properties, to
create a new material with properties that
cannot be achieved by any of the
components alone Ex concrete is mixture
of Portland cement and aggregate
• Composites are said to have two phases.
The reinforcing phase is the fibers, sheets
or particles that are embedded in the
matrix phase.
• Typically reinforcing materials are strong
with low densities while matrix is usually
ductile or tough material.
• Typical examples are reinforced plastics.
Metal matrix composites, ceramic matrix
composites etc
• Advanced materials:
They are members of the above families but
with specific applications e.g electronic,
bio materials and nanomaterials
Kingdom Family Class Sub- Member
Class
Steel
Ceramics 1000
Cu alloys 6013
Material Metals Al alloys 2000
Ti alloys 6060
Polymers 3000
Ni alloys 6061
Hybrids Zn alloys 4000
6063
Advanced 5000
6151
6000
7000

The taxonomy of the kingdom of materials and their

attributes. Computer-based selection software stores
data in a hierarchical structure like this.
 1.4Process and its classification

A process is the method of joining, shaping or finishing a
material. The choice of material limits the choice of
process.

The first row contains primary shaping process below it secondary process, followed by family of joining and finishing
• Primary process creates shapes. The six primary
process are listed :like casting , molding, deformation
methods , powder methods, methods for forming
composites, special methods.
• Secondary process: modifies the shapes and properties.
Like machining which add features to already shaped
body, heat treatment which enhances surface or bulk
properties.
• After secondary process comes joining and surface
treatment
• Sand casting : it consists of following steps
• Placing a pattern having the shape of
desired casting in sand to make an imprint
• Incorporating the gating system
• Filling the resulting cavity with molten
metal
• Allowing the metal to cool until it solidifies
• Breaking away the sand mold
• Removing the casting
• Investment casting / lost wax process:
• The pattern is made of wax by injecting wax into
a metal die in the shape of pattern
• The pattern is dipped in slurry of refractory
material. After initial coating has dried, the
pattern is coated repeatedly to increase the
thickness
• Then the mold is dried in air and heated to
remove wax by keeping in inverted position
• Nos of molds are made and joined to form a tree
to increase the production rate.
• Then molten metal is poured into these molds
which take the shape, and once solidified they
are taken out
• Die casting/ permanent mold casting: in
this two halves of the mold is made of
materials such as cast iron steel or
refractory metals
• The molds are clamped together by
mechanical means
• Deformation methods : ex rolling , forging,
drawing, extrusion
• Rolling :It is process of reducing thickness
or changing cross- section of long work
piece by compressive force applied
through a set of rolls
• Main products are flat plate, sheet and foil
in long length, production of seamless
tubing's.
• Rolling may be carried out at room
temperature (cold rolling) or at elevated
temperature (hot rolling)
• Forging is the process by which metal is heated
and is shaped by plastic deformation by suitably
applying compressive force. Usually the
compressive force is in the form of hammer
blows using a power hammer or a press.
• Forging refines the grain structure and improves
physical properties of the metal. With proper
design, the grain flow can be oriented in the
direction of principal stresses encountered in
actual use. Grain flow is the direction of the
pattern that the crystals take during plastic
deformation. Physical properties (such as
strength, ductility and toughness) are much
better in a forging than in the base metal, which
has, crystals randomly oriented.
• Extrusion : It is a process of forcing a billet
through a die, in a manner similar to
squeezing toothpaste from a tube. Almost
any solid or hollow cross section may be
produced by extrusion.
• Typical products made by extrusion are
railings for sliding doors, tubings having
various cross sections.
• Drawing is an operation in which the cross
section of solid rod , wire or tubing is
reduced or changed in shape by pulling it
through a die
• Products are wire and wire cables
Welding electrodes, springs , paper clips,
spokes for bicycles, stringed musical
instruments etc.
• Deep drawing . Basically a sheet forming
process. Main products are beverage
cans, kitchen sinks, automotive fuel tanks
etc.
• Molding methods ( mainly for shaping
plastics)
• Injection molding: in this process the
granules or pellets are fed from the hopper
to the rotating screw system or hydraulic
plunger. The granules / pellets are heated
and are forced into a split die chamber.
• Typical products include cups , containers,
electrical and communication components,
toys etc.
• Blow molding: it is modified form extrusion
and injection molding process together .
The blow molding process begins with
melting down the plastic and forming it into
a preform. The preform is a tube-like piece
of plastic with a hole in one end in which
compressed air can pass through. The
parison is then clamped into a mold and
air is pumped into it. the air pressure then
pushes the plastic out to match the mold.
Once the plastic has cooled and hardened
the mold opens up and the part is ejected
• Powder metallurgy uses sintering process for
making various parts out of metal powder. The
metal powder is compacted by placing in a
closed metal cavity (the die) under pressure.
This compacted material is placed in an oven
and sintered in a controlled atmosphere at high
temperatures and the metal powders coalesce
and form a solid. A second pressing operation,
repressing, can be done prior to sintering to
improve the compaction and the material
properties.

in a broad manner the process universe can be
classified as three families : shaping , joining and surface
treatment.

The taxonomy of the kingdom of process with part of

the shaping family expanded. Each member is
characterized by a set of attributes. Process selection
involves matching these to the requirements of the
design.
Examples of families and class of manufacturing
 Process property interaction
 Processing change properties.
• If you hammer a metal it gets harder; if you heat it
softens.
• Plastic bags when drawn to fibers , its strength increases
by a factor 5
• Soft stretchy rubber is made hard and brittle by
vulcanizing
 1.5 Material property charts
Data sheets do not allow comparison, perspective. For these we need
• Material bar-charts and Material bubble charts
 A bar chart is simply a plot of one property for all materials

A bar chart of modulus .It reveals the difference in

stiffness between the families
Bubble chart : two properties are plotted. Scales are logarithmic. Each
family distinctly separated and occupies a characteristic field

A bubble chart of modulus and density.

Families occupy discrete areas of the chart.
 Material property charts are used as core tool because
• They give an overview of physical , mechanical and
functional properties of materials, presenting information
in a compact way
• They reveal aspects of physical origins of properties
• They become a tool for optimized selection of materials
to meet design requirements and help understand the
use of materials in existing products.

• Exercises pg 26 and 27(Ashby)

Solve E2.1, E2.2,E2.4 and E2.5..