Contents

o What is a computer?
o History of computers
o Generation of computers
o Computer types
o Software and Hardware
o Operating System
o Types of Software
o Types of Computer Languages
o Different Generation of Languages
o Advantages and Disvantages
o Conclusion

What is a computer?

A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information or "data." It has

the ability to store, retrieve, and process data.

A computer can also be defined as an electronic machine that accepts input (data),
processes it and gives out results (information). It can process input and produces output.

Computer organization at a glance

A basic computer consists of three major components: CPU (Central Processing Unit), IO
(Input/Output) and Memory as illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1

Data comes through Input and the CPU processes the data based on a program which is in
Memory. The result is returned to Memory or is presented to the user.

CPU itself consists of Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and
Registers.

The Four Operations of a Computer System

Input
Home computers are microcomputers. Input is supplied to the
microcomputer with the use of a keyboard, a mouse, or another input device.
These input devices may be called peripheral devices.

Processing
Processing is done inside the computer in an area called the central
processing unit (CPU). Processing is the conversion of input to output.
Storage
Storage refers to holding information somewhere.
RAM, Random Access Memory, is short-term memory. It is volatile memory
because the memory is automatically "erased" when the power is turned off or
interrupted. The RAM memory is located inside the computer case on the
motherboard. A motherboard is not the keyboard. The keyboard is what you
type with. A motherboard holds RAM memory, electronic circuits and other
computer parts including the central processing unit. ROM, Read-Only-
Memory, is not volatile meaning the memory is still there when power is
interrupted or turned off. When the computer is turned back on again, ROM
memory is still in storage on the internal hard disk.

Output
Output is the result of a computer process. Output may be viewed on a
monitor screen, heard through speakers, printed on printers, and so forth.
Output devices may be considered hardware and are also considered to be
peripheral devices.

Keyboard Layout and Data Entry

ENTER or RETURN - Moves the cursor down one line and to the left margin. Enter
also process commands such as choosing an option in a dialog (message) boxes and
submitting a form.

DEL or DELETE - Deletes the character at cursor and/or characters to the right of the
cursor and all highlighted (or selected) text.

BKSP or BACKSPACE - Deletes the character to the left of cursor and all hightlighted
text.

SPACE BAR - Moves the cursor one space at a time to the right
SHIFT KEY - Use the shift keys to type capital letters and to type the upper character on
keys with two characters on them

CAPS LOCK - Locks the keyboard so it types capital letters (a light goes on when caps
lock is on)

TAB - Moves the cursor five spaces to the right (number of spaces are usually
adjustable). Tab moves to the next field in a form or table (Shift-Tab for previous field).

ESC or ESCAPE - Cancels a menu or dialog box

ARROW KEYS - Moves the cursor around document without changing text

FUNCTION KEYS or F KEYS - Access commands by themselves or in combination

with the three command keys; CTRL, SHIFT, and ALT

History of Computer

Computers were initially large machines that could fill entire rooms. Some were operated
using large vacuum tubes that formed the basis of today's transistors. In order to operate
such machines, punch cards were used. One of the first such examples of this was the
Jacquard Loom. In 1833 Charles Babbage invented his difference engine, an early
calculator. Together with the punch card design, he created the analytical engine.
Regrettably the engine never saw completion due to political issues.

Over time computers became more and more powerful, with the introduction of the
ubiquitous microprocessor driving forward development. Gordon Moore, one of the co-
founders of Intel, invented Moores law, which predicted that the number of transistors
that could be placed on an integrated circuit inexpensively doubled every 2 years. This
law has held true to a certain degree, and it can be seen in motion every day with the
introduction of more and more powerful microprocessors and larger hard drives and
memory modules

 • 1 Notable Computers
 • 1.1 Z1
• 1.2 ENIAC ENIAC stood for Electrical Numerical Integrator and
Computer
• 1.3 Altair 8800
• 1.4 Commodore 64
• 1.5 Macintosh
• 1.6 IBM PC
 • 2 Podcast
 • 3 Images

Generations of Computers

First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory,
and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate
and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was
often the cause of malfunctions.

First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming

language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one
problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was
displayed on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing

devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client,
the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers.
The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the
late 1950s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to
become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-
generation predecessors.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic,

or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.
High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early
versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their
instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core
technology.

The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed
the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that
monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass
audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of

integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled
an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in
1971, located all the components of the computer—from the central processing unit and
memory to input/output controls—on a single chip.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation
computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in

development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are
being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make
artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology
will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation
computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of
learning and self-organization.

Computer types

• 1 Supercomputer
• 2 Mainframe
• 3 Server
• 4 Workstation
• 5 The Personal Computer or PC

Supercomputer

Supercomputers are fast because they are really many computers working together.

Mainframe

Mainframes are computers where all the processing is done centrally, and the user
terminals are called "dumb terminals" since they only input and output (and do not
process).
Mainframes are computers used mainly by large organizations for critical applications,
typically bulk data processing such as census. Examples: banks, airlines, insurance
companies, and colleges.

Server

Similar to mainframes in that they serve many uses with the main difference that the
users (called clients) do their own processing usually. The server processes are devoted to
sharing files and managing log on rights.

A server is a central computer that contains collections of data and programs. Also called
a network server, this system allows all connected users to share and store electronic data
and applications. Two important types of servers are file servers and application servers.

Workstation

Workstations are high-end, expensive computers that are made for more complex
procedures and are intended for one user at a time. Some of the complex procedures
consist of science, math and engineering calculations and are useful for computer design
and manufacturing. Workstations are sometimes improperly named for marketing
reasons. Real workstations are not usually sold in retail.

The Personal Computer or PC

PC is an abbreviation for a Personal Computer, it is also known as a Microcomputer. Its

physical characteristics and low cost are appealing and useful for its users. The
capabilities of a personal computer have changed greatly

Inside a personal computer. 1. Monitor. 2. Motherboard. 3. CPU (Microprocessor). 4.

Main memory (RAM). 5. Expansion cards. 6. Power supply unit. 7. Optical disc drive. 8.
Hard disk drive (HDD). 9. Keyboard. 10. Mouse.
Software

Software, commonly known as programs, consists of all the electronic instructions that
tell the hardware how to perform a task. These instructions come from a software
developer in the form that will be accepted by the operating system that they are based
on. For example, a program that is designed for the Windows operating system will only
work for that operating system. Compatibility of software will vary as the design of the
software and the operating system differ. A software that is designed for Windows XP
may experience compatibility issue when running under Windows 2000 or NT.

Software can also be described as a collection of routines, rules and symbolic languages
that direct the functioning of the hardware.[1]

Software is capable of performing specific tasks, as opposed to hardware which only

perform mechanical tasks that they are mechanically designed for. Practical computer
systems divide software systems into three major classes:

1. System software: Helps run computer hardware and computer system. Computer
software includes operating systems, device drivers, diagnostic tools and more.
2. Programming software: Software that assists a programmer in writing computer
programs.
3. Application software: Allows users to accomplish one or more tasks.

Hardware

Hardware refers to the physical elements of a computer. Also referred to as the

machinery or the equipment of the computer. Examples of hardware in a computer are
the keyboard, the monitor, the mouse and the processing unit However, most of a
computer's hardware cannot be seen; in other words, it is not an external element of the
computer, but rather an internal one, surrounded by the computer's casing. A computer's
hardware is comprised of many different parts, but perhaps the most important of these is
the motherboard. The motherboard is made up of even more parts that power and control
the computer.

In contrast to software, hardware is a physical entity, while software is a non-physical

entity. Hardware and software are interconnected, without software, the hardware of a
computer would have no function. However, without the creation of hardware to perform
tasks directed by software via the central processing unit (box), software would be
useless.

Operating system

An operating system (OS) is software, consisting of programs and data, that runs on
computers and manages computer hardware resources and provides common services for
efficient execution of various application software.

For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating
system acts as an intermediary between application programs and the computer hardware,
although the application code is usually executed directly by the hardware and will
frequently call the OS or be interrupted by it. Operating systems are found on almost any
device that contains a computer—from cellular phones and video game consoles to
supercomputers and web servers.

Examples of popular modern operating systems for personal computers are (in
alphabetical order): GNU/Linux, Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows and Unix
Operating systems can be classified as follows:

 multi-user : Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time.
Some operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users.
 multiprocessing : Supports running a program on more than one CPU.
 multitasking : Allows more than one program to run concurrently.
 multithreading : Allows different parts of a single program to run
concurrently.
 real time: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating systems,
such as DOS and UNIX, are not real-time.

Types of Software

Programming Software: This is one of the most commonly known and popularly used
forms of computer software. These software come in forms of tools that assist a
programmer in writing computer programs. Computer programs are sets of logical
instructions that make a computer system perform certain tasks. The tools that help the
programmers in instructing a computer system include text editors, compilers and
interpreters.

System Software: It helps in running the computer hardware and the computer system.
System software is a collection of operating systems; devise drivers, servers, windowing
systems and utilities. System software helps an application programmer in abstracting
away from hardware, memory and other internal complexities of a computer.

Application Software: It enables the end users to accomplish certain specific tasks.
Business software, databases and educational software are some forms of application
software. Different word processors, which are dedicated for specialized tasks to be
performed by the user, are other examples of application software.

Apart from these three basic types of software, there are some other well-known forms of
computer software like inventory management software, ERP, utility software,
accounting software and others. Take a look at some of them.

Inventory Management Software: This type of software helps an organization in

tracking its goods and materials on the basis of quality as well as quantity. Warehouse
inventory management functions encompass the internal warehouse movements and
storage. Inventory software helps a company in organizing inventory and optimizing the
flow of goods in the organization, thus leading to an improved customer service.

Utility Software: Also known as service routine, utility software helps in the
management of computer hardware and application software. It performs a small range of
tasks. Disk defragmenters, systems utilities and virus scanners are some of the typical
examples of utility software.

Data Backup and Recovery Software: An ideal data backup and recovery software
provides functionalities beyond simple copying of data files. This software often supports
user needs of specifying what is to be backed up and when. Backup and recovery
software preserve the original organization of files and allow an easy retrieval of the
backed up data.

There are many different types of software, which can be a little confusing for the
uninitiated. Following is a brief definition of each type, and the differences between
them.

Retail software: This type of software is sold off the shelves of retail stores. It includes
expensive packaging designed to catch the eye of shoppers and, as such, is generally
more expensive. An advantage of retail software is that it comes with printed manuals
and installation instructions, missing in hard-copy form from virtually every other
category of software. However, when hard-copy manuals and instructions are not
required, a downloadable version off the Internet will be less expensive, if available.

OEM software: OEM stands for "Original Equipment Manufacturer" and refers to
software sold in bulk to resellers, designed to be bundled with hardware. For example,
Microsoft has contracts with various companies including Dell Computers, Toshiba,
Gateway and others. Microsoft sells its operating systems as OEM software at a reduced
price, minus retail packaging, manuals and installation instructions. Resellers install the
operating system before systems are sold and the OEM CD is supplied to the buyer. The
"manual" consists of the Help menu built into the software itself. OEM software is not
legal to buy unbundled from its original hardware system.

Shareware: This software is downloadable from the Internet. Licenses differ, but
commonly the user is allowed to try the program for free, for a period stipulated in the
license, usually thirty days. At the end of the trial period, the software must be purchased
or uninstalled. Some shareware incorporates an internal clock that disables the program
after the trial period unless a serial number is supplied. Other shareware designs continue
to work with "nag" screens, encouraging the user to purchase the program.

Types of computer languages

As we human beings communicate with each others in different language such as Urdu, French,
Punjabi and Arabic etc. Similarly to communicate with the computers we have to use specific
languages and for this purpose hundreds of languages have been develop in which few of them has
gained international reputation. C language is one of them,. Language can be categories broadly into
three categories.

• MACHINE LANGUAGE: The most elementary and first type of computer, which was
invented, was machine language. Machine language was machine dependent. A program written
in machine language cannot be run on another type of computer without significant alterations.
Machine language is some times also referred as the binary language i-e, the language of 0 and 1
where 0 stands for the absence of electric pulse and i stands for the presence of electric pulse.
Very few computer programs are actually written in machine language.
•
• ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE: As computer became more popular, it became quite apparent
that machine language programming was simply too slow slow tedious for most programmers.
Assembly languages are also called as low level language instead of using the string of
members programmers began using English like abbreviation to represent the elementary
operation. The language provided an opportunity to the programmers to use English like words
that were called MNEMONICS.

HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGE: The assembly languages started using English like words,m but still
it was difficult to learn these languages. High level languages are the computer language in which it is
much easier to write a program than the low level language. A program written in high level language
is just like gibing instruction to person in daily life. It was in 1957 that a high level language called
FORTRAN was developed by IBM which was specially developed for scientist and engineers other
high level languages are COBOL which is widely used for business data processing task.BASIC
language which is developed for the beginners in general purpose programming language. you Can
use C language for almost any programming task. PASCAL are other high level languages which has
gained widespread acceptance.

The different generations of languages

There are currently five generations of computer programming languages. In each
generation, the languages syntax has become easier to understand and more human-
readable.

• First generation languages (abbreviated as 1GL)

Represent the very early, primitive computer languages that consisted entirely of
1's and 0's - the actual language that the computer understands (machine
language).

• Second generation languages (2GL)

Represent a step up from from the first generation languages. Allow for the use of
symbolic names instead of just numbers. Second generation languages are known
as assembly languages. Code written in an assembly language is converted into
machine language (1GL).

• Third generation languages (3GL)

With the languages introduced by the third generation of computer programming,
words and commands (instead of just symbols and numbers) were being used.
These languages therefore, had syntax that was much easier to understand. Third
generation languages are known as "high level languages" and include C, C++,
Java, and Javascript, among others.

• Fourth generation languages (4GL)

The syntax used in 4GL is very close to human language, an improvement from
the pervious generation of languages. 4GL languages are typically used to access
databases and include SQL and ColdFusion, among others.

• Fifth generation languages (5GL)

Fifth generation languages are currently being used for neural networks. A nueral
network is a form of artifical intelligence that attempts to imitate how the human
mind works.

•
Advantages And Disadvantages Of A Computer
Advantage
 It may help your work to be a lot easier.
 It may be the storage of your important data and files.
 It may be your handy book.
 It may help you solve problems faster than an ordinary human being can
do
 Computers are extremely fast
 Computers are very accurate
 Computers can keep large amounts of information in a small space
 Computers work continuously for 24 hours a day.
 Computers can do some jobs that would be impossible without them
 It helps you automate various tasks that you can not do manually.
 It helps you organize your data and information in a better way
 It has much more computing and calculating power then an ordinary human
 It may help you solve problems faster.
 It helps you to find useful information using in the internet.
 It helps in businesses, offices schools and at homes.
 Computers can serve many people at the same time.
 able to store large amounts of data in different forms
 useful applications such as word doc, excel and PowerPoint reduces time
 reduces the cost and use of paper (such as emails being used rather then sending
letters or memos)
 good form of entertainment
 it will be beneficial for students for their studies.
 things can be made easily, mostly work.
 it can help in business and studies.
 it can give the information you needed in just one click
 Disadvantage
 eyes can be exposed to radiation which lead for being damaged
 children can sight thing that are only for adults
 people can become lazy Guest
 It may cause pimples and wrinkles.
 it may damage your studies and life.
 Computers replace people in employment
 Computers hold personal information which may be misused.
 Problems arise when computers cannot be used (i.e system breakdown)
 They could sand a massage to you friends.
 Control kids' passwords.
 People could go crazy or lazy
 You get to do lot of thing and learn a lot too.
 health problems.
 Computer crime.
 having to keep up to date with changing technology
 having to learn the different functions of the applications and the computer
 people hack into your accounts.
 hackers can send hurtful messages and the person who gets it think it is you

Conclusion

The recent development of computer technology has changed our society in many ways. The
use of computers in music is one example. Computers have created new ways to perform,
notate, and compose music. Their implementation in the composing of music is useful in
many ways to composers. Computer composed music is referred to as algorithmic
composition. There are five types. These are stochastic, chaotic, rule-based, grammar, and
artificial intelligence. Notable milestones in the history of computer composed music include
the Iliac Suite, the music of Xenakis, and Experiments in Musical Intelligence by David
Cope. The possibilities of computers as a tool for inspiration, exploration of music, and
testing of theoretical principles is far reaching. There is however one limitation to computer
composed music. Although computers have the capability to compose music, they must
always rely on human input. This input is usually in the form of programming code but can
also include live musical performance. The concept of computer composed music is
unpleasant for some people who have a deep appreciation of traditional music and see a
machine composed work as not having a soul.