General Biology I: A Memoir

Life Processes
Locomotion: Movement from place-to-place; Uses muscles, nervous system, bones
Ingestion: To consume food to transfer into energy [ATP]; through mouth, siphoning, absorption
Digestion: Breaks down food to a molecular level; Mostly occurs in intestines, expedited by enzymes
Absorption: Absorption of food molecules and water in intestines
Synthesis: To make something; I.E. sweat, oil, pigment, stomach secretes enzymes
Growth: Change in size, shape, number; Cell division, reproduction, stretching of cells
Respiration: Cycles of breathing; inhalation of O2 to break down molecules/bonds to create ATP
Circulation: Movement of blood to transport nutrients; blood absorbs O 2, CO2, CO
Excretion: Removal of waste products
Liquids: Urine contains nitrogen; causes odor; also excretes ammonia
Solids: Poop includes fiber; fiber helps guts to contract and aids in waste removal; includes
bacteria such as E. coli
Reproduction: Ability to produce more of your own species; Cellular reproduction, sexual reproduction
Sexual: Combines gene pools, extends life span, diversity
Asexual: reproduction of tissues/cells (cell division)
Fission: splitting in half of cell to reproduce
Regeneration: restoration of parts, I.E. starfish
Mutation: Any change in the genetic material
Evolution: A change over time; Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
Irritability: Able to respond to change; I.E. change in respiration in physical activities, shivering when
cold, sweat when its warm, etc.
Homeostasis: Regulation of the balance in human bodies

Hierarchy of Life
Atomic/Subatomic: “Building blocks of matter”
4 Important Atoms: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
Subatomic: Protons (+), Neutrons (=), Electrons (-)
Molecular: Groups of atoms bonded together
Bond: Relationship between atoms
Molecules: Carbohydrates (energy), Lipids (fats), Protein (muscle, strength, durability)
Nucleic Acids: Found in nucleus of cells
DNA: Chemical code of genes; Never leaves nucleus
RNA: DNA’s “Messenger”
Organelles: Parts that make up the cell; Help digest, produce things, storage, reproduction, etc.
Cells: ** First level of life that can do anything on a molecular, atomic, and organelle level **
Low Level Cell: Prokaryote: bacteria
Virus: Only alive on a host; parasitic to other cells
Eukaryote: Has nucleus, mitochondria, lysosomes
Cell Wall: Made up of cellulose, protects cell (Plants)
Cell Membrane: Holds cell together, prevents things from going in/out;
permeable
Cytoplasm: ‘First cell;’ Fluid that fills the cell
Vacuoles: Storage;
 Amylose: Plant form of starch
Carbohydrates: Ends in –ose [Fructose, glucose]
Starch = sustained energy
Nucleus: Brain of the cell; heavy particle
Chlorophyl: Absorbs light; turns plants green, lives in chloroplast; source
of energy for plants
Tissue: Groups of cells working together; Found in animals
4 Types of Tissue:
Epithelials (lining of a gland, skin, secretion/absorption),
Connective (joins together; ligaments, tendons, cartilage, fats, blood)
Muscle (Aids in movement)
Nervous (Tells body what to do)
Organs: Group of tissues that work together; I.E. Gut, colon, gull bladder, stomach, heart, etc.
Organ Systems: Group of organs that work together on a life process; I.E. circulatory, respiratory
Organisms: Certain kinds of living organisms
Species: DNA of organisms characteristically alike
Taxonomy: Grouping of organisms (Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Genus, Species)
Binomial Nomenclature: Naming of species using 2 words
Population: Group of the same species
Community: Different populations living together; shows interaction
Ecosystem: Organisms and the environment that they live in
4 Levels of Life:
Abiotic Substances: Nonliving component; supports living (weather, day/night, etc.)
Decomposer: Feed off the dead, recyle
Consumers: Organisms that obtain nutrients from other organisms
Producer: Provides food for communities; I.E. plants
Autotrophic: Self-sufficient
Photosynthetic: Produces food from photosynthesis
Chemosynthesis: Bacteria make food from non-living things like soil and metals
Heterotroph: Requires a diverse diet of food to survive; I.E. Humans
Parasites: Feed off the living
Saprophytes: Feed off the dead; helps us recycle; I.E. Vultures
Bacteria: Break down
Fungus: Breaks down; Primarily on plants
Biome: Common ecosystem with specific focus on 5 things: Seasons, Temperature, Soil Content, Plant
Life, Animals; Area impacts plant/animal life
Biosphere: Sum total of living things on earth; emphasis on trends

Scientific Method (Logical Approach)

Observation: Record of an event (Data
Hypothesis: Educated guess; idea on trial
Experimental/Testing: Control vs. Experimental
Analysis: Statistics (graphs, charts, tables); shows trends
Conclusion: Affirms/denies hypothesis >> Theory over Law

Metric
Metric System: Grams, kilograms, Celsius (universal conversions)
Units: For length (meters), mass (grams, kilograms), volume (liters), temperatures (Celsius)
Powers of 10: Multiplying Powers: 102 = 10x100; 103 = 10x1,000; 104 = 10x10,000
Dividing Powers: 10-1 = 10x(1/10); 10-2 = 10x(1/100); 10-3 = 10x(1/1,000)

Linear Measurement
Meter = 39.4 Inches
Kilometer = 1,000 meters, geographical distances
Centimeter = 1/100 meter; length of appendages
Millimeters = 1/1000 meter; length of the aorta
Micrometer = 2/10 millimeter; cell size
Nanometer = 1/1000 micrometer; cell size
Angstrom = 1/10 nanometer; molecule size
Mass: Amount of matter
Mass vs. weight: Weight takes gravity into account; mass is more consistant
Units: Gram: 450g = 1 pound
Kilogram: 2.2 lbs
Milligram: Dosages; 1/1000 gram
Microgram: 1/1,000,000 gram
Volume: Amount of space taken up by matter
Units: Liter: 1.6 quarts
Microliter: 1/1000 liter; also called “cc”
Microliter: 1/1,000,000 liter
Temperature: Expresses hot/cold
Celsius vs Fahrenheit
Body Temperature: 98.6˚ Fahrenheit / 37˚ Celsius
Conversion Formula
°F to °C: Deduct 32, then multiply by 5, then divide by 9
°C to °F: Multiply by 9, then divide by 5, then add 32

The Cell
Taxonomy: The science of classification; based on cell structure; Life forms may be grouped into
categories based on similarities/differences; All life can be placed into 1 to 5 kingdoms
Kingdoms:
Monera: Bacteria
Protista: Single-celled organisms
Animalia: Multi-cellular organisms; needs food source; cell membrane; typically exhibits
locomotion
Plantae: Green plants; nutrition = chlorophyll (photosynthesis); cell wall; no locomotion
Fungi: non-green, plant like organisms; nutrition = breaking down dead things such as
fecal matter, bodies, etc.; recycles
Domains:
Archaebacter: Ancestral bacteria; prokaryotic
Eubacter: Typical bacteria; “True prokaryots”
Eukaryota: Eukaryots; multi-cellular
Archaebacter: Ancient bacterial forms with some eukaryotic features (DNA replication; Protein
synthesis)
 Extremists: Live in habitats with extreme conditions; many are anaerobic, living in very hot
temperatures, surrounded by a cell wall (unlike Eubacter, which lacks
peptidoglycans [sugar proteins] and lipids)
Methanogens: Decomposers; metabolism releases energy & methane (CO 2 reduction to
form methane) possible future energy source
Halophiles: Tolerant of extreme salt (Dead sea, Great Salt Lake); 15-20% salt
concentration
Hypthermophiles: Tolerant of extremely high temperatures (60-80˚C); Sulfur based
metabolism; Lives in hot springs, geysters
Eubacter: True bacterial forms having the prokaryotic cell structure (lack of organized nucleus, lack of
membrane-bound organelles; I.E. ribosomes)
Diversity:
Pathogens: beneficial for yeast fermentation
N2 Fixation: 72% Nitrogen in environment; converts gas into salts and transfers
to plants through roots
Saprophytes: Recycles
Gene Therapy
Habitat: Located everywhere; On skin, animals, objects, etc. (Heat/water encourages
bacterial growth)
Organization: Unicellular (alone) or colonial)
Shapes: Cocci (round), Bacilli (rod; hotdog-like), Spirilla (spiral-like)
Lifestyle: Diplo (live together), Staph (clumped together), Strep (chains; joined in long
line)
Size: Smaller (half) than the Eukaryote
Prokaryotic Structure:
Cell Walls: Unlike plants, contains peptidoglycans (has double sugars x-linked with
polypeptides)
Staining Properties: Gram stain (positive = purple, negative [pathogenic; resistance] =
red)
*** Antibiotics: Destroy x-links resulting in the degradation of the cell wall and
subsequent lysis (breaking down of cell) ***
Features
Capsule: Adhesion (sticks); evades defense
Motility: Flagella (tail), gliding action
Cell membrane: Has invaginations (folds) to increase surface area and perform
reactions (respiration and photosynthesis)
Nucleoid: Singular ring-like chromosome; E. Coli = 3,000 genes - Operon model
(shows how genes behave)
Plasmids: Nutrients; resistance; small pieces of DNA in cytoplasm; mutated
genes
Ribosomes: Tetracycline (contains Protein and RNA) [30-50]
Metabolic Diversity
Photoautrophs: Cyanobacter
Chemoautrophes: N, S, Fe; Makes food from chemicals
Heterotrophs: Needs source of food
Parasites: Feeds off other living organisms
Saprophytes: Feeds off dead (anaerobic)
Aerobic: Needs oxygen; yields more ATP
 Anaerobic: Doesn’t require oxygen for ATP synthesis
Reproductive Behavior: Asexual reproduction
Binary Fission: Splitting in half; copies DNA; makes two copies
(reproduces)
Spore Formation: tetanus, botulism, anthrax
Genetic Recombination
Transformation: Absorbs DNA from an outside force
Conjugation: Exchanges DNA (Plasmid exchange)
Transduction: Absorbs DNA from a virus (Viral exchange)
Cyanobacter: Blue-green algae
Photoautrophs
Aquatic: Live as long filaments
Energy: Capable of photosynthesis; N2 fixation
Structure: Live as long, filamentous forms
Examples: Nostoc, oscillatoria

History of the Cell

Evolutionary Perspective: Life appeared 3.5 – 4 billion years ago
Stanley Miller: Showed the gases in the atmosphere may have contributed to the start of life
(CH4, H2O, H2, MH3)
Age of the Prokaryotes: Approximately 2 to 3.5 billion years ago
***O2 Appeared approximately 2.7 billion years ago; showed that photosynthesis began
to occur
Dawn of the Eukaryote: Approximately 2.1 billion years ago
Scientists
Hooke: Looked at plant cells; first person to observe cells
Brown: Discovered cell nucleus
vonMohl: Discovered living molecules
Schwann and Shleiden: “Cell Theory;” Cell = unit of organization of life, cells = basic unit of
function
Virchau: Biogenesis (only get cells from cells); Mitosis
Methods of Observation
Microscopy: Optical; extends (magnifies) human vision
Properties: Magnification: product of the lenses; Resolution: Ability to see detail,
discriminate
Types: Based on energy source
Light
Phase Contrast
X-Ray
Polarizing
Ultriviolet
Electon: Can only see dead cells
Energy Source: All light travels in waves
Wavelength: Distances between peaks or valleys
Shorter wavelength: Greater energy, better resolution
Cytochemistry: Stains objects to view reactions/make things visible
Stain types:
 General: Iodine, Methylene Blue
Differential: Mix of dyes; absorption based on cell/organelle chemistry (Sudan
Series, Methyl Green, Pyronin Y, etc.
Centrifugation: Breaks down and isolates cellular parts
Separation: Based on density; Greatest mass settles first (sediment); remaining
materials suspended in supernatant (liquid)
Uses: Harvests organelles for study; separates molecules
Cell Fractionation: Used to isolate (fractionate) cell components based on size/density
Homogenization: To break up; homogenized in blender; cell homogenate (mixture)
centrifuged at various speeds/durations to fractionate the cell
components, forming a series of pellets
General Features of Cells
Size: Majority of Eukaryotes = microscopic; average size of cell is about 8 micrometers
Factors That Impact Size: Rate of cell division (speed in which it divides/repairs)
Surface/volume ration (more communication, functions)
Size Impact: Smaller cell has greater surface-to-volume ratio (facilitates exchange of materials in
and out of the cell
Shape: Governed by function
Squamous: Skin; flat; lining; absorption/secretion
Columnar: Brick-shaped; absorption
Cuboidal: Cube-like; gives shape
Muscle; Long, stretchy, mobility
Neuron
Factors That Impact Shape
Genes: Dictates how things will look/function
Layers: Affects width; more layers = more protection/functions
Motility: If cell moves, it can change shape
Viscosity of Cytoplasm: Thickness of cytoplasm
Rigidity of Cell Membrane: Tight or loose
Chemistry: Lipids (change shape depending on what reacts with it (fats, salts, etc.)
Basic Areas of a Cell
Cell Membrane: Surrounds the cell and most organelles; regulates transport
**Transport = cells most important function**
Cytoplasm: Living matrix of the cell; gives it shape and support for other organelles
Organelles: Divison of labor; work together to ensure survivability and function of cells
Cell Membrane
Location: Surrounds cell and majority of organelles **Eukaryotic feature; has
membrane-bound parts **
Functions:
Regulates Transport (semi-permeable);
Identify Cells (receptors): Who to attack/allow into cell
Gives form and shape
Joins Cells Together: Adapted to form cells tight together
Protection
Site of Chemical Reaction: Enzymes built in
Singer Fluid Mosaic Membrane: Membranes are molecules that can change position and
perform different function; Membrane is build of fats and proteins
Cell Membrane Models
 Robertson: “Unit Membrane” concept
Davson/Danielli: Trilamillar sandwich (Protein, lipid, protein) [3 layers to membrane]
Singer Model: *Most accepted currently*; Protein islands in a lipid sea *mosaic protein
molecules and lipids
Membrane Chemistry
Lipids = Phospholipids: Fat molecules with 2 parts: Phosphate (salt) and Lipids (fat); Polar
phosphate with fatty acid (non-polar) chains; moles may slide
Proteins
Peripheral: Surface; strength, protect
Integral: Extends entire diameter of membrane; contains aqueous channels for
transport (facilitates movement)
Carbohydrate Chains: Glyoproteins and glycolipids (cell recognition; determines cell’s
identity)
General Membrane Properties
Semi Permeable: Selective
Ease of Entry: Lipid soluble (dissolves); Small size; Negative/neutral charge (membrane
dislike ions)
Cytoplasm
What: Living matrix of the cell; Changes density depending on cell’s role (Soluble [pours like
water] / Gel [pours like gel])
Colloidal Suspension: Permanently suspended solution of organelles
Chemistry
Water: Most abundant
Organic Molecules: Sugar, carbs, proteins, enzymes, etc.
Inorganic Elements: Ions, salts, etc.
**Uses electrical energy from ions**
CHOPKINS: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, (K)Potassium, Iodine, Nitrogen
Also contains: Calcium, (Fe)iron, Magnesium, (Na)Sodium, Chloride
Cytoskeleton
What: Support network of microtubules and microfilaments in cytoplasm
Filaments: Solid
Tubules: Hollow
Functions
Mechanical support
Shape: “skeleton”
Supports organelles
Cell motility: Cilia, flagella; Propels cells (movement)
Cytoplasmic streaming
Phagocytosis: Cell eating of garbage, bacteria, viruses, etc.
Monorail for chemistry: Vesicles-transmitters
Muscle contraction: retracts/extends
Microtubules
What: Hollow tubules made of proteins (alpha and beta tubulins)
Size: Diameter: 25nm; Length: 200 nm to 25 micrometers; wrinkled up (like intestines)
Used to form:
Centrosome (MOC): Animals contain a centriole for cell division (circular ring of 9 sets of
triple tubules); basal body (route for cilia and flagella)
 Cilia: Large numbers on exterior of cell; move in synchrony; contain 9 sets of double
tubules in a ring with 2 central tubules; connected by motor (dysein)
proteins; filter (reverse direction)
Flagella: Singular, long whip-like tail; (9x2); motile (mobility)
Microfilaments
What: Solid rods of actin (shape change/contraction) protein (contractile)
Functions:
Muscle contraction: Sliding filaments
Assists to maintain shape and support
Cleavage: Splits into 2 when filaments contract (fission)
Amoeboid motion: Pseudopodic
Cytoplasmic streaming
Intermediate filaments: Keratin (nucleus)
Endoplasmic Reticulum
What: Contains 50% of cell’s total membrane; Series of channels that goes from the nucleus to
the cell membrane (E.R. = Membrane-bound]
Cisterne: Cave-like areas for storage, chemistry off the E.R.
Exists in 2 Formats: Smooth (regular membrane) and Rough (has granules [bumps] of ribosomes)
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
What: Contains membranes only; few if any ribosomes; contains embedded enzymes
Functions:
Lipid synthesis: Creates fats, steroids, sex hormones
Carbohydrate metabolism: Glycogen storage
Detoxification: Drugs (antibiotics); Alcohol
Muscle contraction: Sarcoplasmic reticulum (releases calcium, triggers muscle
contraction), signal transduction (storage)
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
What: Affiliated with ribosomes (causes roughness); Ribosomes not always attached to R.E.R.
If ribosomes attached: Good for ribosome transport
If ribosomes not attached: Ribosomes used at its locations
Functions:
Protein synthesis: Participates in protein creation (free/bound)
Modifies proteins: Glycoproteins (add short-chain carbohydrates)
Membrane synthesis: Phospholipid & protein
Ribosomes
What: Carries out protein synthesis
Contains 2 subunits:
Eukaryote: 60 subunits of rRNA, 40 subunits of protein
Prokaryote: 50 subunits of rRNA, 30 subunits of protein
Functions:
Location: Can be free of bound (E.R.)
Groups: Functions in groups – Polysome complex (multiple ribosomes create protein,
and then join together)
Site of protein synthesis in the cell (all domains)
**Variation in prokaryotes (tetracycline; streptomycin)**
Golgi Body
What: Modifies, wraps, ships, or stores products (E.R.)
Series of flattened membrane sacs (perinuclear)
 Has Two Surfaces:
Cis: Receiving
Trans: Discharge
Functions:
Modifies chemistry: glycoproteins, glycolipids (sugar chains)
Label: Destination
Wrap: Membrane-bound vesicles
Synthesis: Mucus (goblet cells); Hyaluronic acids (holds cells together; pectins; non-
cellulose polysaccharides used in plant cells
Lysosome
What: Contains enzymes that break down anything; membrane-bound sac of hydrolytic
enzymes (pH5); capable of degrading all organic molecules
Functions
Phagocytosis: Eating of other cells; White blood cells; fusion drops pH, release
Autolysis: Self-digestion
Autophagy: Recyles cell organelles
Tissue regression: Breasts, uterus, muscle
Metamorphosis: Tadpole tail
Cell division: Nuclear envelope
Disease: Pompe’s (glycogen) / Tay-Sachs (lipid)
Microbodies
What: Enzyme-bearing membrane-bound vesicles
Peroxisome: Contains digestive & detoxifying enzymes that function in metabolic pathways
(results in production of peroxide [H 2O2], which is then converted into H2O and
O2
Glyoxisome: Found in plant cells; used to convert stored lipids (oils in seeds) into carbohydrates
used for early stages of growth)
Vacuoles/Vesicles
What: membrane-bound organelles which may contain:
Food: Protists
Contractile: H2O “Kidney”
Storage: Central vacuole (food, water [cell sap]); growth
Detox: Enzymes (plants and fungi)
Poison: Averts predators
Pigment: Attracts insects for pollination; differentiates
Growth: Wall expansion in plants
Vacuoles: Storage
Vesicles: Neurons, transmitters, containers
Mitochondria
Anatomy
Envelope: Consists of an oval body that is enveloped by 2 membranes
Smooth outer membrane
Inner membrane: convoluted (cristae); ETS (electron transmitter system)
Interior: Consists of a matrix rich in ribosomes, enzymes, electron acceptors, and even
DNA ** Creates its own DNA; 1 of 2 organelles in the world that can do
this**
Semi-autonomous organelle (endosymbiont): Requires nuclear genes for respiratory
enzymes and division (prokaryotic similarities)
 Endosymbiont: Lives mutually inside the cell
Functions:
Site of cellular respiration: Breaks bonds, releases energy in form of ATP; in eukaryotes,
number is relative to metabolic activities
Process: involves breakdown of food molecules to produce ATP
Aerobic: Works best with oxygen **Does not yield as much ATP without oxygen
(anaerobic)
Produces ATP
Centrosome/Centriole
What: Organizes spindle to distribute DNA; divides DNA to replicate; organelle employed during
cell division (MOC) [Microtubule Organizing Center]
Contains: a pair of structures assembled by microtubules (9 sets of triplets)
Functions:
Capable of replication prior to cell division (Down center of cell)
Delineates the poles of the cell between which division will occur
Nucleus
What: Largest cell organelle; contains genetic information (DNA) and directs cellular
metabolism; central; filament support
Anatomy
Nuclear Envelope: Contains large pores to facilitate transport; protein/protein-RNA
complex
Nucleoplasm: Colloid; nuclear lamina/matrix; lacks ribosomes; Nucleus’ “cytoplasm”
Nucleolus: One or more; contains RNA and protein; storehouse for rRNA (building
blocks) used in the manufacture of ribosomes
DNA
What: Molecule responsible for our genetic traits
Exhibits 2 Key Properties
Self Replication: Semi conservative
Ability to chemically code information
Exists in 2 formats within the cell
Chromatin: DNA gets strung out flat to aid “reading” of genetic information; condense
to form chromosomes
Chromosomes: Paired numbers; 46 in humans; Even number of chromosomes (1/2 from
each parent)

The Plant Cell

Description
Lifestyle: Organelles geared to autotrophy
Differences: Semantics vs real
Three Major Anatomical Differences
Cell Wall: Non-living contain; fibrous
Plastids: Color of storage bodies; chloroplast, amyloplasts
Vacuoles: Storage containers
Cell Wall
What: Protects, supports, maintains shape, prevents excess water intake in cell
Description: Rigid, nonliving coat adjacent to the cell membrane; porous
 Chemistry: Composed of cellulose fibers reinforced with starch and protein; Made up of
cellulose fibers embedded in other polysaccharides and proteins
Cellulose: Chain of glucose in plants; bonds make cellulose strong; unable to be digested
by humans
Two Basic Types
Primary Wall: All plant cells begin with a primary wall; thin/flexible; forms at end of cell
division using cell plate as a structural support; made of cellulose
(polymer of sugar) and protein
Secondary Wall: Found on some mature plant cells: additional wall with extremely hard
biochemistry (lignin and acid); wall pre-empts food intake, so it
surrounds dead cells (wood, fibers)
Lignin: helps secrete waste
Vacuoles
Central Vacuole
What: Found in plant cells; hold reserves of important organic compounds and H 2O
Plastids
What: Color-bearing bodies found in a plant cell
Three Basic Forms:
Leucoplast
What: Amyloplasts a.k.a. starch storage
Color: White
Found in: Seeds, roots, and stems
Reacts to: Iodine
Chromoplasts
What: Carotenes (orange) and Xanthophylls (yellow), etc.; absorb light
Varies in: Shape (disc, spindle), Color (depending on function
Used for: Plant identification
Function: Provides color to plant, channels light to plant for photosynthesis
Chloroplasts
What: Organelle that performs photosynthesis; similar structure to
mitochondria
Shape: Oval, surrounded by double matrix (envelope)
Interior Divided Into Two Regions
Stroma: Background matrix; contains ribosomes and chemistry needed
for sugar production;
Lamellae: Sheets of chlorophyll molecules used in light absorption;
Chloroplast Physiology
Stroma: Site of dark reaction; assembly of sugar *DNA (Endosymbiont)*
Lamellae: Site of light reaction (generates energy needed for food
production)
Grana - (light microscope); compartments of
stacked membranes
Thylakoids – (electron microscope); discoidal sac

The Cell Cycle

Purpose
Reproduction
 Growth and Development
Tissue Development
Why: If cells didn’t divide, there would be no opportunity for change
The Cell Cycle
Activities of the Cell Cycle
G1 (Gap1): Time for organelle synthesis and growth
G0: Pause between G1 and S before DNA replication (not every cell has this)
S (Synthesis): Period of DNA replication (Doubles DNA
G2 (Gap2): Synthesis of organelles and division equipment; ATP Production (Creates
centrioles in animals, microtubules in plants
M (Mitosis): Type of nuclear division (thread) [Distributes the 46 chromosomes of DNA
to the 2 cells]
C (Cytokinesis): Cytoplasmic division
Cell Cycle Variation
Time variations: 20 minutes in animal embryos, 8 minutes in fruit fly… Very little time
for growth
Multi-cellular organisms: Complex multi-cellular organisms (mammals) requires time to
grow in between divisions (24 hours); Mitosis = 1 hr
Nuclear Division
Two Types
Mitosis: Somatic (body forming) cell division or equational cell division; a
mother cell gives rise to 2 daughter cells having identical
chromosomes as the parent
Meiosis: Gametic (reproductive) cell division or reductional division; a mother
gives rise to daughter cells, each having ½ the genetic content
as the original cell
Review of Genetic Content
Nuclear Division: Focus on distribution of DNA (chromosomes)
Chromosome Units: Each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in its
body cells; Human = 46 chromosomes, Potato = 48, Dog = 78, Fern =
1262
Chromosomes
Chromosome Count: May be the same in 2 different species; I.E. a gorilla and a guppy
both have 48 chromosomes
Genetic Determination: The number of chromosomes does not determine genetic
complexity; Genes along with chromosomes may code for different
proteins
“One gene, one enzyme” Theory
Chromosome numbers
Pairs:
Where: Chromosomes occur in pairs within the body cells of an organism
What: Pair is the result of coming together of 1 partner from mom and 1
partner from dad at the time of conception
Homologs: Similarly occurring partners
Homologous Pair: Pair of chromosomes (Humans have 23 pairs [46
chromosomes]
Number terms
 Diploid: The 2n number refers to the total number of chromosomes found in the
body (sum total of maternal and paternal partners)
Haploid: The n number refers to the presence of only 1 partner from each of the
pair as a gamete such as egg or sperm (Humans have 23)
Chromosome Composition
Composition: Consists of chromatin, which is a mix of DNA (40%) and Protein (60%);
contains approximately 140 million subunits in a thread 5cm in length
DNA: Actually coiled around core of histone (packing proteins) proteins termed as
nucleosomes
DNA Replication
What: When each chromosome replicates in preparation for cell division, the result is a
unit containing 2 individual pieces; such pieces are called chromatids
(cohesions)
Centromere: Holds chromatids together at a mutual point **position of centromere =
vital**
Result: 2 chromatids are made after each replication; After the S phase of mitosis, there
are 92 chromatids
Nuclear Division
What: DNA is replicated and then distributed to the 2 daughter cells, each of which
contain 46 chromosomes, or 23 pairs (diploid
Process is divided into 5 phases:
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Interphase
Interphase: G1 + S + G2 (rest phase); Longest phase
Cell has a well-defined nucleus, nucleolus, and nuclear envelope; organelle synthesis
(growth)
DNA is replicated; exists as chromatin, forms chromatids (cohesion [sticky]; condensing
[packs] tightly])
Centriole have been replicated from previous cycle
Energy [ATP] has been liberated for the process
Prophase
Prophase: First phase in division
DNA becomes visible with light microscope
Each chromosome is now double-stranded (2 chromatids)
2 strands are held by a mutual centromere
Prometaphase:
Nuclear envelope begins to disengage (E.R.)
Nucleolus becomes reabsorbed
Centrioles begin migration to opposite poles of the cell (spindle formation)
Prophase:
Chromatids become attached to spindle fibers
Kinetochore: Helps stick chromatids to spindle fibers
Spindle Formation
 Animal Cells: Centriole pairs move to the poles of the cell; establish a bridge of
microtubules commonly referred to as the spindle apparatus;
asters
Plant Cells: Form a similar assembly, but do not have centrioles
Nuclear envelope is reabsorbed
Prometaphase
Prometaphase:
Chromosomes attach to the spindle fibers by their kinetochores (Disk-like area of
proteins for attachment)
Once attached chromosomes begin migration to middle of the spindle (microtubule
assembly and disassembly or motor proteins at the kinetochore)
Metaphase
Metaphase:
Double Meaning: Mid-cycle and chromatids alight the center (equator) of the spindle;
metaphase plate (check point before separation)
Chromatids attach to spindle fibers by a kinteochore (plaque-like area)
Kinetochore: Series of fibrils reinforced with a chemical matrix (non-kinetochore fibers)
****Centromere replicates (splits/dissolution of cohesin proteins)
Anaphase
Anaphase: Polar motion of the chromatids
Sister chromatids (chromosomes) are pulled rapidly to the poles of the cell
Microtubles shorten by subtraction of tubulin protein at the kinetochore site
Telophase
Telophase: Prophase in reverse
Chromosomes arrive at the poles
Chromosomes diffuse and return to chromatin state
Spindle degenerates (recycles tubulins in cytoskeleton
Nuclear anatomy begins to reappear; activation of
rRNA genes results in the formation of nucleoli
Await cytokinesis
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis: Microfilaments vs cell plate
Animals: Microfilaments line up, constrict, cause a cleavage, splitting cells in 2
Plants: Creates a cell plate (temporary wall; made of jelly; pectin) down the middle;
each cell has responsibility to create new cell
Gel: Middle Lamella
Checkpoints in Cell Cycle
G1/S Checkpoint – Cell decides whether or not to divide; irreversible commitment to replicate
genome
G2/M Checkpoint: Commitment to mitosis; Evaluates success of DNA replication
Spindle Checkpoint: Ensures that all chromosomes are attached to the spindle