c

c c
c
 c c
c cc
c

ͻ Wood is domestic fuel used in tropical countries where forests are abundant and other fuels are not easily
and cheaply available.

cc c

ͻ It consists mainly of Combustible components(cellulose and lignin which are compounds of C,H and O)

c cccccc  c
  c

ͻ Cellulose =50% ͻ Lignin =30%

ͻ Resin+wax =2% ͻ Ash =0.5%

ͻ Moisture =15% ͻ Water soluble =2 5%

ͻ Calorific value =4500 kcal/kg ͻ Density =650kg/m3

ccccc  c c

ͻ Carbon = 50%

ͻ Hydrogen = 6%

ͻ Oxygen = 44%

c
cc c

ͻ It can be ignited easily

ͻ Smaller pieces of wood burn more readily compared to large pieces. In large pieces layers of semi-fused ash
form on the surface thus preventing its free burning.

ͻ It burns with long non- smoky flame when burned in excess of air.

ͻ Wood fines e.g. sawdust burns quite easily and readily. Moreover it can be made into binderless briquettes
at pressure.

c
ͻ A Oc(or O) is a block of flammable matter used as fuel to start and maintain fire. Common types
of briquettes are charcoal briquette and biomass briquettes

Uses of wood

ͻ It is used

ʹ As domestic fuel on large scale and for furniture making.

ʹ To produce wood charcoal by its carbonizatio and destructive distillation.

ʹ To produce producer gas by its gasification

c !" !#c

ͻ Wood charcoal which is called simply charcoal is made by carbonization(destructive distillation i.e.
heating in absence of air)of wood at 600oC


$
c
c c cO%c

ͻ Following four stages are involved in the carbonization of wood:

1. When the temperature reaches 100-120OC, the moisture of the wood is expelled first.

2. At 275oC, initial decomposition of wood takes place resulting in the formation of little distillate gas
containing acetic acid and water.

3. Active distillation of wood takes place upto 350oC till the process is exothermic producing liquid
products (like acetic acid, methyl alcohol, pyrolignious acid, tar etc) and gas products (containing carbon
mono oxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, hydrocarbons etc.).

4. From 350 to 600oC, slow evolution of residual volatile matters (i.e. gases) from the wood charcoal left
in 3rd stage.

 cc cO%c

 c & c'cc  c

ͻ Charcoal 30
Pyrolignious acid 38
jc Acetic acid jc 8
jc wood spirit jc 15
jc water jc 15
Wood tar 10
Wood gas 22
cc
c
ͻ Because of its large specific surface area (150-450 m2/gm) and light and porous nature, it is used for
removal of coloring materials from solutions, gases, vapors, petroleum products etc. by adsorption on
its surface.

ͻ It can be used as feed stock for gasification for make producer gas which is used for domestic and
industrial heating.

ͻ It is used as a clean and smooth burning fuel in domestic heating ovens but it is a costly fuel.

ͻ Previously it was being used for metallurgical furnaces but now it has been replaced by coke.

ͻ It is used very widely as a fuel for blacksmith͛s and metal worker forge furnaces/ovens.

ͻ It is a raw material for manufacture of carbon disulphide.

ͻ It is mainly used a domestic fuel.

cc
c

ͻ A typical composition of charcoal is given below:

C = 80%

O2&N2 = 15 %

H2 = 2%

Ash = 3%

(c c cc
ccc

ͻ It has a very high specific surface area compared to coal (20 ʹ 200 m2hgm coal)

ͻ Its ash content is very low (< 3%)

ͻ Its calorific value is high (7500 ʹ 8000 kcal/kg)

jc Its mechanical strength is very poor, hence it gets crushed to powder in operation

)!*c

ͻ It is the first stage product in the formation of coal from wood under action of temperature, pressure
and bacteria.

ͻ Peat is light brown in color and highly fibrous in nature

ͻ Easy to ignite and burns freely with long flame

ͻ Used in steam boilers, power stations and gas producers.


c c
+c

cc
c ccc

ccc

cc c

ͻ There are two theories about the origin of coal

ʹ ,c-,*c* )"&c

ʹ ",.*c* )"&c

,c-,*c* )"&c

ͻ According to this theory, coal seam occupies the same site where the original plants grew and where
their remains accumulated several million years ago to produce coal under action of heat, pressure and
bacteria.

",.*c* )"&c

ͻ According to this theory, the plants were uprooted and transported by rivers to lakes and estuaries to
get deposited there to form coal during course of time after they got buried underground.

ͻ (cc cc
c ccc
c/,c0cc1cccOc c
c

-*!2)-c,c* )c."(!*,c.c !#c

."(c#!*34c

ͻ Plant debris(wood)ї peat ї lignite ї brown coal ї sub-bituminous coal ї bituminous coal ї
semi-anthracite ї anthracite coal ї graphite

)!*c

ͻ It is the first stage product in the formation of coal from wood under action of temperature, pressure
and bacteria.

ͻ Peat is light brown in color and highly fibrous in nature

ͻ Easy to ignite and burns freely with long flame

ͻ Used in steam boilers, power stations and gas producers.

#,2,*)c

ͻ It is the second stage product in the formation of coal from wood.

ͻ It disintegrate on exposure to atmosphere.

ͻ Raw lignite is an inferior fuel due to high moisture content and low calorific value.

ͻ Lignite is used in the generation of electricity in thermal power stations.

-$,*(,-c !#c

ͻ It is black homogenous and smooth mass having high moisture and volatile matter content which
breaks into smaller pieces on exposure to air.

ͻ Ii ignites easily and is used for the manufacture of gaseous fuels

,*(,-c !#c

ͻ It is the most common variety of coal commonly known as ͞Koela͟. It is black and brittle which burns
and ignites readily with yellow smoky flame.

ͻ The term ͞coal͟ alone ordinarily refers to bituminous coal.

ͻ It is used for power generation, gasification and domestic heating etc.

-)(,$!* "! ,*)c

ͻ Its properties lie between that of bituminous coal and anthracite coal.

ͻ It is harder than the most mature bituminous coal and ignites more easily than anthracite to give short
flame changing from yellow to blue

!* "! ,*)c

ͻ This is the most mature coal; hence is of highest rank(carbon content).

ͻ Anthracite are characterized by low volatile matter and high carbon content.

ͻ Chief uses of anthracite are in boilers, domestic ovens and metallurgical furnaces.

-,2., ! )c.c* )c -*,*)*-c.c !#c(,-*")c

ͻ Moisture undergoes endothermic decomposition which reduces the temperature of hot coal their by
eliminating its fusion and clinker formation which otherwise would have blocked the passage of air.

5#!*,#)c(!**)"c

ͻ Certain gases like CO,CO2,CH4, H2,N2, O2 present in coal which comes out during heating are called
volatile matter.

ͻ It ignites easily
 ͻ It has higher tendency of catching fire.

.,6)c !"c

ͻ It is pure carbon present in the coal. Higher the fixed carbon content of coal higher will be its calorific
value.

**!#c !"c

ͻ It means the fixed carbon plus the carbon present in the volatile matter. It is always more than the
fixed carbon. Its higher value will give higher calorific value.

&"2)c

ͻ It increases calorific value of coal. It is associated with volatile matter of coal.

,*"2)c

ͻ It is present 1-3% in coal and comes from proteinous part present in vegetable matter.

ͻ Presence of inert nitrogen decreases calorific value.

-# "c

ͻ Though its presence increases calorific value, formation of SO and especially 2 SO 3 in presence of
moisture causes corrosion of equipment and pollution.

6&2)c

ͻ The less the oxygen content , the better is the coal as it reduces its calorific value.

 - "-c

ͻ Phosphorous occurs in small quantities in coal. It is undesirable in metallurgical coal as it badly affects
the properties of metal. It causes cold shortness of steel(cracking of steel).

c c
7c
)*"2"! &c.c !#c

).,,*,c

ͻ Coal petrography is the study of coal components by a visual method with or without the use of microscope.

()*-c.c !#c
ͻ The components identified by the naked eye are called macroscopic components

ͻ The others are called microscopic component

ͻ There are four types of macroscopic component in coal. These are :-

ʹ Vitrain

ʹ Clarain

ʹ Durain

ʹ Fussain

5,*"!,c

ͻ Bright ,black and brittle thin band of coal

ͻ Derived from wood plant

ͻ Coking in nature

ͻ Responsible for lustrous black band of bituminous coal

,*(,-c !#c

ͻ Dense material, black but sometimes dark brown, often with well defined bands of bright and dull material

ͻ Used primarily as fuel in steam electric power generation with substantial quantities

ͻ Also used for heat and power applications in manufacturing and to make coke

COMPOSITION OF BITUMINOUS COAL

ͻ Carbon - 75 - 90 %

ͻ Hydrogen - 4.5 - 5.5 %

ͻ Nitrogen - 1 ʹ 1.5 %

ͻ Sulfur - 1 ʹ 2 %

ͻ Oxygen - 5 ʹ 20 %

ͻ Ash - 2 ʹ 10 %

ͻ Moisture - 1 ʹ 10 %

#!"!,c
ͻ Silky, shiny and minutely striated layer

ͻ Contain more plant than vitrain

ͻ Most common of the four types of substance found in coal

ͻ Not bright and fractures regularly

"!,c

ͻ Dull, grey and very hard component of the coal which cracks irregularly

ͻ Formed from the silts and mud of the small particles of vegetable matter

.--!,c

ͻ Soft powdery form occurring between the bands of other types

ͻ Charcoal like substance which dirties the hand when coal is touched

ͻ Help in increasing the strength of coke

ͻ Fixed carbon content is higher and volatile matter content is lower

c c
8c

!- ,2c.c !#c

,(",*,)-c.c !#c

ͻ Fixed and inherent impurities

ͻ Free impurities

.,6)c!c, )")*c,(",*,)-c

ͻ Derived from coal forming plant

ͻ Can not be separated from coal by washing

."))c,(",*,)-c

ͻ Adhering to the surface of the coal

ͻ Comprise mainly of dirt band and rock particles

ͻ Can be removed by washing

!*")c.c,(",*,)-c

ͻ Residual inorganic matter of coal forming plant

ͻ Mineral matter washed into coal forming during period of formation

ͻ Sedimentary deposits during coal forming periods

ͻ Saline deposits

ͻ Slate, shale, clay etc from the underlying and overlying strata

ͻ Moisture

9) *,5)-c.c !#c!- ,2c

ͻ Reduce its ash content

ͻ Reduces its sulphur and phosphorous content

ͻ Increases its heating value

ͻ Improve its coking properties

ͻ Reduces its clinkering properties

ͻ Increases its efficiency in use

!5!*!2)-c.c #)!c !#c

ͻ Higher efficiency of utilization

ͻ Economy of transport and storage

ͻ Less clinkering trouble in burner and gasifier

ͻ Less of ash disposal problems

ͻ Improved coking properties

*&)-c.c !#c!- ,2c" )--c

ͻ Gravity separation

ͻ Float and sink methods

ͻ Froth floatation methods

c c
:c
 * )c-*"!2)c.c !#$6,!*,c

!c-*!)-c (-*,c
2))"!#c

ͻ Freshly mined high volatile coal when stored in bulk undergoes low temperature oxidation due to presence
of methane and other volatile content on the surface.

ͻ This oxidation reaction causes the rise in the temperature of the coal and if the heat is not removed, a stage
will come when coal will start to burn. This is called spontaneous combustion .

#c*)()"!*")c6,!*,c !-)-c

ͻ Decrease in caking power and calorific value

ͻ Decrease in carbon and hydrogen content

ͻ Decrease in its size grading

ͻ Increase in its oxygen content

ͻ Fire

ͻ Decreases in gas and tar yield on its carbonization.

! )#!"!*,c.c#c*)()"!*")c6,!*,c

ͻ Temperature rise

ͻ Access to diffused air

ͻ Presence of small particles

ͻ Presence of porous particles

ͻ Storage in large heaps with small surface to volume ratio

")*!"!*,c.c#c*)()"!*")c6,!*,c

ͻ Cooling either by water spray or ventilation

ͻ Reducing access to air

ͻ Reducing the size of storage piles

#--)-c",2c !#c-*"!2)c

ͻ Oxidation loss
ͻ Wind loss

ͻ Carpet loss

ͻ Loss of coal by spontaneous combustion

6,!*,c#--c

ͻ Absorption of oxygen decreases the quality of coal

ͻ Both oxygen and ash have anti calorific effect

ͻ Temperature should not be allowed to rise above 60 Celsius.

,c#--c

ͻ Due to blowing of the wind the coal suffers a loss of 0.5 ʹ 1 % .

!")*c#--c

ͻ Coal is unloaded and stored on the ground which is not prepared for that.

ͻ The result is mixing up of clay and soil with coal with bottom layer.

ͻ This can be avoided by paving the storage floor.

#--c)c*c-*!)-c (-*,c

ͻ Oxidation of coal is a continuous process

ͻ Rate of oxidation increase with the increase in temperature and reducing size of the coal

ͻ External conditions which cause initial attainment of critical temperature for spontaneous combustion are :-

ʹ External source of heat (sun rays, steam pipes etc).

ʹ Fineness of size of coal .

2,)#,)-c."c-!.)c-*"!2)c.c !#c

ͻ c. should be separated as early as possible .

ͻ 5. Three sided wall storage with hardened ground should be preferred to reduce the ventilation.

ͻ #. Storage area should be away from source of heat.

ͻ 
cc . Should not be more than 3 meters.

2,)#,)-c."c-!.)c-*"!2)c.c !#c
ͻ c . cc. Should be avoided. It increases exposed area and promotes fresh entry into heap.

ͻ #c cc-. Should be avoided.

ͻ -c  cIt helps in heat dissipation.

ͻ .cc-;. Stationary coal should be moved on to make room for the fresh coal.

ͻ " c*. Temperature should be checked weekly and not be allowed to increase above 60 Celsius.

c c
<c

#5)",-)c.)#c
!5!*!2)-c.c#5)",-)c.)#c

ͻ Can be intimately mixed with air necessary for combustion and burn completely.

ͻ Can be handled like a liquid fuel and can be transported through pipes.

ͻ Furnace temperature can be easily controlled by increasing/decreasing the rate of burning

jc Atmosphere inside the furnace can be easilymaintained .

ͻ Wide varieties of coal can be used.

ͻ Low grade coal can be used.

ͻ Combustion is complete hence high flame temperature and high efficiency.

ͻ Imparts greater flexibility of control

,-!5!*!2)-c.c#5)",-)c.)#c

ͻ Cost of drying and grinding to fine size is relatively higher.

ͻ Fine dust is discharged into atmosphere along with chimney gas.

ͻ Tendency of slagging on refractory walls and furnace linings.

ͻ Requires larger combustion space to complete combustion and heat transfer.

ͻ Furnace stock / work can be contaminated by ash from coal.

ͻ Operation and maintenance cost of pulveriser is high

ͻ Burning of anthracite poses difficulty.

#5)",-)c !#c (-*,c() !,-(c

ͻ Pulverised coal undergoes complete combustion in three stages:

ʹ As the volatile matter is evolved some change in shape and size of particles occurs in pre-ignition stage.

ʹ Thereafter the ignition and combustion of volatile matter occur

ʹ Finally, the combustion of carbonaceous residue occurs. Pulverised coking coals forms hollow, thin walled
spheres called 
  . The large ones are more difficult to burn than smaller ones. The higher is the
temperature of formation, the smaller the size and the more rapid is the ignition.

c c
=c

cc c
cc c

ͻ Directly burning and getting heat

ͻ Generating steam for producing electricity.

ͻ Driving railway locomotives.

ͻ Manufacturing coke and coal gas.

ͻ Manufacturing synthetic liquid fuel.

ͻ Gasification to produce nitrogeneous fertiliser from synthesis gas.

$cccOc cc;cc

ͻ Production of activated carbon used for decoloration of glycerine and petroleum

products.

ͻ Treatment with strong sulphuric acid forms basic exchange agent used in water treatment processes.

ͻ Used as pigments for paints.

ͻ Powdered coal is used in dynamite

ͻ Used as filter for various purposes due to its lightness, chemical inertness and low cost.

ͻ Carbonisation of bituminous coal produces chemicals such as tar, benzol, ammonia host of other chemicals.

ͻ Used for making carbon brushes.

ͻ Used for burning in domestic oven.

ccc

ͻ It can be carbonised to produse gas and coke.

ͻ It is briquetted and used as a domestic fuel.

cc#c

ͻ For manufacture of producer gas.

ͻ For generation of electrical power.

ͻ For gasification to produce nitrogenous fertilizer.

cc!
cc

ͻ For recarbonising steel.

ͻ For making carbon electrodes, brushes, battery parts, resistors, carbon refractory, corrosion resisting
structural materials.

ͻ As filter and paint pigment.

ͻ For blending with coking coal to check its swelling and improving the coke quality.

c c
>c

(!"!*,5)c-*&c.c-#,c

#,?,c!c2!-)-c.)#-c
- c# c c2c.c1Oc c

- ccccccccccccccccccccccccccc# ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc2c

Coals Gasoline Natural gas

Cokes Kerosene LPG

Briquetted Diesel Blast Furnace Gas

Solid Pitch Fuel Oils Coke Oven Gas

Coal Middling's Coal Tar Fuels Producer Gas

Tar Coal gas

(!,c.! *"-c."c* )c-)#) *,c.c.)#c

A number of factors are to be considered when a fuel or a type of fuel is chosen for a particular purpose. The
main factors are:

ͻ The price of the fuel delivered to the place where it is required.

ͻ The efficiency of the heating operation with selected fuel.

ͻ The ratio of the cost of heating operation to the cost of the finished product

ͻ The adverse effect of fuel on the quality of finished product.

ͻ Adequate storage space for the fuels should be available.

ͻ The fuel chosen should achieve smokeless combustion.

-#,c.)#-c

! 1@c

ͻ It is Cheap.

ͻ It occurs widely and easily available.

ͻ No complicated burning mechanism is needed for it.

ͻ It can be Pulverized with flexibility of liquid fuels.

ͻ Coal ash is free from vanadium compounds.

ͻ Sulphur content is less.

 1@c

ͻ Lot of labour is required for moving solid fuel.

ͻ Enough space is required for its storage.

ͻ It has got ash and clinkering trouble.

ͻ Thermal efficiency is not so high.

ͻ Liable to undergo spontaneous combustion.

ͻ Coal deteriorates during storage causing reduction ion size and calorific value.

#,?,c.)#-c

! 1@c

ͻ Can be stored more compactly.

ͻ Can be handled easily.

ͻ No ash and clinkering problems.

ͻ Combustion can be easily regulated.

ͻ Can be used in I.C engines.

ͻ Requires lower amount of excess air then solid fuels.

 1@c

ͻ Risk of fire and explosion during storage.

ͻ Vanadium compounds present in oils form corrosive deposits.

ͻ Sulphur content is high.

2!-)-c.)#-c

! 1@c

ͻ It has no ash or clinkering trouble.

ͻ It can be used in I.C engines.

ͻ It requires least amount of excess air for complete combustion.

ͻ Sulphur compounds can be removed easily

 1@c

ͻ Occupy large volumes.

ͻ Storage is difficult and expensive.

ͻ Some fuel gasses are highly poisonous.

ͻ Explosive in nature, hence careful handing is require.

c c
Ac
 -cccc cc
cc(cc

ͻ Must have low ash.

ͻ Must have low sulphur and phosphorous content.

ͻ Must be consistent.

!#-c."c" ,2c2!-c

2cc
 c
1c

ͻ High volatile matter content so that gas yield is more.

ͻ Less ash content (about 8%).

ͻ Less sulphur content (1-1.2 %).

ͻ Weak coking properties so that coal bed does not fuse during gasification.

ͻ High ash fusion temperature so that clinker formation can be avoided.

!#-c."c"!,#!&c# (*,5)c

ͻ Large, well screened and free from smell.

ͻ Low in ash content.

ͻ Weakly coking.

ͻ Free from clinkering trouble.

!#-c."c()-*, c5)-c

ͻ The preferred coal for domestic ovens are the larger graded sizes of the higher volatile free burning ranks.

ͻ It should be low in ash. Ash fusibility is not that important because the grate of the domestic oven seldom
reach a temperature high enough to fuse clinkering difficulties.

!#-c."c-*)!(c"!,-,2c

ͻ Coals used in boilers for burning and generating steam is called steam coal.

ͻ Almost all other types of coal which are not suitable for carbonization or gasification can be used for steam
raising.
ͻ Even coal middlings (produced in coal washries) containing ash upto 45 % can be pulverized and used in the
boiler.

ͻ The design of plant and use in the boiler.the design of the plant and the method of operation during
combustion of steam coals should be satisfactory.

!#c."c (-*,c"! *, )-c

ͻ Calorific value should be high.

ͻ Ash content should be low.

ͻ Moisture should be low.

ͻ Uniform size is desirable, fine dust and large lumps are objectionable.

ͻ Successive deliveries of coal should be as far as possible of the same quality.

. c c-cc

ͻ Fieldner and Selrig have classified coals on the basis of their fusion/softening point temperature which is as
follows:

ʹ Class I :Coals whose ash does not fuse at 1427oC.

ʹ Class II : Coals whose fusion temperatures are between 1427oC to 1204oC

ʹ Class III : Coals whose fusion temperatures are below 1204oC