BIO 136

Human Anatomy & Physiology

For Non-Majors
6:57 am, Jan 10, 2006
© Jim Swan

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1
 Four Basic Tissue Types:

Epithelial – lining and secretory tissue

Connective – supportive and nutritive tissue

Muscular – contracts to produce movement

Nervous – integration and control

A tissue is a group of cells working together to perform one or more specific functions. There are
four tissue types in the human body.
Epithelial tissue-found as the lining and covering of organs and body cavities, the secretory
parts of organs and glands, the transport membranes of capillaries and alveolar sacs, and
membranes which lubricate organs. Connective tissue-supports as bone, cartilage, tendons
and ligaments, protects asthe bony cavities and as protective immune cells in the blood, and
storesnutrients. Nervous tissue-the tissue which carries information in the form of impulses
throughout the body. Muscle tissue-contracts to perform movements such as skeletal muscle
movements, propulsion in the GI tract, and pumping blood in the heart.

8
 Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue
• Closely packed cells of a mostly uniform type
• Cells attached to a basement membrane
• Cells are joined by a junctional complex
•Tight junctions
• Desmosomes
• Gap junctions

10

The basement membrane consists of a basal lamina made of glycoprotein (similar to the
glycocalyx on the apical surface) and a reticular lamina made of collagen.

10
 An Epithelial Cell
The apical or free
surface
Tight junction

Desmosome
Gap junction
The
The basement
basement membrane
membrane is
is composed
composed of:
of:
•• basal
basal lamina
lamina –– aa “glue”
“glue” similar
Theto
similar to the
the glycocalyx
basal glycocalyx
or
•• reticular
reticular lamina
lamina –– collagen
collagen fibers
attached
fibers
surface
Basement membrane
16

All epithelial tissues are attached to a basement membrane along a basal surface. The free or
apical surface is open to the environment or extracellular fluid. Epithelial cells, certain muscle
cells, and others which lie side by side also have specialized connections between them, called a
junctional complex. In epithelium this connection is particularly significant because it allows a
sheet of cells to create a barrier or semipermeable membrane, thus compartmentalizing a tissue
and restricting passage of substances across the epithelium. (See Review Notes)

16
Epithelium is named according to shape,
structure, and arrangement of cells.

Shapes of Epithelium
•squamous - thin and flat cells
•cuboidal - cube shaped cells
•columnar - column shaped cells

17

17
 Epithelial Shapes

Which cell types would lend themselves

to which functions: passive transport,
active secretion and transport, etc?
Think of complementarity.

Figure 4.1b 18

The nuclei of epithelial cells varies in shape from one type to another. Nuclear shape and
location can be important is differentiating some types of epithelial tissues.

18
Arrangement of Epithelial Cells
•simple - single layer of cells
•stratified - multilayered cells
•pseudostratified - false stratified
•transitional - stretchable
•ciliated - cells possess cilia

19

19
 Simple vs. Stratified

Single Layer

The basement membrane.

Multi-layered

20

In simple epithelium every cell has an apical and a basal surface, which is attached to the
basement membrane. In stratified epithelium only the lowermost (basal) layer is attached to the
basement membrane, and only the outermost layer has an apical surface.

20
 Simple Squamous Epithelium

This is the thinnest tissue in the body, used

where a semipermeable membrane allows
transport, e.g. the respiratory gases across the
Tissue alveolar membrane in the lungs, and gases,
Basement Membrane Tissue wraps
wraps to
to form
form
capillaries,
capillaries, alveoli of
alveoli of lungs,
lungs,
nutrients, wastes, and other molecules across
etc.
etc. capillary walls. The basement membrane ends
up as the outer connective covering of the
tubes or sacks formed from it and as such can
Blood
capillary
be an important filter in what gets in or out.

21

21
 Functions of Simple Squamous
Epithelium
• The thinnest tissue of the body.
• Allows transport across membranes in lungs and
capillaries.
• Secretes fluid in serous membranes (e.g.
pericardial and pleural membranes, mesenteries).
• Lines cardiovascular system, covers organs, forms
glomerular capsules in kidney.

22

22
 Mesothelial Lining of Peritoneal Cavity

Plasma
membrane

cytoplasm
nucleus

23

The peritoneum lines the abdomen and covers abdominal organs, where it secretes mucus to act
as a lubricant and prevent tearing and abrasion as the organs move and shift. This tissue also
forms the mesenteries which attach between abdominal organs to serve the same purpose.

23
 Bowman’s Capsule in the Kidney

Nucleus of
simple
squamous cell

Edgewise view
of simple
squamous cell
capillaries

24

Simple squamous cells are so thin their nuclei are thicker than the rest of the cell. But the cells of
the outer layer of Bowman’s capsule produce a wall which contains fluid filtering out of the
capillaries.

24
 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Tissue
Tissue wraps
wraps to
to
Basement
form
form tubules and
tubules and
membrane
ducts
ducts of
of glands.
glands.

Forms ducts, tubules and secretory cells in

exocrine glands and in organs such as the
kidney. 25

When the sheet of epithelium wraps the basement membrane remains as an outer connective
tissue covering of the duct or glandular tubule.

25
 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
in Ducts and Glands

duct
Secretion by
exocytosis
Cuboidal cells

Acinus (sac-like structure, the secretory unit)

26

Cuboidal epithelial cells are the most prevalent cells in glands of all types, producing the
secretions that the glands release. One type of gland, the exocrine gland, secretes into a specific
location by means of ducts which are also made of cuboidal cells.

26
 Convoluted Tubules of the Kidney

Nucleus of
cuboidal cell

Lumen of tubule

If you want more information, try looking at the

interactive slides of: The Virtual Microscope:
http://webanatomy.net/microscope/microscope.htm
28

You are looking at numerous tubules scattered throughout the cortex (outer layer) of the kidney.
These tubules appear as various shapes depending on their orientation to the plane of the
section.

28
 Simple Columnar Epithelium
Apical
Apical surface
((surface
may
may have
have
microvilli
microvilli oror cilia
cilia
Cell nuclei lie toward
basal surface

• Non-ciliated in the GI tract, e.g. stomach and

intestinal lining.
• Ciliated in portions of the respiratory and
genitourinary tracts.
29

Columnar epithelium comes as short and tall columnar cells and lengths in between. Nuclei
occur closer to the basal layer of the cells.

29
 Simple Columnar Epithelium
in the Gastrointestinal Tract

Goblet cells
secrete mucus

Basement
membrane

31

Goblet cells are found in columnar epithelium which lines the GI tract. The mucus serves to
protect the lining cells and functions as a lubricant.

31
 Simple Columnar Epithelium in the Small Intestine
This is the cell pictured in slide 54 Goblet cell
of the introbio presentation.

villus
nucleus Lamina propria
32

Villi are finger-like projections which line the small intestine. They are covered with simple
columnar epithelial cells interspersed with goblet cells. The goblet cells secrete mucus which
helps protect the GI lining. Within the villi, beneath the epithelial layer, is a connective tissue
called the lamina propria in which are found capillaries and lymph vessels.

32
 Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium

Ciliated simple columnar is found in large

bronchioles of the respiratory tract and in
the genitourinary tract.
33

Ciliated epithelia are found in locations such as the respiratory and genitourinary tract where the
cilia beats in waves to move fluid along the passageways.

33
 Ciliated Simple Columnar of Fallopian Tube

nucleus

cilia
lumen

Ciliated simple
columnar cells
connective tissue
34

In the female reproductive tract ciliary movement is used to transport the egg down the fallopian
tube.

34
Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium
(PCCE)
cilia
Primary lining of
the Respiratory
tract
Nuclei

AAnon-ciliated
non-ciliatedpseudostratified
pseudostratifiedepithelium
epithelium
is
isfound
foundininlarge
largeglands
glandsand
andparts
partsof
ofmale
male
urethra.
urethra.

35

35
 P.C.C.E
produces movement along the lining tissue

36

Cilia exhibit a two-part movement which keeps mucus or other fluid moving along the lining
surface. See [ciliary movement video], Marieb Figure 3.27, and [cilia] diagram.

36
 Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium
in the respiratory tract
Cilia
Goblet cells secrete
mucus

Pseudostratified
epithelial cells
Basal cells undergo mitosis to repair and replace
the tracheal lining. The function of the ciliated
cells and their replacement is severely reduced
when damage from nicotine occurs.

Cilia beat in wave-like fashion to move mucus along the

lining surface, carrying dust and particulates up and out of
the respiratory tract. 37

37
 P.C.C.E. in the Trachea

Lumen of Trachea

nucleus
cilia P.C.C.E.

Goblet cell

Basal cell

As in most all epithelia, basal cells undergo mitosis

to produce new cells so that the epithelium
constantly exfoliates and is renewed.
38

Goblet cells are named based on their shape, like a glass goblet with a wide mouth and a narrow
base.

38
 Transitional Epithelium

Transitional epithelium lines the urinary tract

where it provides stretchability.
superficial cells
What about these cells is an
example of complementarity?
4-5 cells non-distended,
3 cells stretched.

basement membrane
39

In the bladder and in the ureters, which bring urine from the kidneys, stretchability helps prevent
excessive pressure on the kidneys when urination occurs.

39
 Transitional Epithelium
Wall of the urinary bladder

Non-distended
transitional
epithelium.

basement membrane

40

Transitional epithelium lines the renal calyces, the ureters, the urinary bladder,
and a portion of the urethra. Distension reduces the number of cell layers from 4or 5 to 3

40
 Stratified Squamous
old cells exfoliate from surface

cells move
up from
below

Basal layer
undergoes
mitosis 41

Stratified squamous epithelium forms the outer layer or epidermis of the skin. Skin is
found as the
Stratified organ ofepithelium
squamous the integument
formsand
the also
outeraslayer
the lining of the oral
or epidermis cavity,
of the skin.esophagus,
Skin
s found as the organ of the integument and also as the lining of the oral cavity,
anus and vagina. In the body’s external skin the epidermis is keratinized, i.e. the outer
esophagus,
cells anus andwith
are impregnated vagina. In the
keratin body’s
which external
helps skin the
to produce epidermis protective
a waterproof, is layer.
keratinized, i.e. the outer cells are impregnated with keratin which
In the internal skin which lines cavities this keratinization is not present. helps to

d t f t ti l I

41
 Stratified Squamous
in the Epidermis of the Skin

Flattened, cornified cells cover the surface as the stratum

corneum.

epidermis of stratified dermis

squamous epithelium
Stratum basale cells constantly
42
undergo mitosis.

In keratinized skin the outer layer of the epidermis becomes impregnated with keratin and the
cells lose their living components. The cornified layer is a protective layer of dead cells.

42
 Non-keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

squamous surface
cell

Stratified squamous
epithelium

Connective
submucosa
Section of vaginal wall.

43

Non-keratinized skin is found in locations which are kept moist by secretions, such
as the esophagus, mouth, anus, and vagina. Notice how the cells of the
intermediate layers of the stratified squamous epithelium do not flatten and
loose their nucleus as they do in keratinized epithelium (previous slide).

43
 Characteristics of Connective Tissues*

• widely spaced cells – consist of various types

• intercellular matrix – a.k.a. ground substance

* These tissues are sometimes classified as

• connective tissue proper or true connective tissue
• cartilage and bone tissue.

44

Connective tissues are supportive tissues and are derived from mesenchyme stem cells, a
product of the mesoderm. The cells of connective tissue are not usually close together and have
a fluid intercellular matrix between them. The term extracellular matrix (ECM) can also be
used, but usually is applied to the attachments of cells, including other cell types, not just those
in connective tissues.

44
 Intercellular matrix components:

•loose or dense structure

•fibers - may be collagen (inelastic), elastin (elastic),
or reticular.
• ground substance - a semiliquid containing water,
glycoproteins, and other substances

45

The matrix may be loose, dense, or have other specialized characteristics, it may have one or
more types of fiber, and has a ground substance with semi-solid to fluid gel or other materials.
All of these features determine the structure and function of the variety of these tissues found
throughout the body.

45
 Types of Fibers: Collagen

• collagen fibers - high tensile strength with some

flexibility found in inelastic types of tissues.

Collagen
Collagen isisactually
actually aaglycoprotein
glycoprotein formed
formed
into
into aa triple
triple helix
helix (called
(called aa fibril),
fibril), and
and isis
found
found in in as
as many
manyas as 19
19 different
different varieties
varietiesin
in
various tissues in the body.
various tissues in the body.

46

Collagen is braided, like a rope, to provide non-stretchable strength for

tissues such as tendons, ligaments, etc.

46
 Types of Fibers: Elastic fibers
• elastic fibers - provide organs and tissues with the
ability to stretch and recoil.

••Elastic
Elastic
•Elastic fibers
fibers
fibers are are
are thin thininterwoven
thin and
and and interwoven
interwoven with with
with collagen
collagen
collagen
fibers
fibers to fiberstearing.
to prevent
prevent to prevent
tearing. Elastictearing.
Elastic fibers
fibersare
aremade
made of
of
the
the protein
proteinelastin
elastin (randomly
(randomly coiled
coiled and
and covalently
covalently
bound to form an elastic matrix), and glycoprotein
bound to form an elastic matrix), and glycoprotein
microfibrils,
microfibrils, formed
formed into
into aa cross-linked
cross-linked network
network
within the tissue.
within the tissue.
47

Elastic tissue is found where stretchability is important, such as the walls of arteries,
and the internal support of the lung.

47
 Types of Fibers: Reticular fibers

• reticular fibers - made of the same molecules as

collagen but thinner, they form an internal mesh-like
network within organs.

•• produces
producesan an endoskeleton
endoskeleton oror
stroma
stroma for
for soft
soft organs
organs such
such as
as
the
the spleen,
spleen,liver,
liver, etc.
etc.

48

Organs which are primarily composed of epithelial cells need an internal support
to maintain shape and structure. They achieve this with an endoskeleton or
stroma of reticular tissues.

48
 The Intercellular Matrix

• ground substance: a viscous, clear substance with a

high water content
• composed of proteoglycans which are made of a
protein core with attached glycosaminoglycans or
GAGs.

Important
Important GAGs
GAGs are arehyaluronic
hyaluronicacid,
acid,
chondroitin
chondroitin sulfate, heparan sulfate,
sulfate, heparan sulfate,
keratan
keratan sulfate
sulfate (produces
(produces keratin).
keratin).

49

The proteins fibronectin and laminin may also be part of the extracellular
matrix. These are cell adhesion molecules (CAMS) which help to attach
cells, connective as well as other types of cells, to the intercellular or
extracellular matrix. They also have proven important in the movement of
cells during embryonic development as well as in metastasis.

49
 Cells Found in Connective Tissues

• fibrocytes, or other generic cell for each tissue.

osteocytes
osteocytesfor
for bone,
bone,
chondrocytes
chondrocytes for cartilage,
for cartilage,
adipocytes
adipocytesfor
for adipose,
adipose, etc.
etc.

fibroblast
fibroblast -- cell
cell active
active in
in secreting
secreting
the matrix.
the matrix.
-clast
-clast (e.g.
(e.g. Osteoclast)
Osteoclast)aa cellcell active
active
in dissolving the matrix.
in dissolving the matrix.
-cyte
-cyte isis aa mature
mature cell.
cell.
52

Fibrocyte (also fibroblast) - the generic or characteristic cell for each type of connective tissue.
In the loose and dense tissues the name fibrocyte or fibroblast is used depending on the
predominant action and stage of development of the cells. A fibroblast is actively secreting
matrix, usually in growing tissue, while a fibrocyte is a mature cell, no longer active in building
tissue, but still important in maintenance and managing homeostasis. The same designation is
used for cells in other connective tissues, e.g. osteocytes and osteoblasts in bone,
chondrocytes and chondroblasts in cartilage. A cell designated as a -clast is dissolving the
matrix. For instance osteoclasts are important in bone remodeling by breaking down old matrix
before it is replaced. These cells come from a different cell line than the -blasts and -cytes.

52
 Cells Found in Connective Tissues (contd.)

• fibrocytes, or other generic cell for each tissue.

•Macrophages and other phagocytic cells.
• mast cells - like basophils in the blood, these cells
secrete histamine and heparin which mediate
inflammatory responses.
• plasma cells - a type of lymphocyte, they secrete
antibodies.

53

In addition to fibrocytes:
macrophages - phagocytic cells derived from monocytes which are part of the body's first line of
defense against invading microorganisms. These cells have a variety of names depending on the
tissue such as histiocytes (lungs), Kupffer cells (liver), Langerhans cells (skin), microglia
(nervous tissue).
mast cells - similar to basophils in the blood, they play a role in inflammatory reactions by
secreting histamine and heparin.
Plasma cells – are activated lymphocytes which are actively producing antibodies against
foreign antigens.

53
 Collagen fiber
Elastic fiber

Reticular fiber

Macrophage
Fibroblast
Plasma cell
Areolar Tissue
54
Figure 4.7 the Prototype Connective Tissue

Areolar is called the “prototype connective tissue” because it contains all the components such
as fibers, cell types, ground substance, etc. typical of true connective tissues.

54
 Found
Found in in
outer
outer dermis
dermis Areolar Tissue
of
of skin,
skin,
interstitial
interstitial
tissue, Elastic
tissue,
mesenteries fibers
mesenteries
and
and serous
serous
membranes.
membranes. Mast cell

Collagen fibers
Fibroblast
Reticular fibers
55

Areolar, also known as loose connective tissue, is the most abundant connective tissue and is
found in outer dermis of skin, interstitial tissue, mesenteries, and serous membranes.
One of its main functions is to contain blood vessels and nerves which serve nearby tissues and
its spaces contain most of the bodies extracellular fluid.

55
 Elastic
fibers

Collagen fibers

Fibroblast

Reticular
fibers
56

Here is a photomicrograph of areolar tissue such as you will see in slides in the anatomy lab.
Photomicrographs of relevant tissues such as this are available on the [Virtual Microscope].

56
 Adipose Tissue
Low Power

Insulation
Insulation and
and
shock
shock
absorption;
absorption;
fatty
fatty pads
pads Connective
around
around matrix
organs,
organs,
subcutaneous
subcutaneous
fat.
fat.
Adipocytes

arteriole
57

Sometimes considered a specialized connective tissue rather than connective tissue proper,
adipose is an exception to the general characteristics because its cells are closely packed and it
has little matrix. The adipose cells store lipid in a large vacuole which fills each cell. Adipose is
important for shock absorption and insulation and is found around many organs such as the
heart, eyes, kidneys, spleen etc. as well as under the skin and in the medullary canal of long
bones. Subcutaneous fat is a major stored fuel for aerobic activities. Adipose is also found
associated with the serous membranes of the body.

57
 Adipose Tissue
high power

capillary nucleus of
adipocyte

venule

nucleus of
adjacent
fibroblast
58

Fat cells are virtually filled by the large lipid vacuole. This requires their nuclei and other
organelles to be pressed against the plasma membrane, appearing sometimes as if they were
outside the cell.

58
 Plasma
membrane

Nucleus

Lipid vacuole
59

The cell membranes are just barely visible in this photomicrograph.

59
 Dense Irregular
Connective Tissue
Low power
High
power

Found
Found in in the
the deep
deep
dermis
dermis of of the
the skin
skin
Collagen and
fibers and in
in the
the
Nuclei of submucosa
submucosa of of the
the
fibroblasts hollow organs.
hollow organs. 60

Dense irregular c.t. has few cells, mostly fibroblasts, and many fibers, principally collagen,
arranged in an irregular pattern to provide strength and withstand stresses to which the organ
may be subjected. It makes up the deep layer of the skin's dermis, and it produces the
supporting submucosa of the hollow organs (e.g. GI tract), and the capsules of synovial joints.

60
 Dense Regular
(Fibrous Connective Tissue)

Found
Found inin Tendon,
Tendon, l.s.
l.s.
tendons,
tendons,
ligaments,
ligaments,
and
and fascial
fascial
coverings.
coverings.

collagen nuclei of
fibers fibroblasts 61

Also known as fibrous or inelastic connective tissue, dense regular connective tissue
forms the structure of tendons, ligaments, aponeuroses, fascia, and fibrous joints. It has almost
entirely collagen fibers (certain ligaments, called elastic ligaments, have more elastic fibers) in
densely packed arrays, with rows of cells between the fiber bundles.

61
 Elastic Connective Tissue
The
The wall
wall of
of
the aorta
the aorta Found
Found in in
the
the
stroma
stroma of of
the
the lungs
lungs
and
and inin the
the
walls
walls ofof
the
the large
large
arteries.
arteries.
elastic fibers fibroblasts

62

Elastic connective tissue is found in the walls of the large arteries and in the stroma of the lungs
and sparingly in certain elastic ligaments (e.g. those of the spinal column). It makes the arteries
flexible to absorb the pulse pressure, and gives the lungs their recoil.

62
 Section
Section Reticular Connective Tissue
of
of
lymph
lymph High power
node
node Forms
Forms the
the internal
internal
stroma
stroma ofof the
the soft
soft
organs
organs such
such as as
the
the spleen
spleen andand
lymph
lymph nodes.
nodes.

fibroblast
reticular
fibers
lymphocyte 63

Reticular tissue is found as the internal support (stroma) of the kidneys, spleen, liver and many
other soft organs. Has reticular fibers only.

63
 Cartilage

• intercellular matrix is more solid and gel-like,

providing both flexibility and support
• cells located in spaces, the lacunae
• transport through matrix is slow (think of Jello)
and tissue is avascular
• has the same types of fibers as other connective
tissues.

64

Cartilage is considered a specialized connective tissue and not connective tissue proper. It
has semisolid gel made principally of the glycosaminoglycans chondroitin sulfate and
hyaluronic acid. The gel gives the cartilage a distinct shape, lots of water turgor, and flexibility.
Cells in cartilage are found within spaces called lacunae. The lacuna allows the cell to be bathed
in fluid from which it receives nutrients and gets rid of wastes by diffusion. Substances diffuse
very slowly through the gel and cartilage itself is avascular.

64
 Both elastic
Both and
Articular
Articular
Cartilage inelastic
elastic
Cartilage has
has aa
and
Both
cartilage,elastic and
fibers present,
inelasticin
cartilage,
fibrous finely
covering
fibers
fibrous covering
inelastic fibers Hyaline Cartilage
costal
costal
divided form.
called
present,Cartilage
called
present, thein
thein has
finely
finely
cartilage,
cartilage,
perichondrium.
an outer nose,
membrane
divided
perichondrium.
form.
divided form. called
nose, trachea
trachea
the perichondrium.
and
and larynx.
larynx.
ground
substance
lacuna

chondrocytes

perichondrium
65

hyaline cartilage has organic collagen fibers but they are very finely divided and cannot be
seen in the light microscope. Staining gives the matrix a texture which is referred to as the
ground substance. Hyaline is the most common type of cartilage, found in the nose, attached to
the ribs, as articular cartilage, and as the cartilage model for bone development.

65
 Ground
substance

Lacuna

Chondrocyte
66

The ground substance in hyaline cartilage stains because of the presence of very fine fibers, yet
these fibers are not themselves visible.

66
 Elastic Cartilage
Epiglottis
Epiglottis
and
and the
the
external
external
ear
ear

elastic
fibers

chondrocytes

67

elastic cartilage - has dense bundles of elastic fibers and is rare, found only in the epiglottis and
ear. Think about the difference in flexibility between the nose, made of hyaline cartilage, and the
ear, made of elastic cartilage.

67
 Lacuna

Elastic
fibers
Chondrocyte

68

The dark blue strands are the elastic fibers, found between the chondrocytes in their lacunae.

68
 Fibrocartilage

lacuna

collagen fibers
Intervertebral
Intervertebral
Disks
Disks and
and
Pubic
Pubic
Symphysis
Symphysis

chondrocytes
69

fibrocartilage - has dense bundles of collagen fibers, it is the major component of the
intervertebral disks and the symphysis pubis.

69
 Inelastic
fibers
Lacuna

Chondrocyte

70

Each space is called a Lacuna and contains one

or more Chondrocytes, or cartilage cells- The
light blue fibers are Inelastic fibers , which fill the
intercellular matrix.

70
 Vascularization and Tissue Repair

There are two types of repair:

• functional or parenchymal repair in which epithelial
tissue produces new, functional tissue to replace what was
damaged.

• stromal repair or scar tissue in which fibrous tissue

knits the damaged parts together but doesn't perform

71

the tissue's original function.

The ability of tissues to repair themselves is related to their blood supply. Tissues well supplied
with blood capillaries can usually exhibit functional and rapid repair compared with poorly
supplied tissues.

Vascularization means the amount of blood vessels present.

The presence of blood vessels and access to blood supply
mean more nutrients and wastes can be exchanged.
Avascular means the absence of blood vessels within the
tissue.

71
 Degree of Vascularization and Repair
Epithelial tissue – continual replacement and functional
repair; supplied with blood vessels from adjacent areolar
tissue.
Bone tissue – well vascularized, constantly remodeled
and replaced
Areolar tissue – well vascularized, repairs via scar tissue
Adipose tissue – well vascularized
Dense regular c.t.. – poorly vascularized,
mostly scar tissue repair (applies to reticular tissue also)
Cartilage – avascular, scar tissue repair 72

Epithelial tissue generally exhibits functional repair. Most epithelial tissues exhibit rapid mitosis
and the original function is normally retained. Although the tissue itself has no blood vessels,
vessels are a short distance away in the supporting connective tissue which is usually areolar.
Epithelial tissue in the skin, in the linings of organs in the GI and respiratory tracts, in the liver,
many glands, and in blood vessels can all replace and repair themselves, the limiting factor
generally being the degree of damage and other nutritive and health factors.
Connective tissues with two notable exceptions have poor vascularization and therefore slow
repair and replacement. And the repair of connective tissues (notwithstanding the two
exceptions) is stromal repair, scar tissue which binds the organ but is not the same as the
original tissue. The two exceptions are areolar, which is the route for blood supply in the skin and
in many internal organs, and bone, which is richly supplied with blood vessels.

72
 Example of
Tissue Repair:
The Skin
• a blood clot knits the
damaged wound
together
• neutrophils and
macrophages enter the
area
• fibrous tissue begins
to be formed
73

Repair of damage to the skin provides a good example of similar repair mechanisms in other
tissues. Ruptured blood vessels leak blood components which produce a clot, the primary
protective structure for the wound. White blood cells such as neutrophils and macrophages
attack bacteria and remove debris while fibroblasts begin to secrete collagen fibers.

73
 Stage 2 • granulation tissue
develops and
capillaries invade clot
• epithelium
regenerates on fibrous
matrix

74

Collagen fibers produce a fibrous matrix that will serve as a support for regeneration of the
epithelium. Blood vessels invade the clot and the budding capillaries produce what is known as
“granulation tissue” because of its appearance.

74
 • Regenerated
epithelium

• scar tissue
remains

75

When wound healing is complete the epithelium has regenerated and fibrous tissue may, or may
not, be visible as scar tissue. Blood vessels have re-established themselves in the area.

75
 Epithelial Membranes
(Organ Membranes)

• Composed of epithelial tissue in combination with

connective and, sometimes, smooth muscle tissue.
• Form the functional part of tubular organs in the
gastrointestinal, respiratory, and genitourinary tracts.

76

Epithelial membranes are called organ membranes because they are organs in their own right,
composed of two or more different tissues which work together to perform specific functions. In
some cases, such as the GI tract, the membrane is, in fact, the organ.

76
 Serous Membranes

• squamous epithelium and areolar, dense irregular, or

fibrous connective tissue
• secretes serous fluid as a lubricant
• locations:
What is peritonitis? ƒ peritoneal lining and covering of organs
ƒ mesenteries which attach to abdominal organs
ƒ pleural membranes, pericardial membranes

77

77
 Mesenteries Greater
omentum
Liver
Lesser
omentum colon

Stomach

mesentery

Small
intestine
78

Mesenteries are double-layered serous membranes which attach to the loops of intestine, the
stomach, and other abdominal organs. The serous fluid, together with the fat present, act as
lubricants to prevent tearing and abrasion as these organs move within the cavity. The greater
and lesser omenta are large fatty mesenteries which protect the organs. Similar double-layered
membranes surround the heart as the pericardium, and the lungs as the pleural membranes. The
peritoneal membranes line the peritoneal cavity and cover the organs.

78
 The Mesenteries

Seen here
is a loop
of bowel
attached
via the
mesentery.

79

The mesenteries help to connect and support portions of the GI tract, as well as to lubricate
against damage from friction and abrasion when the organs move. Note the glistening surface
due to the serous fluid secreted, as well as the numerous blood vessels which enter the bowel.

79
 Mucous Membranes
• Epithelium combined with areolar or dense irregular
and smooth muscle
• Specialized cells (goblet cells) or glands secrete
mucus, which acts as a lubricant.
• Locations:
ƒ respiratory tract (ciliated columnar or p.c.c.e.)
ƒ gastrointestinal (simple columnar)
ƒ genitourinary ( ciliated and non-ciliated)

80

Mucous membranes form the functional part of tubular organs in the respiratory, gastrointestinal,
and genitourinary tracts.

80
 The GI Tract: A Mucous Membrane
Covered by a Serous Membrane
serosa
Smooth muscle
layers
Connective
tissue

Epithelial
lining
Double layer of serous membrane
produces the mesentery.
81
glands

Specialized glands, or cells called goblet cells, secrete mucus to protect the lining, lubricate the
propulsion of food, and remove particulates form the respiratory tract.

81
 Synovial Membranes

• Synovial membranes are not epithelial

membranes
• Form joint capsules which lubricate joints, and
bursae which lubricate the movements of tendons
and ligaments.
• They are composed entirely of connective tissue.

82

We will examine the role of synovial membranes when we study arthrology.

82
 Cutaneous Membrane: The Skin

• Epidermis composed of stratified squamous

epithelium
• Dermis composed of areolar and dense
irregular connective tissue.
• Many specialized cells and glands

83

The skin is an organ since it is composed of different tissues working together. It is the organ of
the integumentary system.

83
 Functions of the Integument

protection - protects against invasion of microorganisms,

protects from water loss and dehydration.
defense - contains macrophages, lymph nodes and other
structures which identify pathogens and provide first line of
defense against them.
sensation - the skin contains sense organs for light touch,
pressure, temperature, and pain.
secretion - the skin secretes the precursor to Vitamin D (this is
then activated by processing in the liver and kidney), and
melanin.
thermoregulation - by diverting blood into or away from the 2
skin the body can release or conserve heat.

The integument is an organ-system, with the skin as its organ. As such it

provides many functions for the human body.

2
 Skin Section
Epidermis

Dermis

Hypodermis
(Subcutaneous tissue)

3
Figure 5.3

The skin itself is made of two layers, the epidermis made stratified
squamous epithelium, and the dermis made of areolar and dense
irregular connective tissue. The epidermis is keratinized in the body's
external skin to help protect from abrasion and water loss and non-
keratinized in the internal skin (the linings of the mouth, esophagus, anus,
and vagina). In all locations the epidermis is continually replaced by mitosis
at its base and exfoliation from its surface. Beneath the skin proper is the
hypodermis or subcutaneous layer, filled mostly with fat. This fat serves as
insulation as well as fuel storage.

3
 The Epidermis
Stratum corneum

Stratum granulosum

Stratum spinosum

Stratum basale

4
dermis Figure 5.2

“The epidermis is composed of several layers: The stratum basale or

stratum germinativum undergoes constant mitosis to replace the cells
exfoliated from the skin's surface. The new cells push up into the intervening
or transitional layers toward the surface. The stratum spinosum or "spiny
layer" consists of cells attached to one another by fibrous desmosomes
which enable the skin to be pulled and stretched without the cells pulling
apart. As the cells push up through these layers they accumulate large
amounts of keratin and keratohyaline (a glycoprotein) and this substance
forms dense granules in the stratum granulosum. As these cells reach the
surface they exfoliate, or slough off. In keratinized skin the cells die and
become hard, flattened cells completely filled with keratin and keratohyaline.
This produces a cornified (horny) outer layer. When this layer thickens as a
result of constant pressure it produces “corns” and calluses seen on the feet
and hands.

4
 The Epidermis

Phagocytic
Phagocytic cells
cells
Langerhans cell

Light
Light touch
touch receptors
receptors
Merkel cell
Secrete
Secrete melanin
melanin granules.
granules.
melanocyte 8

Melanocytes associate with the cells of the stratum basale. All races have
about the same number of melanocytes, in association with keratinocytes
(epidermal cells) in ratios of from 1:4 to 1:10 depending on the skin location.
They secrete melanin in granules which are taken into the keratinocytes by
endocytosis. Some melanin also remains in the interstitial space. Melanin
helps protect the cells from UV radiation. Melanin varies in color among the
races from a brown to a reddish tint. In addition to melanin, skin color is
influenced by the presence of blood vessels and carotene. In Caucasian skin
the melanin is broken down rapidly by enzymes from the keratinocytes.

8
 Skin Cancer

Cancer occurs when genetic changes result in turning

on, or not turning off, genes which regulate normal
cell division and tissue growth.
In the case of skin cancer the stimulus for such
changes usually lies in exposure of the skin to UV
radiation.

9
 Three Types of Skin Cancer:
1) squamous cell carcinoma: occurs in the
keratinocytes of the intermediate or transitional
layers of the epidermis.
Normally these cells undergo apoptosis, which results in
the protective layer of flattened, dead cells found in
the outer cornified layer.
Acceleration of apoptosis is an important response of
these cells to sun exposure. If apoptosis fails then
these cells can become abnormal and produce
cancer.
10

In cancer cells, mutations in cadherins keep cells from sticking together

normally. As a result, malignant cells grow irregularly, invade other tissues,
and metastasize to distant locations.

10
 2) basal cell carcinoma. An abnormal growth of the
basal cells. These cells are normally protected from
UV exposure by the melanin secreted by nearby
melanocytes. This form of cancer can usually be
successfully treated surgically if caught in time.

3) melanoma. This is a cancer of the melanocytes

which is the most dangerous because it often
metastasizes to other tissues and organs.

11

Another quality of cancer cells is their ability to digest and make their way
through the basement membrane and undergo metastasis. This is a quality
of melanocytes.

11
 Epidermis Dermal papillae
Crude
Crude touch
touch
Meissner’s corpuscle

Sudoriferous
Dermis (sweat) gland
Arrector pili muscle
Pacinian corpuscle
Pressure
Pressure and
and vibration
vibration
Sebaceous glands
Secrete
Secrete oily
oily sebum
sebum
Skin Section as
as waterproofing
waterproofing. . 12
Figure 5.3

Hairs are bathed by an oily substance called sebum which helps the skin to
remain moist and resist water loss. Lanolin, which has been used in many
cosmetics, is sebum from sheep.

12
 Thermoregulation

Sudoriferous
gland and duct

Figure 5.4 15

Eccrine glands – secrete watery liquid for thermoregulation; are

extensive on skin.
Apocrine glands – found in groin and axilla, secrete more viscous fluid
containing pheromones, believed important for sexual arousal.

15
 Raises
Raises skin
skin in
in Thermoregulation
“goosebumps”
“goosebumps” to to (contd.)
produce
produce insulating
insulating layer
layer
of
of air.
air.

Arrector pili
(piloarrector)
muscle

Figure 5.4 16

“Goosebumps” are hypothezized to provide a thin insulating layer of air just

above the skin.

16
 Blood
Blood can
can be
be diverted
diverted Thermoregulation
into
into or away from outer
or away from outer (contd.)
dermis
dermis by
by closing
closing or
or
opening
opening shunts
shunts between
between
arteries
arteries and
and veins.
veins.

Small vessels take

blood to dermal
papillae

Arteries supply
blood to skin
Figure 5.4 17

Vessels immediately under the epidermis can be perfused with blood to

allow heat to be radiated to the environment, or they can be bypassed with
shunts connecting arteries and veins to allow the blood to return to the
warmer core of the body.

17
 Hair Follicle

cortex
sheath

medulla
matrix
Hair papilla
melanocyte
18

The hair itself, together with the fingernails, is made of flattened keratinized
cells thickly stacked together. Melanin granules secreted around these cells
give hair its color which can vary as can skin by the amount and color of the
melanin granules. Terminal (coarse) hair has both a medulla and cortex,
and is typical of male body hair and pubic hair in both sexes. Fine vellus
hairs, which are typical of women and children, are thinner because they
lack the dense medulla. Even bald men have hair on their heads, but it is of
the vellus type.

18