HOUSE-CAR 1998 - INTEGRATING VEHICLE and HOUSING ENERGY SYSTEMS

INTEGRATING TRANSPORTATION ENERGY

and HOUSING ENERGY NEEDS

Douglas Hart, Watershed Technologies, 94 Yarmouth Road, Toronto, ON M6G 1W9.

416-533-8970, 416-538-8032 Fax, doughart@interlog.com
Christopher Ives, Research Division, CMHC, 700 Montreal Rd, Ottawa, ON K1A0P7.
613-748-2312, 613-748-2402 Fax, cives@cmhc-schl.gc.ca
Martin Liefhebber, Architect, 177 First Avenue, Toronto, ON M4K 1X3.
416-469-0018, 416-469-0987 Fax, Martin.Liefhebber@on.aibn.com

Paper presented at Renewable Energy Technologies in Cold Climates`98

Conference held in Montreal, Quebec, Canada from 4-6 May 1998

ABSTRACT - In the present and near term Canada is failing to meet internationally
agreed targets on CO2 reduction and conservation of non-renewable fuels. Projections for
our long-term performance are also discouraging. As the growth in population in the
western world has stabilized it should be possible to improve our housing and
transportation infrastructure to such a degree that these sectors cease to pollute. Indeed,
when our existing housing stock is renovated and old vehicles are replaced, this could
offer a wonderful opportunity for economic activities which should result in a healthier
planet by reducing the material and fossil fuel based energy dependence of our
communities.

This paper will discuss what can be done by integrating the energy requirements for both
housing and transportation needs, extrapolating from what is already known to be
feasible for new single family homes in Canadian urban communities. Elements of this
approach have already been investigated in other countries, which is based on the use of a
hybrid electrical car to power and heat a modern off-grid house during cold and cloudy
periods. On sunny days the surplus power from the house could be used to drive the car.
The use of an electric car for a grid inter-tied house with photovoltaic panels is also
considered.

SUPPORTING RESEARCH - Research by CMHC and others has now resulted in

housing with greatly reduced levels of energy and resource consumption, plus matching
reductions in pollutants and waste products. However neither the housing nor the
transportation points-of-view have taken a hard look at possible improvements from an
integrated approach on a micro-scale, although a great deal of research has been
undertaken on a macro-scale. A simple analysis of household energy usage in Canadian
suburban areas indicates that the family car is responsible for over half of each
household’s energy consumption, despite today’s improvements in automobile fuel
efficiency and emissions. The feasibility of still further improvements in vehicle
technology is well known, including the performance of electric and/or hybrid fuel
electric cars. What has not been done before is to match the engine of a hybrid car to the
energy needs of a modern energy-efficient house equipped with some photovoltaic and
solar thermal collectors.
Chris Ives EriA Ecosystems Inc
450-458-7974 Fax 450-458-1746
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HOUSE-CAR 1998 - INTEGRATING VEHICLE and HOUSING ENERGY SYSTEMS

BACKGROUND - This paper is a first attempt to integrate several different

technologies including housing, energy conversion and storage, electric power, and
automobiles. The authors are not specialists in all of these areas and they realise that
more work is required to validate, integrate and expand the concepts outlined in this
paper. They look forward to the ideas and contributions of others.

For example we now seek innovations in products and design that make us feel healthier
and are ultimately affordable. Improvements that solve problems and not get us into
deeper trouble. Accounting practices that include the environment in its plusses and
minuses. Solutions that go beyond satisfying the comfort and convenience itch. Observe
how our houses and cars have evolved from earlier times - the hut and the horse. Is a a
closer integration of this concept treasured today as it is emblematic with being able to
live simpler lives? Household utensils and work tools then had a direct useful purpose
and could be made and repaired by the users or by local craftsmen. Should our goals be
so different now?

INTEGRATING TRANSPORTATION AND HOUSING ENERGY NEEDS

The following two scenarios have been selected as showing promise - a) the house
supplying power for an electric car, and b) the car supplying power and heat to the house.
However it is likely that other different combinations are possible.

SCENARIO A - HOUSE SUPPLIES ELECTRIC POWER FOR CAR

SUMMARY OF (A) - On sunny/windy days an energy efficient house fitted with

photovoltaic panels and/or a wind turbine, could generate a surplus of electric power.
With a grid inter-connection this power could be fed back to the local utility network, or
it could be used to charge the batteries of an electric car (EV). One commercially
available EV (4-5 passengers) will go 4 km per kilowatt-hour, and has a range of 70
kilometres. However to make the house independent of hydro, on cloudy windless days, a
backup source of heat and power is needed in addition to some costly battery storage
capacity in the house.

DISCUSSION OF (A) - An urban low-energy house, which is grid interconnected, with a

fixed PV array, using time of use metering and net billing. No batteries are included in
the house. Thermal storage for heating (using off-peak electricity) is optional. A 100%
electric vehicle (not a hybrid) is found to complement the house energy patterns, since
the vehicle batteries can be charged using off-peak power. Because of this, the energy
operating cost for the vehicle is substantially lower than for an efficient gasoline powered
vehicle. In addition, because the PV output is used to offset electrical costs at higher peak
(daytime) rates, PV becomes much more competitive with current electrical rates if
financing is included with the home mortgage.
Chris Ives EriA Ecosystems Inc
450-458-7974 Fax 450-458-1746
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HOUSE-CAR 1998 - INTEGRATING VEHICLE and HOUSING ENERGY SYSTEMS

This urban, grid-connected house (with an EV) is modeled on the Toronto Healthy
House, except with a smaller PV array and without a battery bank. The heating system of
this house (after passive solar) could use off-peak electricity (as with the Toronto Healthy
House) or natural gas if available. The functioning of the electrical system is reliant on a
utility with a net billing program, and ‘time-of-use’ metering. The time of use rates for
Toronto Hydro (1996-1997) are as follows:

Winter:
Off peak (11 PM to 7 AM) 4.35 cents per kWh
Shoulder (7 to 9 AM and 6 to 11 PM) 8.18 cents per kWh
On Peak (9 PM to 6 PM) 14.79 cents per kWh
Summer:
Off peak (11 PM to 7 AM) 3.3 cents per kWh
Shoulder (7 to 9 AM and 6 to 11 PM) 8.18 cents per kWh
On Peak (9 AM to 6 PM) 12.37 cents per kWh

For grid connected systems, the billing details are very important to the system design.
Toronto Hydro, for example, allows net billing, but over a year’s billing it will not
presently accept negative values for any of the daily time periods. This means that if
during a given year, the meter shows that the PV array has produced more power during
the peak period for example, than the house has consumed, than this energy will be not be
credited.

During sunny days, a 15 square metre PV array can supply 8 to 11 kWh/day of energy,
depending on the array efficiency and local factors. This is enough to supply the daytime
load, and, if the house is not fully used, power is fed back to the grid. This PV array is
not expected to fill the entire needs of the house, but it is sized to achieve maximum
utilization of the output from the PV cells. It is important that this array never produce
more power than is used when netted out over a year period. This is because the utility
will not allow a net negative bill for any time of use period. A short range electric vehicle
(EV) is suggested for this house, which contains batteries only. It is charged at night by
off-peak power. Such a vehicle might be used by an urban dweller for short range
commuting and daily trips within the city.

ECONOMICS FOR SCENARIO A.

The Solar Array - In Toronto, an efficient 15 square metre PV array could produce 2500
kWh/year during peak daily periods. At a blended (summer-winter) peak rate of 14 cents
per kWh, this is equivalent to a saving of $350 per year. Using recent installed cost for
PV systems in the range of $5.50 US per peak watt, this would mean that this 1800 Watt
array would cost in the range of $14.000 CDN. A 5% mortgage rate would generate an
interest cost of $700 per year for the PV system.
Surprisingly, with low interest rates, the gap between the costs of PV array and grid
electric power at peak rates is not large ($350 per year). Pilot projects, such as a 45 house
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HOUSE-CAR 1998 - INTEGRATING VEHICLE and HOUSING ENERGY SYSTEMS

program currently underway in Sacramento, California, are using a government incentive

to offset this gap, making the PV competitive. This may not be unreasonable, considering
the benefits solar offers to society, such as reduced CO2 emissions and reduced air
pollution. It is widely accepted that society pays a large cost for respiratory disorders in
urban areas. Both the CO2 reduction and clean air benefits could be quantified and
credited to the installers of the PV systems in the form of grants or tax credits. In addition
it is likely that electrical costs will increase, with the demise of nuclear systems in
Ontario, and with further inevitable restrictions on dirty fuels such as coal and oil for
electrical generation. This will lead to higher electrical costs, and more attractive PV
economics. The prospect of stable sources of clean electrical power, such as PV, may
encourage home buyers to include PV in their designs today, especially if the cost
premium is a marginal $30 per month (the cost of an internet connection).

The Electric Vehicle - Today’s electric vehicles typically offer a range of 70 km, and an
energy consumption rate of 4 km per kWh. Given an off-peak rate of 3.8 cents per kWh
and a battery efficiency of 80%, this would translate into an energy operating cost of
about 1.2 cents per km. On the other hand, a small car, providing a mileage of about 6
litres of gasoline per 100 km, will cost about 3 cents per km to operate. Electric vehicles
also offer tangible social benefits of reduced air pollution, and potentially lower
maintenance costs than their internal combustion counterparts. Ultimately they should be
cheaper to build, and future improvements in energy storage, such as fuel-cells, or ‘nano-
technology’ may provide the radical changes that make these vehicles more
commonplace.

SCENARIO B - CAR SUPPLIES POWER/HEAT TO HOUSE

SUMMARY OF (B) - Modified cars have been used to provide power and heat on cloudy
windless days. A ‘house-bound’ co-generation unit would also be suitable - for example
as a water-cooled auxiliary generator. However to further reduce greenhouse gases and
hydrocarbon fuel usage, a hybrid EV (HEV) could produce power and heat the house
AND could reduce fuel usage on sunny/windy days by charging its batteries from the
house. This scenario appears not only technically feasible, but is also economically
attractive since the HEV would eliminate the need for an auxiliary generator and also
reduce the house battery bank size.

DISCUSSION OF (B) - A stand-alone house with a PV array, which is not connected to

the grid. This building would be constructed with a thermal storage system for heating,
along with storage batteries, and would likely be used where grid power is not readily
available. A 12 HP hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), if parked by the house at night, could
supply all the energy and heating requirements for the building. During the summer,
electricity for the house would be supplied largely by the PV array. During the winter
period, the car could heat the thermal storage tank, and fully charge the batteries by
running connected to the house for a few hours each night. PV use and solar gains during

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HOUSE-CAR 1998 - INTEGRATING VEHICLE and HOUSING ENERGY SYSTEMS

the winter period, when available, would reduce the need for charging from the car when
days are sunny.

Scenario B could be used in remote areas, and also in buildings that are used
intermittently, such as year round cottages or winter chalets. In this case, the electric
vehicle allows the reduction of both the PV array and battery size, since the PV system
can now be sized for sunny weather conditions only, and does not have to carry the
building during inclement weather.

Unlike the first scenario, this off-grid house (with a hybrid EV) does not use an
independent heating system, although an auxiliary system may still be required according
to occupant preferences. In cold periods without auxiliary heat the house will stabilise at
around 10-12 C thanks to a passive solar design with thermal mass. The building uses a
PV array, (sized to meet the house electrical demand on sunny days), plus a battery
system (suitable for one day`s storage only), and a stratified liquid thermal storage tank
(with a capacity in the range of 2000 litres).

A hybrid electrical vehicle (HEV), having both a gasoline powered generator, an electric
motor, and a battery storage, is used to connect to the house during the night (note that
other fuels and energy conversion devices, eg. fuel cells, could replace the gasoline
engine). Parked beside the house at night, the car connects to both a battery supply inside
the building (via a cable) and to the house thermal storage tank (via a heat exchanger).
The battery bank used in this vehicle can be smaller than that for a vehicle that uses
electric-only motive power, because of the on-board gasoline generator. In addition, the
gasoline engine can be smaller than a regular engine, because power surges are delivered
by the electric motor and the batteries. The combustion engine need only supply a steady
charge rate and does not have to meet the variable power demands of ordinary driving.
Compared to an all electric vehicle, the HEV also has a greatly extended range, similar to
that of today’s automobiles.

The advantage of this combination is that the car can reduce the demands placed on the
house PV system, by providing energy on cloudy days. On sunny days, the house can be
self-heating and will supply its own power needs if the building and the PV system are
properly designed. For a house designed along the lines of the Toronto Healthy House, a
12 HP engine could supply all the house energy needs within a 5 hour period. For
example, given that 90% of the output BHP goes to electrical generation, and an 80%
battery efficiency, the car generator output would be as follows:

12 HP x 746 W/HP x 90% x 80% = 6445 Watt output.

A modest electrical requirement of 10 to 12 kWh/day could be satisfied within a couple

of hours, depending on the charging limitations.

Chris Ives EriA Ecosystems Inc

450-458-7974 Fax 450-458-1746
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HOUSE-CAR 1998 - INTEGRATING VEHICLE and HOUSING ENERGY SYSTEMS

On the heating side, under no sun conditions, the Toronto Healthy House requires 64
kWh at -5C, and 95 kWh at design temperature (-20C) over a 24 hour period. How
would this heating load be handled?

During the first hours, when the electrical system is being recharged, the heat energy
rejected from the engine cooling system (16 kW, if operated at full throttle) can be
directed to heating. This is accomplished by connecting the cooling water (and glycol)
from the engine via a heat exchanger to the thermal storage tank inside the building. It is
assumed that about 30% of the total energy output from the engine goes to shaft power,
and is converted to electricity. Heat output through the cooling system and recoverable
exhaust heat represents about 60% and that the remaining 10% is wasted. This gives a
total energy recovery of 90% which is typical for stationary engines, such as the FIAT
"Totem" power plant.

After 2 hours of operation, the car will have generated 12 kWh of usable electrical energy
and 24 kWh for heating. However at design temperature there is still 71 kWh needed to
satisfy the daily heat load. After the batteries are fully charged, the vehicle could direct
90% of the output to the thermal storage, simply by including an electric resistance
element in the storage tank to absorb the surplus electric power. At this rate, the car is
generating 36 kW of heat energy, and this would satisfy the load in another 2 hours, even
at design temperatures.

This means that if the house remains at design temperature for 24 hours (an unlikely
scenario), the car could meet the load in 4 hours (starting from an empty thermal storage
tank).

ECONOMICS FOR SCENARIO B.

In this example, it is assumed that a stand-alone power system is required and that the
grid power is not available at the site. The electric hybrid vehicle (HEV) allows a
reduction of the PV array, since the array and battery storage need be sized for one day
only, and not carry over into inclement weather. In summer periods, and on sunny winter
days when heating is not required, the PV system can supply the majority of the electrical
load.

The economics of this system are difficult to estimate, since it is assumed that a remote
power supply is required to begin with. However, if the vehicle costs can be justified by
the use of the more efficient transportation system, then by combining the house and
vehicle, this system offers a clear economic benefit.

For people with two houses, (scenario A and scenario B), where scenario B is a getaway
or a rural property, the HEV would satisfy the range requirements of the trip and also the
energy requirements of both houses. During local travel in the city (assuming that
heating or air conditioning are not required) the vehicle could run exclusively on off-peak
power, since this is cheaper than gasoline. And during trips to the off-grid location,
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HOUSE-CAR 1998 - INTEGRATING VEHICLE and HOUSING ENERGY SYSTEMS

gasoline would be used to power the car during the longer drive, and to heat and power
the building on arrival.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to thank the many people who contributed ideas, technical data, and
comments. These included:
Gudni Johannesson, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm.
Rolf Paloheimo, Creative Communities Research, Toronto.
Per Drewes, Ontario Hydro, Toronto.
Peter Russell, CMHC, Ottawa.

Chris Ives EriA Ecosystems Inc

450-458-7974 Fax 450-458-1746
cives@eria.biz www.eria.info 7 2/22/2008