The Psychology of Learning 1

The Implications of Constructivism for the Design and

Delivery of Instruction to Adults

By

Donal J. Stewart
Student Number: 05127742

Submitted to the Open Learning Centre, National

University of Ireland, Galway

In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the MA in

Adult Learning and Development

Master of Arts in Adult Learning and Development, January 2010

Tara Prenderville Dr. John Bradley

MA Course Administrator NUI, Galway
NUI, Galway
Introduction

Before one can discuss the implications of constructivism for the design and delivery
of instruction to adults it is important to first have an understanding of the adult
learner. This can be viewed from a number of perspectives. Adults wish to learn in a
learning environment which suits them. The deliverer must therefore adjust the
learning environment and the learner. The learning process itself is poles apart from
conventional education. The students experience is as equally important as the
teacher’s knowledge. The experience is a shared event in which the teacher and
students interaction is almost at the same level. In fact, it is not uncommon for a
teacher to learn equally as much as the students during the delivery of instruction. In a
more conventional environment the student’s are taught through a preset curriculum
whereas in an adult learner environment they are part of the formulation of curricula.
Lindeman, (1926) stated; “A fresh hope is astir. From many quarters comes the call to
a new kind of education with its initial assumption affirming that education is life -
not merely preparation for an unknown kind of future living. Consequently all static
concepts of education which relegate the learning process to the period of youth are
abandoned. The whole of life is learning, therefore education can have no endings.
This new venture is called adult education not because it is confined to adults but
because adulthood, maturity, defines its limits...”

Lindeman makes a number of key assumptions about adult learners. These

assumptions have been supported by later research and are regarded as the foundation
of adult learning theory. They describe the ‘why’ in an adults venture in the learning
process as follows:
1. Adults are motivated to learn as they experience needs and interests that
learning will satisfy.
2. Adults’ orientation is self centered.
3. Experience is the richest source for adult’s learning.
4. Adults have a deep need to be self directing.
5. Individual differences among people increase with age, therefore, adult
education must make optimal provision for differences in styles, time,
place and pace of learning.
It is important to recognize that Lindeman is not attempting to differentiate between
youth and adults but rather between the more conventional method of education and
adult needs. If a number of features were taken into consideration during youth
education such as their needs, interests, experiences during their lives, self concepts
and individual differences they might learn in a more holistic fashion. Conventional
education generally does not take these things into consideration and therefore would
not suit adult or youth needs.

The processing of information through memory also needs to be considered. This is

because the life experience of an adult is contained in long term memory. When
sensory memory is used during an event it is affected by the prior learning or
experiences of adults which is processed from long term memory whether they like or
not. It is therefore, ok to assume that prior knowledge has a significant impact on how
information is retained, stored and restored.

Knowles, M et al (1989) believes that there are parallels between constructivism and
his andragogical theory – andragogy being an alternative to the methodology-centred
instructional design perspective - A methodology explaining a theory of how adults
learn as distinct from children. Knowles sees the connection in the context of the
learner taking ownership of the learning process, experiential learning and a problem-
solving approach to learning. The above are distinct characteristics of the
constructivist process. Knowles, M et al (1998) also refers to the parallel in the
context of “….that individuals make personal meaning of their learning experiences”.
He goes on to state that “Constructivists also stress the cumulative nature of learning
– new information must be related to other existing information in order for learners
to retain and use it”.

This essay will attempt to make sense of how instructional design and the delivery of
instruction to adults are affected by constructivism taking into consideration the
assumptions presented above.
Constructivism and Adults
Through their life long experience and their enormous catalogue of long term memory
adults have no alternative but make constant connections with past knowledge when
learning something new. It is unavoidable for an adult to learn without reflecting,
involuntary information processing and connection synthesis. Whether they do or do
not realize it they are developing new information and building on that information
through past knowledge and experience. It is therefore elementary for us to regard
adults as constructivists. That is of course if the meaning of constructivism is as
Bradley, J (2009) describes it “Constructivism assumes that we are active in
constructing knowledge. As more information gets collected, we continually re-
structure to interpret the new experiences in a manner similar to the schema
accommodation proposed by Piaget”. In order that adults can be fully accommodated
in their learning experiences it is vital that an instructional design model is partially
built around this premise. It is therefore logical, that the implications of
constructivism on the design and delivery of instruction to adults must be viewed in a
positive sense. There are so many facets of constructivism which meets the
requirements of adult learning. The principles presented below combine how the
design and delivery of instruction fit these facets. These principles are reinforced by
educational theorists who are experts in the field of adult education and lifelong
learning. This combination presents a positive perspective of constructivism with
regard to the question being asked in this essay.

Savery, J and Duffy, T (1995) described a number of instructional principles which

underpin constructivism. The principles are designed for a problem based learning
environment which in its nature is most suited to adult learners. “Problem-based
Learning is part of the shift from the teaching paradigm to the learning paradigm”
(Barr and Tagg, 1995). The focus is on what students are learning rather than what the
teacher is teaching;

• Anchor all learning activities to a larger task or problem.

In this context the problem or task relates to other tasks or problems or

information which when connected to each other will provide a complete
 solution or opinion to a far greater outcome. The reference to the word
‘opinion’ is important because of the possible subjective nature of the problem
or task and its diagnosis. Adults do not think of a task or problem as being one
or two dimensional. Their train of thought actively pursues connections and
relationships. These connections and relationships are analysed. Where there
is relevance they are anchored to give the process more meaning. Lindeman
(1926) agrees and believes that adult education is; “for giving situations a setting, for
analyzing complex wholes into manageable, understandable parts, and a method
which points out the path of action which, if followed, will bring the circumstance
within the area of experiment”.

• Develop ownership of the overall problem or task

Knowles, M et al (1998) supports the assumption made by Savery and Duffy

that adults prefer to take ownership of a problem rather than being led by
others outside of their domain – their domain being at an individual or group
level. This is why adults wish to be facilitated through a problem rather than
being dictated to. Ownership of a task or problem brings with it goals and
objectives to achieve their work. The work therefore must be suited to the
goals and objectives and not visa-versa. Ownership includes the learners
taking on the task of developing the goals and objectives.

A way of ensuring ownership is to solicit problems from learners and instruct

them to work through the problems. This is key to ensuring the autonomy of
the adult through the process. Knowles, M et al (1998) stated “Adults have a
self-concept of being self directed autonomous beings, responsible for their
own lives. When you undermine their autonomy you damage their dignity and
self-image. This means that adult learning, to be successful, must not impose
on the learners or undermine their autonomy as adults. “It is important to
engage the learner in meaningful dialogue to help bring the problem or task
home to the learner”, (Savery, J and Duffy, T 1995).
• Design an authentic task

In an andragogical sense the learner must be given the opportunity to solve

problems or tasks in an appropriate learning environment and at the same time
ensuring that their cognitive abilities are constantly being challenged
-challenged in a way which engages them fully in the overall context of the
task at hand and not just the task itself. Knowles, M et al (1998), set out a
number of assumptions which underpin adult learning, some of which
reinforce this idea. He stated that “Adults are motivated to learn to the extent
that they perceive that learning will help them perform tasks or deal with
problems that they confront in their life situations”. He supports this
assumption by referencing adult literacy programmes. The success of these
types of programmes will fail if they are designed the same way as child
learning programmes which, in general, do not relate to real-life situations.
Lengrand, P (1975) in his book on lifelong learning, when attempting to
explain the fundamental differences between the young and old in an
educational environment eloquently stated “Except in very particular
circumstances, no outside authority attempts to compel him (adult learner) to
study, to improve his mental equipment, to become a better citizen or a more
knowledgeable and understanding head of family. For as long as he has not
grasped that a specific benefit awaits him if he makes a particular effort in the
professional, civic or cultural field, he will keep out. And when he has gone in,
it is always open to him to withdraw”. In essence Lengrand is supporting
Savery, J and Duffy, T (1995) instructional principle using intrinsic benefit as
a circumstance under which an adult is willing to learn and understand
authentic problems and tasks.

• Design the task and the learning environment to reflect the complexity of
the environment they should be able to function in at the end of the
learning

Savery, J and Duffy, T (1995) refer to cognitive apprenticeship and cognitive

flexibility theory as providing a method which enables the learner to work and
 learn in a complex environment. Both of these theories can be adopted in an
adult learning environment. Although the former is used with the overall
control of the environment in the hands of the teacher, there is a point during
the learning process where autonomy of learning is placed in the hands of the
learner. This is crucial in order for the adult learner to stay engaged in the
process. The adult learner, therefore, must understand from the outset that this
is the case. If the learner is made aware of the structure of the process which
includes teacher control in explaining and demonstrating a task and finally the
learner working on the task in an autonomous fashion without too much
interference from the teacher, then they will be accepting of the teacher’s
initial didactic approach.

Cognitive flexibility theory is well suited to adult learners in a constructivist

sense especially as Spiro et al (1995) states “where the subjects are ill-
structured domains such as history, medicine, law, literary interpretation, and
teacher education”. Spiro’s flexibility theory to instruction focuses on multiple
presentations of information. Content must be covered a number of times with
different purposes. Therefore there are many concrete examples of the uses of
a concept. The learner develops the ability to transfer the information learnt
from one situation to another. This would indicate a more holistic approach to
the learning process and “...includes the ability to represent knowledge from
different conceptual and case perspectives and then, when the knowledge must
later be used, the ability to construct from those different conceptual and case
representations a knowledge ensemble tailored to the needs of the
understanding or problem-solving situation at hand” (Spiro, et al., 1991, p.
24).

• Give the learner ownership of the process to develop a solution

Under normal circumstances, the solution to a problem or task is dictated and

guided by a teacher which indicates that ownership of the process is in the
hands of the teacher and to a lesser extent the learner. Problem solving
objectives and reading material are presented to the learners by the teacher
 which dictates the direction the learner is required to go. This type of
dictatorial methodology and the relationship between the teacher and the
learner would not be regarded as constructivist or conducive to adult problem
solving methodology. As previously stated, adults prefer to take ownership of
their learning in an holistic fashion. This includes being able to critically think
through the problem or task as self directed individuals. An implication to not
allowing them to take ownership of the process is that it will have a negative
impact on their ability to cope with real life situations. It is therefore important
that the role of the teacher is to act as facilitator and to ask appropriate
questions. Barrows, H (1992) stated “The ability of the tutor to use facilitatory
teaching skills during small group learning process is the major determinant of
the quality and the success of any educational method aimed at;
1. Developing students’ thinking and reasoning skills (problem solving,
metacognition, critical thinking) as they learn.
2. Helping them to become independent, self directed learners (learning to learn,
learning management).
Tutoring is a teaching skill central to problem-based, self-directed learning.”
The teacher’s role is not to dictate but to challenge the learners thinking.
Freire, P (1972), whose thinking was formed in the context of basic education
among adults in poor communities in Brazil, believes that adult education
consists of two phases; Thematic Research and Educational Programme. The
former relates to themes of concern to the learners where the tutor works with
the learners to identify these themes. Freire supported dialogue between tutor
and learner and did not believe in a one-way banking approach in which
knowledge is deposited in learners. Although Freire’s ideas have been
particularly influential in community education, his thinking relates directly to
Knowles andragogical approach to learning.

• Design the learning environment to support and challenge the learner’s

thinking

Duffy, T and Cunningham, D (1995) in their interpretation of constructivism

stated that “they (theorists) do seem to be committed to the general view that
(1) learning is an active process of constructing rather than acquiring
knowledge, and (2) instruction is a process of supporting that construction
rather than communicating knowledge”. Vygotsky (1987), who is regarded as
the founder of the concept of “Zone of proximal development” (ZPD), is his
term for the range of tasks that are too difficult for a child to master alone but
that can be learned with guidance and assistance of adults or more-skilled
children. The lower limit of ZPD is the level of skill reached by the child
working independently. The upper limit is the level of additional responsibility
the child can accept with the assistance of an able instructor. The ZPD
captures the child’s cognitive skills that are in the process of maturing and can
be accomplished only with the assistance of a more-skilled person.
Scaffolding is a concept closely related to the idea of ZPD. Scaffolding is
changing the level of support. Over the course of a teaching session, a more-
skilled person adjusts the amount of guidance to fit the learner’s current
performance. Dialogue is an important tool of this process in the zone of
proximal development.
Scaffolding accurately represents a method used to support problem-based
learning (PBL). “Learners in the classroom become researchers and often
work in small groups to analyze problems, determine solutions, and evaluate
problems when utilizing PBL” (Hoffman and Ritchie, 1997).

Instructional scaffolding is all about providing support to the learners through

the provision of resources, giving them compelling tasks, providing them with
templates and guides to assist them with the task and finally teacher guidance
on the development of their cognitive and social skills.

As the learners become more autonomous in their development of learning

strategies the supports (scaffolds) are gradually removed. Key questions and
supporting documentation are examples of the type of support a teacher can
provide to the learners. There are different types of scaffolding which can be
used in an educational setting two of which can be adopted for use with adults.
The first type known as ‘recipricol scaffolding’ involves learners working in
groups and learning from each other. There may be within the group learners
 with higher level capabilities or an expert which helps to develop higher level
thinking within the group.

Technical scaffolding is a newer approach in which “computers replace the

teachers as the experts or guides, and students can be guided with web links,
online tutorials, or help pages” (Yelland and Masters, 2005). This type of
scaffolding enables the adult learners to have complete control of the task or
problem with little interaction from the teacher.

• Encourage testing ideas against alternative views and alternative contexts

Unless an adult can work in a collaborative social setting where fellow

learners are exchanging ideas and opinions there is little chance of them
attaining higher level cognitive, community and social status. “The importance
of a learning community where ideas are discussed and understanding
enriched is critical to the design of an effective learning environment”
(Savery, J and Duffy, 1995). For adults, this constructivist approach enables
them to socially interact, engage in active listening and interpretation of others
ideas and help them formulate with the assistance of their peers an informed
opinion of solutions to problems and the completion of tasks to their desired
satisfaction.

Houle, C (1961) study of adults and the reasons why they engage in
continuing education identified a common feature in how adults learn. He
placed the adults into three categories; the goal oriented learner, the activity-
oriented learner and the learner-oriented learner. Each category of learner
actively tried to and successfully became part of a group for educational
reasons. Although his study did not necessarily give a reason for this, it is
obvious that through the social and community learning environment which is
inherent in group activity, they were able to engage with others and fulfill their
needs as adults in the learning process.
 • Provide opportunity for and support reflection on both content learned
and the learning process

Knowles, M (1998) fully substantiates this final principle. The word

‘reflection’ as used in this principle refers to the evaluation of the content
learned and the learning process. Knowles supports Kirkpatrick’s model of
evaluation in this regard and stated, “…conceptualization of the evaluation
process is the most congruent with andragogical principles and the most
practical of all the formulations seen to date”. The first two steps in the
Kirkpatrick model are all about feedback from learners and how they are
responding to a programme or learning task. Step No. 1 might include how
they feel about the process – whether it is positive or negative or what they
like most about it. Step No. 2 involves gathering data on the learning process
through information recall tests or problem solving exercises, the latter being
the most conducive to adult evaluation. Adults are able to conduct self-
evaluation of their retention of knowledge and their overall performance with
the assistance of the teacher through the facilitation process. Step No. 3 looks
at behaviour evaluation and the changes which may or may not have occurred
in the learner after the training in comparison to their behaviour before the
training. Finally the final step is based on the overall results of the programme
and the learners being tested.
If this principle is to be successful the adult learner must be given the
opportunity to take partial ownership of the process and be given a say in any
adjustments which may be required in the programme or learning objectives.

Important Note:

The principles outlined above can be developed to take account of the varying levels
of cognitive and analytical ability of adult learners. They provide a framework to
teachers which ensure that the design and delivery of instruction will meet the goals
and objectives of the curriculum and at the same time cater for the needs of the adult
learner.

Conclusion
Throughout the main body of this essay constructivism is clearly at work in an adult
sense. The model presented which consists of principles for the design and delivery of
instruction in a constructivist framework is wholly conducive to adult learning. The
word ‘adult’ or ‘andragogy’ is not referred to in Savery, J and Duffy, M (1995)
principles. However, the implications of this model towards the design and delivery of
instruction to adults is very positive. Reference was made on a number of occasions
from theorists who exemplify lifelong learning and the andragogical learning process.
Their interpretations of how adults think and how their learning is achieved is
captured in each one of the principles presented, from taking ownership of each part
of the learning process through to the reflective or evaluation process.

A significant feature within the principles is that the learners and to some extent the
teachers are actively engaged in the learning. The tasks and problems are authentic
and the adult deliberately expands and relates the problem or task to other connections
and relationships. This is a key feature of adult cognitive thinking. Vygotsky’s “Zone
of proximal development” which directly relates to the scaffolding concept assists the
learner by supporting them with Key questions and relevant documentation which are
eventually removed to allow the learner more autonomy with the process. This can
only occur when the learner has achieved a certain level of understanding of the
process. The learners are encouraged to think critically and creatively and to evaluate
their performance and the nature of the problem or task.
Most importantly, the implications of constructivism for the design and delivery of
instruction to adults is positive because of its andragogical nature as described by
Knowles (1989), “Constructivists also stress the cumulative nature of learning – new
information must be related to other existing information in order for learners to retain
and use it”.
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Barr, R.J. and Tagg, J. (1995) From Teaching to Learning: A New Paradigm for
Understanding Education.

Barrows, H. and Tamblyn, R. (1980) Problem-based Learning: An Approach to

Medical Education. New York: Springer.

Bradley, J (2009) The Constructivist Oriented Approach to Learning: The Open

Learning Centre, NUI Galway.

Duffy M, Cunningham, D (1995) Constructivism: Implications for the Design and

Delivery of Instruction, Indiana University.

Freire, P. (1972) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Houle, C. (1961) The Enquiring Mind. Madison University: University of Wisconsin

Press.

Kirkpatrick, D.L (1994) Evaluating Training Programs: The Four Levels.

Knowles, M, Holton III, E, Swanson, R (2005) The Adult Learner, Sixth Edition,
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Lengrand, P (1975) An Introduction to lifelong Education, London: Croom Helm.

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