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MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280

MACHINING
Unit 04
E R EDUCA Machine Tool Systems
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AL SO Suitable for NVQ Level 3


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EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES STATEMENT

The Further Education National Consortium believes that discrimination and prejudice on the
grounds of ethnicity, gender, religion, marital status, sexual orientation and social class is
incompatible with the principle of Equal Opportunities.

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No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted without the prior written consent of
the Board of Trustees for the Further Education National Consortium except as authorised by
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WARNING: THE UNAUTHORISED REPRODUCTION OR TRANSMISSION OF THIS PUBLICATION IS AN


INFRINGEMENT OF COPYRIGHT AND MAY RESULT IN CIVIL PROCEEDINGS AND A CRIMINAL PROSECUTION.

Written by David Gibbs


for the National Consortium

First Edition July 1995


MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 01

CONTENTS

Element Information 2

Objectives 2

Rotary Movement 3

Belt Drives 3

Clutches 13

Gearing 17

Linear Movement 22

Speed Changing 27

Feed Rate Control 32

Summary 38
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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ELEMENT INFORMATION
This element has been written to support your practical training and in
particular to develop your understanding of the way power is transmitted
on machine tools to the level required by the City and Guilds 228 course,
Mechanical Production Competences Part 2. If you are preparing for
assessment of Level III NVQ's then it will also serve as a source for
general underpinning and background knowledge.

To complete the element you will need access to a range of machines


including drilling machines, centre lathes and milling machines.

Some of the activities require you to make calculations, so a calculator


will be useful.

OBJECTIVES

When you have completed this element you should be able to:

• identify methods of power transmission in common use on


machine tools

• describe how rotary movement is achieved using belt drives,


gears and clutches

• describe how linear movement is achieved using screw


threads, rack and pinion, crank and wheel, and hydraulics

• describe how spindle speeds are changed using sliding gears,


pulleys and variable speed motors
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

• describe how feed rates are controlled using screw threads,


sliding gears and hydraulics

Whilst this element is designed for you to work at your own pace you
should allow approximately 10 hours to complete it.

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ROTARY MOVEMENT
Regardless of the type of movement a machine tool finally makes, be it
rotating, sliding or reciprocating; included in the power transmission
system of the machine will be rotary movement, provided either
electrically by electric motors, or manually by turning a hand-wheel.

The initial rotary movement then has to be transmitted to other parts of


the machine and this is achieved in various ways. In this element we
consider the following methods.

• Belts and pulleys


• Gears
• Leadscrew and nut
• Hydraulic actuator

Let's begin by looking at the way rotary movement is transmitted using


belts and pulleys.

BELT DRIVES
Although a few modern computerised numerical controlled (CNC)
machine tools have dispensed with belt drives altogether, it is still the
case that most machine tool power transmission systems, including the
majority of CNC machines, have at least one belt drive.

Belt drives can be used in a variety of ways but on machine tools they
are invariably used to transmit power between two parallel shafts as
illustrated below.

Machine Headstock
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Belt Drive

Drive Motor

TYPICAL MACHINE TOOL BELT DRIVE

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Keyed to each shaft is a pulley and the belt links the two; transmitting
power from one to the other. The transmission of power relies on the
frictional resistance to movement that exists between the belt and the
pulleys.

Usually the pulleys are of different diameters to enable the speed of the
driven shaft to be increased or decreased in relation to the driving shaft.
Thus a small diameter pulley driving a larger diameter pulley will result in
the larger pulley rotating at a slower speed. If the driving pulley had the
largest diameter, then the smaller diameter pulley would rotate at a
higher speed.

Often the pulleys are stepped so that two or three combinations of pulley
diameters, and output spindle speeds, are possible. We take a look at
pulley speeds later in the element.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BELT DRIVES

Belt drives have the general advantage over other types of drive (gears,
for example) of being relatively cheap. But of more importance in
machine tool construction is that they can run at very high speeds, are
relatively quiet and create less vibration.

The reduction of vibration is particularly important if high-quality surface


finish is to be maintained, especially when using high spindle speeds and
rapid removal rates. Consequently, many modern CNC machines place
the main drive motor outside the main body of the machine and then use
a belt drive to transmit power from the motor spindle to the machine
spindle. Apart from reducing vibration, the use of a belt is also the only
practical way of bridging the considerable centre distance between the
two spindles.

However, belt drives do have some disadvantages. In particular, some


types of belt are prone to slipping if they are not correctly tensioned or if
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

they have stretched after a long period of use. Another disadvantage is


that they are easily damaged by oil and grease, thus increasing the
likelihood of slipping.

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ACTIVITY 1

Take a break from reading and see what you have learnt about belt
drives so far.

First, simply add single words in the boxes below to complete each
statement.

1 In a belt drive, the transmission of relies on

the resistance to movement that exists

between the and the .

2 The diameter of the driven pulley has to be

than the diameter of the pulley if the output

speed is to be .

Now use the two boxes below to make your own list of the advantages
and disadvantages of belt drives.

Advantages

2
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Disadvantages

When you have finished check your answers with


those in the Review Pack

TYPES OF BELT

Let's continue by taking a closer look at the types of belt used on modern
machine tools. They are:

Vee
Toothed

Older machines also sometimes use flat belts and since some of these
machines are still in use these are also included in the following text.

Vee Belts

Vee belts are the most common type of belt used on machine tools,
particularly for transmitting power from the main drive motor to the
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

machine spindle. A sectional view of a vee belt is shown below.

40°

VEE BELT

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Vee belts are made of rubber-impregnated fabric with rayon reinforcing


cords or, where increased strength is required, a mixture of neoprene
and terylene reinforcing cords.

The standard included wedge angle is 40°. Note that the sides of the
belt contact the sides of the pulley vee and that there is a clearance at
the bottom of the vee. There is very little slip on a correctly tensioned
belt in good condition.

Vee belts are available that meet a wide range of speed and power
requirements. Increased power can be transmitted when two or three
belts are used alongside each other, which is often the case with
machine tool drives. These arrangements are called multi-vee belt
drives but when vee belts are used in this way they have to be precisely
matched otherwise the work load is not evenly shared.

The problem of precisely matching the belts is eliminated when banded


vee belts are used, as illustrated below.

Tie Band

BANDED VEE BELTS

The individual belts are essentially the same as single belts, but they are
banded together by a textile band.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

A further advantage of this type of vee belt is that the banding prevents
individual belts from slipping out of the pulley grooves which single belts
sometimes do, particularly if they are not correctly tensioned.

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Toothed Belts

A toothed belt drive is shown below.

TOOTHED BELT

The inner surface of the belt is toothed and the teeth fit in corresponding
grooves in the pulley. The belts are made of impregnated rubber with
steel wire reinforcing.

The centre distance between shafts has to be quite small but apart from
this, toothed belts are capable of high power transmission rates at very
high speeds without risk of slip. The speed ratios are fixed and cannot
be changed.

One instance of where you might find this type of drive on a machine tool
is to transmit the drive from servo motors to table leadscrews.

Flat Belts

Though no longer as commonly used as they once were, you are still
likely to come across flat belt drives, particularly on older machines.

Flat belts are less costly than either vee or toothed belts but they do tend
to slip under load and cannot operate at such high speeds. They were
once made of leather, rubber and woven cotton and canvas. Modern
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

belts include synthetic materials. A typical composition is shown below.

Crown on pulley helps hold belt

FLAT BELT AND PULLEY

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Note that the periphery of the pulley is crowned, or radiused. The


purpose of this is to prevent the belt slipping off: it tends to 'ride up' to
the largest diameter.

ACTIVITY 2

Time to break again and see what you now know about belts. Can you
answer these questions?

1 What material are vee belts made from?

2 What are the advantages of vee belts over flat belts?

3 Vee belts are sometimes banded together. What is the purpose of


doing this?
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4 To what type of drive are toothed belts best suited?

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5 Why are flat belt pulleys crowned?

Check your answers with the Review Pack

ACTIVITY 3

For this activity, make an accompanied visit to the workshops to take a


look at a range of belt drives. Your objective is to see belt drives using
each of the types of belt previously described.

Take a pen and paper with you so that you can record what you see with
a view to completing the table below when you return to the classroom.

SAFETY: BEFORE YOU REMOVE ANY GUARDS ELECTRICALLY


ISOLATE THE MACHINE!

MACHINE TYPE DRIVE FEATURE BELT TYPE NUMBER OF BELT


SPEEDS AVAILABLE
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BELT DRIVEN SPINDLE SPEEDS

We can calculate an output speed when we know the input speed and
the pulley diameters. The shaft speeds in revolutions per minute are
indirectly proportional to the pulley diameters.

The diagram below shows a typical drive including the input speed and
the pulley diameters.

Ø 250 Ø 150

Output Motor
Rev/Min = ? Rev/min 2000

BELT DRIVE EXAMPLE

To calculate the speed of the driven pulley, that is the output speed:

Revs/min of the driver shaft Diameter of the driven pulley


=
Revs/ min of the driven shaft Diameter of the driver pulley

2000 250
=
X 150
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

After cross multiplying:

250X = 200 x 150

Divide each side of the equation by 250:

200 x 150
X =
250

X = 120 rev/min

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ACTIVITY 4

The diagram shows a belt drive that has three possible output speeds
Complete the table below.
Ø 175 Ø 200

Input 1500 Rev/Min

Ø 150

Ø 175
Ø 200
Ø 150

Output Rev/Min = ?

STEPPED BELT DRIVE

DRIVE SKETCH OF DRIVE SHOWING CALCULATIONS OUTPUT


NO PULLEY SIZES SPEED
(rev/min)

1
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DRIVE SKETCH OF DRIVE SHOWING CALCULATIONS OUTPUT


NO PULLEY SIZES SPEED
(rev/min)

Check your answers with the Review Pack

CLUTCHES
A very important component in the transmission of rotary movement is a
clutch. This device enables part of a power transmission to be separated
from the power source on a temporary basis. A car clutch is an everyday
example, enabling you to isolate the gearbox from the engine whilst you
change gear. Similar situations occur on machine tools.

TYPES OF CLUTCHES

On machine tools two types of clutches are used:

Friction clutch
Dog clutch
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Friction (Plate) Clutch

The most simple version of a friction clutch is where one of the shafts to
be linked is fitted with a flange that is keyed to, and therefore rotates
with, the driving shaft. The second shaft also has a flange keyed to the
shaft, but it can also slide along the shaft. Between the two flanges is a
friction disc. This basic principle is illustrated in the diagram on the
following page.

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Housing

Pressure Spring
Input Shaft
Shaft


Movement

Friction Disc Output Shaft

SIMPLE PLATE CLUTCH

As the sliding flange is moved towards the flange on the rotating shaft,
the friction disc is gradually sandwiched between the two, with some slip
occurring in the initial stages, until it is held firmly in position by pressure
exerted by a spring. The disc then transmits the drive from one flange to
the other.

The clutches fitted to machine tools are somewhat more complex than
this, often with more than one disc being included in the assembly. One
such example is illustrated as follows.

Friction Discs

Pressure Pressure
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MULTI-DISC C LUTCH

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A variation of this type of clutch is the rim clutch. Here the drive is
transmitted through friction material that clamps on to the rim of a
rotating flange. As with the disc clutch, some slip occurs during the initial
stages of engagement so that the take up is smooth.

Rim is clamped

When cams are rotated by


linkage

RIM CLUTCH

Friction clutches may be operated manually or electrically, the latter


being the case with modern CNC machines where the operation is
automatically controlled via the part programme.

Dog Clutch

A dog clutch is a very simple device which consists of two flanges, one
fixed and one sliding. One flange has a slot across its face, the other a
corresponding projection, called a dog.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

DOG CLUTCH

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As the sliding flange is moved towards the fixed flange, the dog engages
in the slot, providing that the two are in alignment. It goes almost without
saying that both shafts must be stationary whilst the clutch is engaged or
disengaged!

ACTIVITY 5

Time to take another accompanied visit to the workshop where your tutor
will show you examples of clutches fitted to machine tool drives. All you
have to do is take a few notes whilst you are there so that you can
complete the following table by adding the type of machine to which the
clutch was fitted, the type of clutch you saw and the function of the clutch
(for example, to isolate a leadscrew from a drive shaft).

MACHINE TYPE OF CLUTCH FUNCTION


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GEARING
Until the advent of CNC machines, gears were a very important part of
all machine tool power transmission systems, but on these modern
machines the spindles are driven by variable speed electric motors and
feed rates are controlled by servo motors directly coupled to the
leadscrews. So gearing and gearboxes are no longer as prominent as
they were and they look set to decline even more as old machines are
replaced by the new. But that said, there are still many machines still in
use that have gearboxes and that use gearing in one way or another.

TYPES OF GEARS

Compared with belt drives, gears are much more costly. However, they
provide a very positive drive and the ratios are precise and constant.

In this section we look at the following types of gears:

Bevel gears
Worm and wheel
Spur gears

Spur Gears

Spur gears are straight toothed gears used to transmit drive between
parallel shafts. Although in theory only two shafts and two gears are
necessary, in practice more are involved. Gears are arranged in trains
which may be simple or compound. Each gear in a train becomes
either a driver gear or a driven gear, as shown below.

Driver
Two gears keyed
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

together
Driver Driven

Driven
Driver

Driver
Driven

Simple Train Compound Train

SPUR GEAR TRAINS

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Bevel Gears

Bevel gears are used to transmit power between shafts other than
parallel. In the case of machine tools, the shafts are commonly at 90° to
each other.

The gears can both have the same number of teeth, in which case the
speed of both shafts will be the same; or they can be different, in which
case one shaft will rotate faster than the other. Both situations are
shown below.

Equal Angle Bevel Gears Unequal Angle Bevel Gears

BEVEL GEARS

Worm and Wheel

Wheel
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Worm

The worm is not unlike a screw thread, but it has a special helical form.
One turn of the worm rotates the wheel by one tooth. This type of
gearing is used where the gearing ratio is high, 100:1 for example, and in
special types of mechanisms even higher than that. You won't find a
common workshop application that uses such a high ratio but a simple
workshop dividing head, with which you are probably familiar, has a
worm and wheel with a ratio of 40:1.

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GEAR SPEEDS

You can calculate the speed of gears in much the same way as you
calculated pulley speeds earlier in the element. With gearing
calculations instead of the pulley diameters you use the number of teeth
each gear has.

The diagram below shows a simple gear train. What is the revs/min of
the output shaft?

Driver 75T
Rev/min 3000

Driven 50T
Rev/min = ?

SIMPLE TWO-GEAR TRAIN

The formula you use is:

Rev/min of driver shaft Number of teeth on driven wheel


=
Rev/min of driven shaft Number of teeth on driver wheel

3000 75
=
Driven rev/min 50
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Driven rev/min x 50 = 3000 x 75

3000 x 75
Driven rev/min =
50

Driven rev/min = 4500

Notice that when just two gears are involved the direction of rotation is
reversed. Can you think how you can avoid this without affecting the
output speed? Sketch your answer in the box provided.

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Answer:

Ask your tutor to check your answer

Here is another example, this time calculate the speed of the output
shaft in the compound train shown in the diagram. Note that throughout
the rest of this text, the speed of a driver shaft is referred to as the input
rev/min and the speed of the driven shaft as the output rev/min.

Driver
1750 Rev/min
55T

Driven 45T

Driven 40T
Driver 30T Rev/min = ?

COMPOUND GEAR TRAIN


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Input rev/min Number of teeth on driven wheels


=
Output rev/min Number of teeth on driver wheels

1750 = 45 x 40
Output rev/min 55 x 30

Output rev/min x 45 x 40 = 1750 x 55 x 30

Output rev/min = 1750 x 55 x 30


45 x 40

Output rev/min = 1604

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ACTIVITY 6

The table below shows three simple gear trains. Complete the table by
calculating the output speeds.

DRIVE DRIVE DETAILS CALCULATIONS OUTPUT


NO SPEED
(rev/min)

1 40T 1250 Rev/min

25T
35T

2 65T 950 Rev/min

55T

35T
40T

3 1750 Rev/min
55T
65T
35T

38T
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Check your answers with the Review Pack

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LINEAR MOVEMENT
Now let's look at the way the rotary movement is converted into linear
movement in machine tools mechanisms. We begin by looking at one
which is extensively used, the screw and nut.

SCREW AND NUT

In this mechanism the rotary movement sometimes causes the shaft to


make a linear movement, in others the nut makes a linear movement. A
tap is a common example. When you turn the tap you turn a screw
which then lifts or lowers the valve. Rotary movement causes a linear
movement of the shaft. Another example, this time one that can be seen
in the machine shop, is shown below which shows the mechanism for
the cross slide of a lathe.

Cross slide

Slide
movement

Leadscrew Bearing
(restrained) Nut

Bearing
LATHE CROSS SLIDE

Turning the hand-wheel rotates the screwed shaft. The shaft is


restrained so that although it can rotate, linear movement is prevented.
This means that the nut must move and, since the nut is attached to the
underside of the cross-slide, this causes the cross-slide to move.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

There are numerous examples of screw and nut mechanisms in most


workshops, particularly on machine tools like lathes and milling machines
where their characteristics are also used to measure or calibrate
movement. Let's see how screw threads can be used in this way.

Calibration of Movement

From previous study you should know that on a single-start thread, one
turn of the screw causes the nut to make a linear movement (move a
distance equal) to the pitch of the thread.

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Example: If the pitch of a screw is 5 mm, how far will the nut travel in 4
revolutions of the shaft?

Movement = Pitch x Number of turns

= 5 x 4

= 20 mm

If the hand-wheel is fitted with a graduated sleeve, each graduation can


represent a linear movement.

Example: If in the above example the screw is fitted to a graduated


hand-wheel having 100 graduations around its periphery, what is the
linear, or incremental, value of each graduation?

Movement per revolution


Increment =
Number of graduations

5
=
100

= 0.05 mm

RACK AND PINION

A rack can be described as being a straight gear; the pinion is a small


gear that meshes with the rack.

There are two basic applications:


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

• the rack moves and the pinion is stationary

• the pinion moves and the rack is stationary

The machine shop at your centre will provide you with good examples of
these mechanisms.

Look at a drilling machine and you will see that the feed is applied via a
rack and pinion. In this case the pinion is restrained and the spindle
(rack) moves. This is shown in the diagram on the following page.

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Pinion

Rack

Machine Spindle

RACK AND PINION – DRILLING MACHINE

Look at a centre lathe and you will see a rack and pinion, as illustrated
below, is used to traverse the saddle along the lathe bed. This time it's
the rack that is stationary and the pinion that moves.

Lathe Saddle Rack

Pinion

Handwheel
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

RACK AND PINION – CENTRE LATHE

Each tooth on a pinion meshes with a tooth on the rack. In one turn of
the pinion the distance moved is equal to the pitch of the rack x number
of pinion teeth.

Example: If a rack has a pitch of 5 mm and the pinion has 35 teeth, how
far will the rack move in one revolution of the pinion?

Linear movement = 5 x 25 = 125

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WHEEL AND CRANK

There are two types of wheel and crank mechanisms:

Fixed-stroke
Adjustable stroke

A crank is a lever attached to a wheel or disc. As the wheel or disc


rotates, the crank transmits a linear motion to a connecting rod. The
principle is illustrated below.

Crank
R
Connecting Rod

Travel Length
Wheel

FIXED -STROKE CRANK

Fixed-stroke Mechanisms

In a fixed-stroke mechanism, the distance R cannot be changed.


Therefore the linear movement L remains constant.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Adjustable Stroke Crank Mechanism

With an adjustable stroke crank, the connection of the crank to the wheel
can be varied. In a simple example the wheel might have a tee slot
along which the nut retaining the crank can slide. Thus the distance R
can be increased or decreased and this will increase or decrease the
linear movement.

The activity which follows gives you an opportunity to look closely at a


mechanism where the crank radius R can be varied.

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ACTIVITY 7

A good example of a mechanism which incorporates the adjustable


crank principle is found in the machine shop inside a shaping machine.
If there is a shaping machine in your workshop, ask your tutor to let you
see it.

A diagrammatic arrangement of the mechanism is shown below.

Connecting Link

Bull Wheel

Path of Crankpin

Slotted Link

Fixed Pivot

ADJUSTABLE CRANK
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The bull wheel rotates at a constant speed, but by altering the position of
the crank pin you change the radius R. Consequently, the movement of
the pivoted link varies and this in turn changes the length of the ram
movement.

Using the illustration as a starting point, this is what you have to do.

1 Overdraw on the diagram a new setting for the slider nut by


increasing the distance R to 35 mm.

2 Dimension the drawing to show the stroke length for the new
setting.

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When you have finished drawing, answer the following questions.

1 Using the original lever movement as a starting point, what effect


did changing the radius R have on the length of ram movement?

2 What would be the effect on the length of the ram movement if you
reduced the radius R?

3 Regardless of the position of the crank pin, the return stroke is


always quicker than the forward stroke. Why is this?

Check your answers with the Review Pack

SPEED CHANGING
A common requirement of all machine tool power transmission systems
is the facility to change speeds. This is achieved in various ways, the
most simple of which we have already considered, that of changing belts
from one pair of pulleys to another.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

In this section we look at other ways in which speeds are changed.

CONE PULLEYS

We begin by looking at a belt drive that, instead of using a cluster of


pulleys of different diameter, uses a cone pulley. The arrangement is
illustrated on the following page.

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Driving Cone Pulley

Belt
Belt Movement

Driven Cone Pulley

CONE PULLEYS

To reduce the speed of B the belt is re-positioned to the right along the
cones. So the highest speed for shaft B is when the belt is in the
extreme left-hand position and the highest speed for shaft B is when the
belt is in the extreme right-hand position. Since the belt can be
positioned anywhere, the speed range is variable between the two
extremes. Whilst this type of belt drive is quite interesting, it has to be
said that it is not widely used. Ask your tutor if there is one for you to see
in your workshop, but it's unlikely that there will be.

SLIDING GEARS

The most common ways of changing speeds on machine tools


(excluding CNC machines which, as was mentioned earlier, usually use
variable speed motors) is by sliding gears. The principle is shown below.
Sliding Movement

Sliding Gears
Spline
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Fixed Gears

SLIDING GEARS

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By moving the cluster either to the left or the right, three output speeds
are possible. Before the changes can be made the input shaft has to be
stationary or isolated by disengaging a clutch.

ACTIVITY 8

The diagram below shows the gearing for the headstock gearbox of a
centre lathe. Gear changes are possible by sliding the centre cluster to
the right and left.

Movement

Input Shaft Splined Shaft with Sliding


700 Rev/min Gears

25T 55T 35T

75T
50T 65T Plain Shaft with Fixed
Gears

Output Shaft Splined Shaft with


45T 70T 55T Sliding Gears
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Movement

CENTRE LATHE HEADSTOCK GEARING

There are 9 output speeds available with this arrangement. See if you
can determine what they are. Then, in the table, make a simple line
diagram of each gearing combination and calculate the output speeds.

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 01

DRIVE DRIVE DETAILS CALCULATIONS OUTPUT


NO SPEED
(rev/min)

3
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DRIVE DRIVE DETAILS CALCULATIONS OUTPUT


NO SPEED
(rev/min)

7
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 01

DRIVE DRIVE DETAILS CALCULATIONS OUTPUT


NO SPEED
(rev/min)

Check your answers with the Review Pack

FEED RATE CONTROL


In the final part of this element we look at how the feed rates, which are
essentially linear movements, are controlled.

LEADSCREW AND NUT

Common to many machines, including CNC machines, is the use of a


leadscrew and nut to convert rotary motion into linear motion. You have
already learnt that one turn of the leadscrew moves the nut a distance
equal to the lead of the thread. To use the mechanism to control the
feed rate, all that is required is to control the revolutions of the
leadscrew.

The rate at which a leadscrew turns can be controlled as follows:


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

• manually, by turning a handle (for example, when you use the


top slide of a centre lathe)

• mechanically (via gearing)

• electrically (via variable speed motors as on CNC machines)

Of these three methods, the first is essentially a manual skill. The third
method is the exact opposite, to use it being simply a case of
programming a feed rate and the machine control system does the rest.

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The second method falls somewhere between the two. You 'programme'
your feed rate by selecting one from a limited range available from a sub-
gear box which is part of the power transmission system of the machine,
but you engage and disengage the feed manually.

HYDRAULIC FEED

A number of machines, particularly surface grinding machines, but also


some shaping machines and a few CNC and other programmable
machines such as plug-board capstan, use hydraulics to achieve linear
motion.

The following illustration shows the basic principle involved. Fluid under
pressure is directed first to one side of a piston to move the worktable
one way, and then to the other side to move it back again.

Table Movement


Table

Double-Acting
Cylinder

Piston

Fluid directed to
each end of the
cylinder in turn

HYDRAULIC FEED

A complete hydraulic machine tool power transmission system not only


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

includes the actuating cylinders but also a variety of valves for specific
purposes. The valve that controls the feed rate is a flow control valve.
Its function is simply to control the rate at which it flows into the operating
cylinder. The faster the rate of flow the more rapid the linear movement
of the slide or table.

There is another study package which deals specifically with hydraulic


and pneumatic control of machine tools. If you would like to know more
about the subject, ask your tutor for advice.

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NORTON GEARBOX

You will find a variety of feed gearboxes on common machine tools but
one that has been extensively used on centre lathes is the norton
gearbox. The following assignment gives you the opportunity to take a
close look at one.

ASSIGNMENT 1

Ask your tutor to direct you to a centre lathe that has a norton gearbox.
Your objective then is to find out how the gearbox works and to answer
the questions.

If you are not familiar with the designated machine, ask your tutor for
further instruction on what to do. Don't attempt to use the machine
until you have been told how to use it.

1 How is power transmitted to the norton gearbox input shaft?

2 Is the input speed variable? If so, how?


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

3 How many output speeds are there?

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4 How are output speeds selected?

5 To what other item in the machine power transmission system does


the norton gearbox transmit power?

6 Can the output drive of the norton gearbox be isolated so that


power is not transmitted?

When you have finished ask your tutor to check your answers
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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ACTIVITY 9

This final activity brings together most of the transmission features you
have been studying.

It involves another accompanied visit to the workshop, this time to look at


the power transmission system of a vertical milling machine.

What you have to do is look closely at the following:

• the way power is transmitted from the machine motor to the


spindle

• the way power is transmitted from the machine motor to the


table to provide automatic feed

Whilst you are in the workshop make rough annotated sketches. When
you return to the classroom make a line diagram of the system in the box
on the following page clearly indicating all the power transmission
features.

When you have completed your diagram, ask your tutor to look at it
to see if you have included all the features
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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• To be or not to be that is the quest


• Friends, Romans, Countrymen, le
me your ears, I come to bury Caes
not to praise him.
SUMMARY
* SUMMARY
• The evil that men do lives on after
them but the good is oft interred
their bones.
• Hark! What light through yonder
window breaks?
• What’s in a name? A rose by any
name would smell as sweet.
• There was a young man from Cape
Horn who wished he’d never been

You have now reached the end of the Power Transmission element.
Well done. You should now have a good understanding of:

• the mechanisms used to transmit rotary motion

• the mechanisms used to transmit linear motion

• how speeds are changed

• how feed rates are changed

If you still need help with any of the topics covered in this element,
please talk to your tutor.

WHAT TO STUDY NEXT


Have a look at the Module Map in the Introductory Pack and select the
next unit you think is appropriate. Before you begin discuss your choice
with your tutor to make sure you are continuing on the right track.

Good Luck!
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 02

CONTENTS
Unit Information 2
Objectives 2
Introduction 3
Structural Requirements 3
Loads Acting on Machines Tools 5
Vibration 6
Effect of Heat 6
Mounting of Machine Tools 11
Machine Levelling 13
Machine Tool Alignment 14
Slideways 15
Bearings 21
Alignment Checks 28
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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UNIT INFORMATION
This unit has been written to support your practical training and in
particular to develop your understanding of machine tool construction
and the way they are installed to the level required by the City and Guilds
228 course, Mechanical Production Competencies Part 2. It also serves
as study material for relevant underpinning knowledge for Level III
NVQ's.

To complete the unit you will need access to a range of machines


including drilling machines, centre lathes and milling machines.

OBJECTIVES

By completing this element you will be able to:

• state the basic structural requirements of machine tools


• state the basic structure of specific machine tools
• state the types and effects of forces acting on the structure
• state the types of load acting within a machine tool system
• state the methods of mounting machine tools and the methods
of levelling
• describe the machine tool alignment tests and carry out a test
to BS specification
• describe types of machine tool slideway
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

This unit is intended to be worked at your own pace but as a guide you
should allow approximately 8 hours.

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INTRODUCTION
When you use a bench drill to drill holes you automatically expect the
holes to be round and perpendicular to the machine table. Similarly,
when you use a centre lathe to turn a plain diameter you expect it to be
round and parallel. In fact, whatever machine tool you use you tend to
take for granted that certain geometric characteristics such as
roundness, parallelism, concentricity, squareness, and so on,
appropriate to the work being undertaken, will be achieved. In doing so
you are relying on the following.

• The in-built accuracy of the machine

• The accuracy of the machine installation

So we begin this unit by considering some of the structural requirements


of common machine tools.

STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS
If a machine tool is to produce geometrically accurate work, the following
features must be incorporated in the design:

• adequate strength
• rigidity
• minimum of vibration
• dimensional stability

Dimensional stability, incidentally, means that the dimensional


relationship of one part of the machine must remain with very close
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

tolerances under all normal operating conditions.

In addition to the above, the design of a machine tool must include the
means to accurately control the movement of the work and/or cutting
tool. Machine tool movement is the subject of a separate unit.

BASIC STRUCTURE

All the requirements listed above are inter-related – for example,


adequate rigidity can help to eliminate vibration – and all of them are
directly connected to the basic structure of the machine.

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The vast majority of machine tool bodies are made of grey cast iron. The
advantages of this material when used for this purpose are:

complex shapes can be produced


good compressive strength
good vibration damping properties
low frictional resistance making it ideal where one part
slides over another

Only in very exceptional instances are the alternatives of cast steel, or


pre-fabricated steel, ever used.

When you are next in the workshops, look at the bodies of a range of
common machine tools and you will see how irregularly shaped they are.
To make them in any other way except as a casting, though not
impossible, would be very, very expensive.

However, although cast iron has good compressive strength, it has other
weaknesses that have to be considered by the machine tool designer.
For example, to enhance the rigidity, machine tool castings are either of
box section or heavily ribbed. Similarly, to ensure dimensional stability,
castings are stabilised by a heat treatment process or rough machined
and left to 'weather' for a few months before they are used. Both of
these procedures relieve the internal stresses resulting from the casting
process.

SUB-ASSEMBLIES

Apart from the base casting, machine tools include various other
castings. Each of these usually forms the basis of a sub-assembly that
is attached to the base casting (as in the case of a lathe head stock) or
to another sub-assembly (as in the case of the top slide of a lathe which
is attached to the saddle).
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

If a machine tool is to produce accurate work, then the location, or


alignment, of each sub-assembly in relation to the base casting and to
each other, has to be precise. To make matters even more difficult,
some sub-assemblies move and so the alignment has to be maintained
throughout the length of travel.

The way the alignment of machine tool-sub assemblies is achieved and


maintained is dealt with in a following section, but for now let's take a
look at some of the other important factors that affect the design of
machine tools.

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LOADS ACTING ON MACHINES TOOLS


Any machine structure is subject to two types of loading.

Static
Dynamic

Static loading involves forces being exerted when the machine, or a


specific part of the machine, is not in motion. The diagram below shows
a typical situation where a heavy work piece is exerting a static load on a
milling machine table with the possibility of causing a deflection.

Deflecting
force
Machine
table

Deflection
Table
overhang

STATIC FORCE EXAMPLE

Dynamic loading involves forces being exerted due to machine


movement. The diagram below shows the forces acting on a machine
spindle as it feeds into the work and the possible spindle deflection.

Spindle
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Deflecting Cutter
force Workpiece

Slide movement

Deflection

DYNAMIC FORCE EXAMPLE

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Deflections such as those described above don't have to be very big to


start affecting accuracy, but the risk of such deflection is small because
machines are designed to adequately cater for all possibilities providing
the machine is used intelligently.

VIBRATION
Vibration results, in the main, from rotating parts such as drive motors,
machine spindles, gear boxes, lead screws, and so on. As machines get
older it usually gets worse, resulting in increased bearing wear, poor
surface finish, reduced tool life, and a lot of frustration! There is also a
safety aspect; undue vibration can cause work or tools to work loose.

For years the design of machine tools always incorporated a power


transmission system involving a drive motor, belt drives, clutch and
gears. Inevitably, as bearings and other parts wore or were not properly
adjusted, vibration became a problem. This state of affairs continued
right up until Computerised Numerical Control (CNC) machining came on
the scene.

You may have noticed that CNC machines in general, run much more
smoothly, and at much higher speeds. This is because the drive to the
machine spindle is invariably via belts direct from the drive motor. No
gear box is necessary because the speed of the motor is infinitely
variable and controlled via the machine control program.

A similar situation occurs with lead screws which were traditionally driven
via gears linked to the main gear box. Modern machines now use
directly coupled servo motors, also capable of infinitely variable speeds,
directly coupled to the lead screw so that not even a belt drive is
involved.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

EFFECT OF HEAT
Heat is another problem that has to be catered for in the design of
machine tools, particularly so with enclosed CNC machines. Heat can
cause expansion and so affect the dimensional stability of a machine.

Machines should always be allowed to warm up before cutting metal.


Some manufacturers even suggest appropriate warm up times for their
equipment.

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HEAT SOURCES

Heat sources that have to be accommodated in the design of the


machine, or otherwise eliminated, are as follows.

• Heat due to friction in motors, bearings and slides

• Heat due to the metal-cutting action

• Heat due to a build-up of swarf

The heat due to friction is reduced by:

placing drive motors outside the main machine structure


rather than inside

using a flow of air or oil to cool spindles

using low friction slides and lead screws (see later text)

Heat due to cutting is kept under control by using:

tools having the correct geometry for the job in hand

correct cutting speeds and feeds

coolant

The heat from swarf can be avoided by not letting swarf build up –
modern machines often include conveyor belts to continually take it
away.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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SELF ASSESSMENT 1

Let's pause for a moment and see what you now know about the
problems associated with machine tool design. Complete the statements
below by adding one or two words in the boxes.

1 Bad surface finish on a machined part can often be attributed to:

2 Vibration is caused by:

3 Heat affects the dimensional stability of machines because:

4 Heat due to friction in slideways can be reduced by:


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

5 Heat due to the metal cutting action can by reduced by:

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6 Complete the following statements.

a A static load is

b A dynamic load is

Check your answers with the Review Pack

ACTIVITY 1

1 Sketch an example of static loading on a centre lathe.


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 02

2 Sketch an example of dynamic loading on a centre lathe.

3 Make a sketch to show how the bed castings of centre lathes are
ribbed to ensure rigidity.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Ask your tutor to check your answers

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MOUNTING OF MACHINE TOOLS


Ideally, if a machine tool is to produce high quality work it must be fixed
securely to the workshop floor. The exceptions to this include some
precision grinding machines which are placed on cork, felt or rubber
pads (to absorb vibration) and then left free standing, and very light
machines being used for non-precision work. However, you will find in
many workshops that machines of all types are not fixed. Next time you
are in the workshop, see whether the machines there are fixed or not.

The term used to describe fixing machines to the floor is called


'mounting'.

There are three commonly-used mounting methods:

Rag bolt
Expanding nut (Rawlbolt)
Adjustable blocks

RAG BOLT

Machine Tool
Body

Grouting

Rag Bolt
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

RAG BOLT

The stages of mounting a machine using rag bolts are as follows:

1 Holes are drilled in the concrete floor in positions that correspond


with the holes of the fixing lugs of the machine.
2 The machine is then positioned so that the shaft of the bolt passing
through the machine retaining lug.

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3 The machine is levelled (see next section) using wedges.

4 Grouting (a wet mixture of cement with just a small proportion of


sand) is poured in to fill the bolt hole and the void under the
machine. At the same time the rag bolts are raised by turning the
nuts.

5 After two or three days, when the cement is set, the wedges are
removed and the rag bolt nuts tightened.

EXPANDING NUT

The most commonly used expanding nut fixing is the Rawlbolt which is
illustrated below. The nut is located in a hole drilled in the concrete and
the nut is expanded either by tightening a bolt or by tightening another
ordinary nut on a spindle that is attached to the expanding nut. Ask your
tutor if they can show you a Rawlbolt so that you can see exactly how
they work.

RAWLBOLT

The use of Rawlbolts involves:


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

1 Drilling holes in the concrete.

2 Placing the Rawlbolts in the holes and then removing the nut or the
bolt, depending on the type being used.

3 Levelling the machine using wedges and shimming where


necessary.

4 Replacing and tightening the Rawlbolt nut or bolt.

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ADJUSTABLE BLOCK

Free-standing machines are sometimes mounted on blocks which can be


adjusted to aid levelling. An example of this type of mounting is shown
below.

Machine Tool Body


Load Bearing
Pad
Captive Nut
Adjusting
Bolt

Load Bearing

ADJUSTABLE BLOCK

MACHINE LEVELLING
An essential part of mounting any machine is ensuring it is level before
the retaining nuts are finally tightened. This is done by reference to a
spirit level, preferably a precision level.

When mounting a centre lathe, for instance, readings are taken at


intervals along the length of the bed. All readings should be constant
and indicate the bed is level. If a precision level is used, all the readings
should be zero or close to zero within the prescribed tolerance for the
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

machine.

Readings are also taken across the bed at both ends, with the spirit level
resting on a bridge spanning the gap between the lathe guide ways.
Again the readings should all be virtually the same and indicate the bed
is level.

This type of levelling is usually sufficiently accurate for the vast majority
of installations. More precise methods can be used by using precision
instruments such as an autocollimator. Ask your tutor to show you an
autocollimator and explain how it is used to check that a machine tool is
level.

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Now let's break for a minute and think about the levelling checks
appropriate to a drilling machine and a vertical milling machine.

ACTIVITY 2

In the boxes below briefly describe what tests you would make. If
necessary, talk to your tutor to find out what checks are necessary.

LEVELLING CHECKS – DRILLING MACHINE

LEVELLING CHECKS – VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE

Check your answers with the Review Pack

MACHINE TOOL ALIGNMENT


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Earlier we talked about machine tool alignment and how important it is if


the work produced is to be geometrically and dimensionally accurate.
Special mention was made of the problem of maintaining alignment even
though parts move in relation to each other. In this section we take a
look at the design features that make this possible.

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SLIDEWAYS
The features of a machine that provide alignment yet still allow for the
aligned assemblies to move are called slideways. There are four
commonly used slideways.

Flat
Vee
Dovetail
Cylindrical

FLAT SLIDES

Flat slides are used for heavy loads. They provide for both vertical and
horizontal location, independent of each other. Adjustment in the
horizontal plane is via grub screws exerting pressure on a gib strip.

Sliding

Set Screw

Retaining Plate Fixed


Gib Strip

FLAT SLIDE
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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VEE SLIDES

Vee slides can be either normal or inverted but are usually inverted.
They provide for horizontal alignment only. There is no mechanical
adjustment but they are self-adjusting up to a point, since any wear
which takes place on the flanks of the vee merely results in a very slight
loss of height but no horizontal misalignment.

Sliding

Fixed

VEE SLIDE

DOVETAIL SLIDES

Dovetail slides provide for horizontal and vertical alignment. Adjustment


in both planes is via grub screws exerting pressure on a gib strip.

Sliding
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Set
Screw
Fixed
Gib
Strip

DOVETAIL SLIDE

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CYLINDRICAL SLIDES

Cylindrical slides provide for axial alignment, that is, for alignment about
a centre line.

Fixed Sliding

CYLINDRICAL SLIDEWAY

Often on machine tools two types of slide are used together. For
example, the tail stock of a lathe has an inverted vee and a flat slide.
Take a closer look at common slide combinations in the next activity.

LOW-FRICTION SLIDES

A common problem with slides such as those described above is that the
movement is not always smooth and is sometimes jerky, an effect known
as 'stick slip'.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Stick slip is a resistance to motion due to intermittent frictional resistance


or a momentary reduction in the moving force. This effect can be caused
by a number of things such as a damaged slide, incorrect slide
adjustment, lack of lubrication, and backlash in lead screws.

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This problem has been around since the first machine was made and in
general very little was done about it until the high-performance CNC
machines were introduced. The slides of these machines are coated
with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). This material has a low coefficient of
friction, is slightly porous and lubricant retaining. There are also
hydrostatic slides where the bearing surfaces are always separated by
oil, or air supplied under pressure. Others have recirculating roller slides
as illustrated below where the sliding action is replaced by a smoother
rolling action.

Hardened steel
insert

Recirculating
rollers

Fixed member

ROLLER SLIDE

The problem of backlash in lead screws has been overcome by the


introduction of recirculating ball screws, but again you will only find these
on CNC or other high-performance machines.

The balls, which in effect form the nut, recirculate in and out of the
thread. The thread is called a Gothic arch and is illustrated below.

Return Tube
(part of nut
assembly)
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Recirculating
Balls

Leadscrew

Nut

RECIRCULATING BALL LEADSCREW

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SLIDEWAY LUBRICATION

It's important that slideways are kept clean and well lubricated.

On many machine tools, particularly the older type of machines, slide


lubrication is a manual operation and invariably involves nothing more
technical than the use of an oil can or a grease gun. On the high-
performance CNC machines, slides are usually lubricated and in some
instances are, as noted previously, completely separated by oil.

SLIDE PROTECTION

Because the machine slides are so closely related to machine accuracy


and performance, it makes sense to protect them as much as possible.

Most machines have felt inserts attached to the edges of the moving
element and these wipe the slide and prevent swarf from penetrating
between the mating surfaces.

More expensive machines have telescopic or accordion covers that


provide much better protection.

However, slides are often completely unprotected and so care has to be


taken by the user to make sure they are not damaged.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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ACTIVITY 3

For this activity you need to make an accompanied visit to the workshop
to look at typical applications of the machine slides previously described.

Ask your tutor to point out an example of each type of slide and the way
they are adjusted. Then as instructed by your tutor, in the box below
sketch the cross section of the bed of a centre lathe and indicate and
name the slides that locate and guide the carriage and the tailstock.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

When you have completed your work, as your tutor to check it

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BEARINGS
Earlier we looked at the forces acting on machine tools and in doing so
referred to spindle deflection. Spindle deflection results in a
misalignment, albeit temporary, and as a result the work produced can
be geometric and dimensionally inaccurate.

You have probably experienced similar deflection when turning on a


lathe. If the work overhangs the chuck too much and is not supported it
deflects and the turned diameter is tapered.

Imagine a similar situation, but this time one with a heavy, well-supported
work piece that will not bend even though the forces acting upon it are
severe. What is likely to happen? The answer is hopefully, nothing, but
it is quite feasible that in very extreme situations the spindle might deflect
slightly and thus it would no longer be in alignment with the guide ways
on the lathe bed.

To resist the forces to which they might be subjected and to retain their
alignment, machine spindles and other rotating parts have to be well
supported. This support is provided by bearings and in this section we
look at the types of bearings used in machine tool assemblies. But first
let's look at the forces themselves.

Rotating shafts, such as machine spindles, are subjected to Radial and


Axial forces.

Axial Force
Radial
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Radial Force

RADIAL FORCE
Axial

AXIAL FORCE

FORCES ACTING ON A MACHINE SPINDLE

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 02

TYPES OF BEARINGS

Bearings are classified as follows:

Plain
Ball
Roller

Plain Bearings

Plain bearings are also referred to as journal bearings.

The type bearing is best described as being simply a hole lined with a
bush. The spindle it supports passes through the bush as illustrated
below.
Housing

Bush
Shaft

PLAIN BEARING

The materials used for plain bearing bushes must be softer than the
shaft and must also have:

• good wear resistance


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

• strength sufficient to support the load

• low coefficient of friction

• good thermal conductivity

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 02

The materials that meet these requirements are:

• Bronze
• Phosphor bronze
• Sintered bronze (made from powdered metal)
• White metal (tin/antimony/copper alloy)
• Nylon
• PTFE

Because of the sliding friction between the mating surfaces, wear can be
a problem. To prevent this, plain bearings must be regularly lubricated.

Radial Bearings

There are several bearings that fall into this category and these are
illustrated below. All of them, and the roller bearings dealt with later,
replace the sliding friction present in a plain bearing with rolling friction.
Consequently, in theory they require little or no lubrication, but in practice
they are usually packed with grease which also helps to prevent dirt and
foreign bodies from entering.

Single Row Ball Bearing

This bearing is used for high


speed applications where there
is very little axial load. A
variation of this bearing has two
rows of balls instead of one.
Axial

Radial
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Self-aligning Ball Bearing

This bearing is used for similar


applications to the ordinary ball
bearing but because the inner
surface of the outer ring is
radiused it is also capable of
accommodating a small amount
of shaft misalignment-
alignment.

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 ELEMENT 02 23


MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 02

Angular Contact Single Row Ball


Bearing

This bearing is able to accommodate


slight axial loads as well as radial
loads. When set in pairs back to
back, they can accommodate axial
loads in two directions.

Load
Ball Thrust Bearing

This bearing can only accommodate


axial loads.

Roller Bearings

Roller bearings can carry heavier loads than ball bearings of a similar
size but the friction present in the roller bearing is higher.

Cylindrical Roller Bearing

This bearing can only carry radial


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

loads.

Roller

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 02

Tapered Roller Bearing Roller

This bearing can carry radial and


axial loads. Then set in pairs back to
back they can accommodate axial
loads in two directions.

Needle Bearings

This type of bearing is used where


space is restricted and ordinary roller
bearing cannot be fitted. The needles
are, in effect, small diameter rollers.
Only light loads can be carried.
Needle Bearing
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 02

ACTIVITY 4

1 The following diagram shows a sectional view of a drilling machine


spindle, but without its bearings. Sketch in position and name the
bearings required to support the spindle.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

DRILLING MACHINE SPINDLE

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 02

2 The following diagram shows a section view of a CNC turning


centre.

a Indicate and name the forces that act on the spindle.

b Name the bearings.

CNC TURNING CENTRE SPINDLE

Ask your tutor to check your answers to see if they are correct
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 02

ALIGNMENT CHECKS
You should now have a basic understanding of how machines are
constructed and the design features that ensure the sub-assemblies are
maintained in correct alignment with each other even though in some
cases they are constantly moving.

Providing a new machine is carefully levelled on installation, the work it


produces should be of an acceptable standard commensurate with its
specification – the higher the specification, the better the output you can
expect. However, after a period of use some deterioration in output
quality often becomes discernible and adjustments to slides and
bearings may need to be made. But before adjustments can be made it
is necessary to find out what is wrong, and after they have been made it
is necessary to check they have been made correctly. This is achieved
by carrying out alignment checks.

Later in this unit you carry out alignment checks yourself but let's first
summarise the production objectives of three common machines, the
centre lathe, drilling machine and vertical milling machine, and
understand the alignment necessary to achieve them by completing the
next activity.

ACTIVITY 5

The tables below outline the production objectives of each type of


machine. Can you add a summary of the alignment that is necessary?
To help you, some details have already been added.

CENTRE LATHE – BASIC PRODUCTION/MACHINE ALIGNMENT REQUIREMENTS


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

No Production Alignment

1 Parallel external and internal diameters Spindle must run 'true' and
on work held in a chuck or collet be parallel to the guide ways
attached to the machine spindle on the bed of the machine

2 Parallel external diameters on


work held between centres

3 Flat surfaces at the work face


and shoulders

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 02

DRILLING MACHINE – BASIC PRODUCTION/MACHINE ALIGNMENT REQUIREMENTS

No Production Alignment

1 Holes that are parallel and round

2 Holes that are at right angles to the Spindle must be at right angles
surface of the machine table to the surface of the machine
table throughout its complete
revolution

MILLING MACHINE – BASIC PRODUCTION/MACHINE ALIGNMENT REQUIREMENTS

No Production Alignment

1 Bores/holes that are parallel and


round

2 Bores and holes that are at right


angles to the surface of the machine
table

3 Surfaces parallel to the surface of The machine spindle must be


the machine table truly vertical and the table must
be truly horizontal
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

4 Surfaces at right angles to the


surface of the machine table

Check your answers with the Review Pack

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 ELEMENT 02 29


MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 02

ASSIGNMENT 1

In this assignment you are required to carry out a complete alignment


check on a centre lathe as instructed by your tutor.

For this work you will need the following.

• Precision spirit level


• Dial gauge set with magnetic base, gauge accuracy .01mm
• Test mandrel, parallel 25 mm diameter, tapered shank to fit
machine spindle bore
• Test bar, parallel 25 mm diameter, centred ends
• Straight edge, 300 mm length
• Manufacturer's Inspection Test Certificate (if available) for the
machine being tested.

On the following pages are some forms. At the top of each the feature
you are going to test is indicated. The left-hand column defines each
specific test.

In the centre column, make a simple diagram to show how you carry out
each test.

If you have an Inspection Test Certificate for the machine, compare your
findings to see if they are within the manufacturers' tolerances. If a Test
Certificate is not available, compare your findings with the permissible
error values given in the table. In the column at the far right of the table,
add the letter C (for Conformance) or N (for Non-conformance).

Begin by adding the name of the machine you are checking in the title
box.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MACHINE TESTED

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MACHINE FEATURE TESTED: SPINDLE RUN-OUT

TEST DIAGRAM PERMISSIBLE C OR N


ERROR

End Float 0.007

Run Out 0.010

Run-out
of Flange 0.010
Face
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Run Out of
Headstock 0.010
Centre

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MACHINE FEATURE TESTED: SPINDLE ALIGNMENT

TEST DIAGRAM PERMISSIBLE C OR N


ERROR

Parallelism
of Spindle 0.02 mm
Axis – per 300 mm
Vertical
Plane

Parallelism
of Spindle 0.02 mm
Axis – per 300 mm
Vertical
Plane

Parallelism
of Headstock
& Tailstock 0.02 mm
Centre – per 300 mm
Vertical
Plane
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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MACHINE FEATURE TESTED: BED AND SLIDEWAYS

TEST DIAGRAM PERMISSIBLE C OR N


ERROR

Straightness 0.007
of Slideways

Convex
0.006 mm
Flatness of per 300 mm
Slideways Concave
0.013 mm
per 300 mm

Parallelism
of Carriage + or –
Movement in 0.006
Horizontal per 300 mm
Plane
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Parallelism
of Carriage
Movement in 0.006
Vertical per 300 mm
Plane

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 02

MACHINE FEATURE TESTED: BED AND SLIDEWAYS

TEST DIAGRAM PERMISSIBLE C OR N


ERROR

Parallelism
of Tailstock
Barrel 0.007
Movement in
Horizontal
Plane

Parallelism
of Tailstock
Barrel 0.010
Movement in
Vertical
Plane
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 02

SELF ASSESSMENT 2

You should now have a good idea of the problems associated with
machine tool alignment, see if you can answer the following.

NO MACHINING PROBLEM LIKELY CAUSE(S)

1 Diameter of work held in a chuck


using automatic carriage
movement is slightly tapered

2 When centre drilling from the


tailstock the centre drill keeps
breaking

3 Poor surface finish on an external


diameter even though tooling
condition good and the correct
speeds and feeds are being used

4 Surface of the faced end of a bar


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

is not flat

Check your answers with the Review Pack

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 ELEMENT 02 35


MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

CONTENTS

Element Information 2

Objectives 3

Introduction 4

CNC Machines 4

Advantages of CNC Machining 6

Part Programmes and Data Input 9

Slide Movement and Positioning 13

Machine Control Systems 22

Position Transducers 24

Writing a Part Programme 28

Word Address Part Programming 31

Summary 37
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION – C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 03 1


MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

ELEMENT INFORMATION

This element has been written to support your practical training and in
particular to enhance your understanding of Computerised Numerically
Controlled (CNC) machines to the level required to complete Module 04,
Main Competences in Machine Tool Systems, of the City and Guilds 228
course, Mechanical Production Competences Part 2.

The element introduces you to the basic principles of CNC machines.


You do not need to have practical experience of using CNC machines to
undertake or benefit from studying it. You should, however, have a good
understanding of conventional machines before you start.

The element also introduces you to part programme writing, but note that
it is only an introduction to what is quite a complex subject. If you wish to
know more about CNC machining, ask your tutor to tell you about more
specific study options.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

OBJECTIVES

When you have completed this element you will be familiar with the basic
principles of CNC machines and machine control including:

• advantages of CNC machining over conventional machining


with regard to:

– repeatability
– dimensional accuracy
– quality
– production rates
– costs

• part programmes and data input

• open and closed-loop control systems

• slide positioning using a datum and co-ordinates

• position monitoring

• basics of writing a part programming


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

This element should take you approximately 8 hours to complete, but this
is only a guide and you should work at your own pace.

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this element which is one of a series dealing with
mechanical engineering production competences.

The element concerns Computerised Numerically Controlled (CNC)


machines and it has been written for the City and Guilds 228 Course in
Mechanical Production Competences Part 2. It can also be used if you
are preparing for Assessment at NVQ Level III in Machining.

CNC machines are increasingly replacing manually operated machines


in a wide range of manufacturing industries such as wood machining,
welding, flame cutting, sheet metal press work and, of course, in all
metal cutting operations such as milling, drilling and turning.

It is the CNC machines used for turning, milling and drilling with which
we are concerned in this element.

CNC MACHINES
Let's begin by comparing CNC machines with conventional machines
capable of producing similar work.

The first difference we find is in the names by which the machines are
known. For decades turning machines have been called lathes, now
they are called turning centres; similarly, milling machines are now
called machining centres.

The reason for these name changes is that, compared with conventional
machines, CNC machines are much more versatile and capable of
producing a much wider range of operations. For example, it's possible
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

on both turning centres and machining centres to machine profiles so


complex that they would be quite impossible to machine on conventional
machines no matter how skilled the operator.

In addition, some turning centres are also capable of including drilling


and milling operations where the tool rotates and the work is no longer
turning, whilst machining centres use a similar arrangement to produce
external and internal diameters, both parallel and tapered, with the speed
and accuracy that equals that attainable on a conventional centre lathe.
Quite clearly a name that distinguishes computer-controlled machines
from the somewhat limited capabilities of the old machines is quite
justified.

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

The most obvious difference between the old and new machines,
however, is their physical appearance. There are similarities of course,
but there are also major differences that you can't help noticing. For
example, CNC machines are often totally enclosed and they have no
hand wheels. But there are other differences as you will see when you
take a closer look.

ACTIVITY 1

In this first activity make an accompanied visit to the workshop to take a


look at the CNC machines in your own training centre. Complete the
following table.

NO. MACHINE MAKE MACHINE TYPE

If you didn't already know, you now know what CNC machines look like.
But how about the differences? In the space provided, write down
answers to the following questions.

NO. QUESTION ANSWER

1 Apart from total enclosure and


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

no hand wheels, what do you


consider to be the most striking
difference between a conventional
centre lathe and a CNC turning
centre of similar size?

2 What do you consider to be the


most striking difference between
a conventional milling machine
and a CNC machining centre of
similar size with regard to the
table movements and how they
are achieved.

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

ADVANTAGES OF CNC MACHINING


Before we look at the machines in more detail, let's spend a few minutes
reviewing the role of CNC machines in the modern production
environment.

Although CNC machines are costly and represent a high capital


investment, they have many advantages over conventional machines
that make their use economically viable. There are few, if any,
circumstances that would justify using a conventional machine if a CNC
machine is available and staff are properly trained in its use, even for
producing a single component.

The advantages of CNC machines are:

• High productivity rates


• Sustained dimensional accuracy
• Good surface finish
• Complex shapes easily machined
• Lower tooling costs
• Less operator involvement

HIGH PRODUCTIVITY RATES

High productivity rates are due to a number of factors such as very fast
slide positioning moves, high spindle speeds, optimum feed rates and
rapid tool changes. Very few breaks are required to measure the work
and, as with all automated processes, the output rate is consistently
maintained – no tea breaks, no trips to the toilet, no tiredness, which are
all typical of the interruptions to which manually controlled processes are
subjected.

DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

The dimensional accuracy of parts is sustained partly because of the


inherent accuracy of the machines themselves. They are built to a
higher specification than that commonly found in conventional machines.
For example, they include design features such as recirculating ball lead
screws which eliminate backlash, whilst the control systems constantly
monitor the slide positioning and corrects any errors that may occur.

The ability to sustain accurate slide movements, time and time again, is
referred to as repeatability. Typically, repeated slide movements of a
CNC machine are accurate to within + or – 0.008 mm. It would be quite
impossible for a person to match that sort of accuracy throughout a
working day.
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 03 6
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

SURFACE FINISH

Good surface finish is also due to machine design. Spindle drive motors
have infinitely variable speeds so that the correct speed is used at all
times rather than one selected from a limited range. The drive from
motor to spindle is via belts which eliminates the vibration commonly
found with drives involving gearboxes. Feed rates are also infinitely
variable thus ensuring the correct feed rate is always used. Whilst low-
friction slides help to ensure very smooth slide movements.

COMPLEX SHAPES

Complex shapes that are outside the scope of conventional machines


are easily machined on CNC machines, often without the need for a tool
change or any interruption whatsoever in the machining cycle.

TOOLING COSTS

Lower tooling costs are due to the use of standard tooling systems that
are based on the use of cemented carbide throw-away tips. If selected
as recommended by the manufacturers, the correct tool geometry for
carrying out a particular operation on a specified material is ensured. As
each tool reaches the end of its life it is discarded, so there are no re-
grinding costs. Such tooling was rarely used to its full capacity on
conventional machines because of the limited speed and feed ranges.

OPERATOR INVOLVEMENT

Less operator involvement often means that more than one machine can
be operated by the same person. Often one operator looks after a group
of machines, called a machining cell. The operator involvement is
reduced to one of monitoring the operation, loading and unloading the
part, checking the condition of the tooling and replacing if required,
occasionally measuring a sample part and adjusting the programme to
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

compensate for any errors. But all of these operator functions are
capable of being automated and in the more advanced companies they
often are. Even the swarf can be removed automatically !

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

SELF ASSESSMENT 1

Take a short break from reading and see what you have learned about
CNC machines and machining so far. Simply add one or two words in
the boxes in the statements below.

1 Two advantages of CNC machining are:


and .

2 The main disadvantage of CNC machines is their:


.

3 Two machine design features that contribute to the good


surface finish of work produced on CNC machines are

and .

4 Two machine design features that contribute to the dimensional


accuracy of work produced on CNC machines are
and
.

5 Two advantages of using throw-away carbide tipped tooling are


and
.

6 A machine cell consists of and


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

is usually manned by .

Now check your answers with the Review Pack

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 03 8


MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

PART PROGRAMMES AND DATA INPUT


Regardless of the differences in physical appearance, the most important
difference between conventional machines and CNC machines is the
way in which they are controlled.

Control of the old-type lathes and milling machines is heavily dependent


on the traditional skills of the operator. CNC machines are controlled
electronically, with the manual skills being sidelined and replaced by new
skills of a somewhat different nature.

As you will appreciate from completing Activity 1, CNC machines include


an electronic control unit. This control unit consists of a computer,
memory chip and visual display unit. Usually, and particularly so with
turning centres, the unit is built into the machine, but it can also be free-
standing.

THE PART PROGRAMME

The primary function of the control unit is to control machine movements


and other supporting function by responding to data, called a part
programme, that is fed into it.

The person who prepares the part programme has to plan a machining
sequence that will produce the part in as little time as possible. To do
this they must consider how the work is to be held, the most suitable
tooling to use, what cutting speeds and feeds to use, and so on. Much of
this information is then expressed in a programming language that can
be understood by the control system of the machine to be used.

Preparing a part programme can be a manual activity, with the


programmer working out all the required machine movements and
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

compiling the code, or it can be computer-aided, when the movements


and code are produced by the computer making an analysis of the part
geometry and other data supplied by the part programmer.

The list on the following page is what a typical part programme look like.
The programme involves using six different tools to carry out a sequence
of milling, drilling and reaming operations.

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION – C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 03 9


MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

N010 G71G90
N020 M06T01S400
N030 M03
N040 Y20
N050 G01X150F150
N060 G01Y60
N070 G01X-30
N080 G00Y-30
N090 M06T02S1300
N100 G81X20Y60Z24F100M03
N110 X60Y40
N120 X100Y20
N130 G00X-30Y-30
N140 M06T03S500
N150 G81X20Y60Z24F80M03
N160 X100Y20
N170 G00x-30Y-30
N180 M06T04S400
N190 G81X60Y40Z22F140M03
N200 G00X-30Y-30
N210 M06T05S1000
N220 G41X10Z-6M03
N230 G01Y62F155
N240 G02X18Y70I18J62
N250 G01X102
N260 G02X110Y62I102J62
N270 G01Y18
N280 G02X102I102J18
N290 G01X18
N300 G02X10Y18I18J18
N310 G01Y30
N320 G00Z0
N330 G40X60Y40
N340 G42G01Z-12
N350 Y60
N360 X100
N370 X85Y20
N380 X20
N390 X40Y60N380X20
N400 X40Y60
N410 X91
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

N420 X76Y29
N430 X29
N440 X49Y51
N450 X81
N460 X66Y39
N470 X39
N480 X59Y45
N490 G00Z2
N500 G40X-30Y-30
N510 M30

An activity later in the element provides you with the opportunity to write
a part programme.

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

DATA INPUT

When a programme has been written it can, depending on the facilities


available, be input into a control unit as follows:

• manually via key strokes made at the control unit console


• perforated (punched) tape – paper or plastic
• magentic tape – similar to a music tape cassette
• direct from a computer hard disc or floppy disc

Manual Data Input

The input of a part programme manually at the machine control console


involves typing each letter and each digit and is very time consuming,
and whilst it is being done the machine can't be used. It's a technique
that is more suited to editing rather than inputting complete programmes.

Perforated Tape

The diagram below shows what a section of the same programme listed
on the previous page looks like when it has been transferred to
perforated tape. The tape has standard width of 25 mm and the length
of tape for this particular programme is about 1 metre long although
tapes are often very much longer than this. Each row of holes
represents a programme digit or alphabet character.

The tape is commonly made of paper although other more durable


materials such as polyester film and polyester film/paper laminates are
also used.

To input a programme from tape a tape reader, which can be in-built in


the machine or free-standing, is used. The rate of input is very rapid for
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

most programmes, taking just a few seconds, after which the tape can be
removed from the tape reader and stored until it is required again.

CNC PERFORATED TAPE

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

Magnetic Tape

Magentic tape input is also quite rapid but not as rapid as perforated
tape. It's not a method that gained much favour and there are relatively
few machines that use this method of data input.

Computer Input

The quickest input method of all is when the programme is loaded


straight from a computer which can be positioned nearby or, as with all
data transfer involving computers, it can be hundreds of miles away.
Input is very rapid; lengthy programmes can be loaded in an instant.

ACTIVITY 2

This activity involves another accompanied visit to the workshop where


your tutor will demonstrate how data can be input into the control
systems fitted to the CNC machines you looked at earlier. Make a note
of the data input methods that can be used with each machine control
system.

NO. QUESTION ANSWER

3
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

SLIDE MOVEMENT AND POSITIONING

An important element of CNC machining is the control and monitoring of


slide movement. We look at how slide movement is monitored in a later
section, but first let's take a closer look at how slide movement is
achieved and defined.

Slide movement is achieved by:

• electric motors, called servo motors, fitted to the lead screw

• hydraulically operated pistons

The vast majority of turning centres make use of servo motors.

The definition of a single slide movement has three elements.

1 Direction in which movement occurs

2 Distance moved

3 Rate at which movement occurs

DIRECTION

The direction in which slide movement can occur on machine tools is


defined in relation to the machine axis, the machine axis being the centre
about which the spindle rotates. Each direction of movement, also called
an axis, is designated by a letter, X, Y or Z and can be plus or minus.

The diagram on the following page shows how this translates to the
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

movements of a turning centre, vertical machining centre and a


horizontal machining centre.

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

SLIDE MOVEMENT ON COMMON MACHINE TYPES

–z+


+X

(a)
Head movement
–Y+

–X
+

Knee movement

Z
+ +W–
Spindle or head

(b)
movement

+X

Knee movement
+W–


Y
+

(c)
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Identification of slides and direction of the slide movement on common


machine tools

(a) centre lathe (turning centre)


(b) horizontal milling machine (horizontal machining centre)
(c) vertical milling machine (vertical machining centre).

Note that simple machining on a turning centre only involves movement


in two axes, X and Z. Milling operation on machining centres can involve
movement in three axes, X, Y and Z.

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 03 14


MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

DISTANCE

The distance moved by a slide is defined in millimetres in relation to a


datum or other pre-defined position. This can be a machine datum, or it
can be in an already attained position.

The machine datum is a specific slide location known to the control


system as zero. This position cannot be changed but it can be shifted on
a temporary basis to coincide with a selected programme datum which
then also has the numerical value of zero. The programmer achieves
this by using a zero shift or zero offset facility. Using the facility
simplifies the task of writing the part programme.

The distances, or dimensions, used to define the target position of a slide


are called coordinates. Dimensions specified in relation to a zero are
called absolute. Distances specified in relation to an already attained
position are called incremental. Examples of absolute and incremental
dimensions are shown in the following diagrams.

ABSOLUTE DIMENSIONS

80

50

25

Datum
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

INCREMENTAL DIMENSIONS

There is also another type of co-ordinate called a polar co-ordinate in


which an angle and a radius defines the target position.

POLAR DIMENSIONS
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

R5
0

60°

30°

Pole
(Datum)

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 03 16


MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

When programming slide movement in absolute mode on a turning


centre, the movement in the X axis is defined in relation to the imaginary
line about which the machine spindle rotates called the machine axis.
On all machining centres this is also the X axis machine zero.

In the Z axis movement is defined in relation to a zero established by the


part programmer and this is usually the front face of the part. Since the
length of parts vary, this zero will not be the same as the machine zero
and so the zero shift facility will be used.

When programming in absolute mode on a machining centre the


programme zero positions can usually be set anywhere but it is common
practice to define the zero positions in the X and Y axes as being at the
front left-hand corner of the work piece and for the Z axis a few
millimetres above the work surface. So in all axes the zero shift, or zero
offset facility is used to define a new zero to suit the needs of the current
programme.

The diagram on the following page illustrates the advantage of a zero


shift facility. In the drilled part the zero for the part programme is at the
bottom left hand corner. Consequently, all the numerical values for
movement in the X and Y axes will be positive and so the programming
of minus values is eliminated.

The absolute co-ordinates of the first hole are X18Y18; for the second
hole they are X42Y23. The incremental co-ordinates for the two holes
are X18Y18 and X24 and Y5 respectively.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION – C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 03 17


MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

DRILLED PART DETAIL

5
23

18

18 24

42

Now turn back to the part programme on Page 10 and see if you can
identify the positioning move co-ordinates.
Look for the letters X, Y and Z

RATE

The rate of movement, called the feed rate, is defined in millimetres per
minute (mm/min) or metres per minute (m/min), or millimetre per
revolution of the work (mm/rev). In a part programme the feed rate has
the address letter F; see if you can spot the feed rates in the part
programme on Page 10.

When only one slide is programmed to move, the resulting cutter path is
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

in a straight line and only one feed rate is involved.

Cutter Paths

When two slides are programmed to move at the same time, and at the
same constant feed rate, the resulting cutter path will still be a straight
line and will be at an angle of 45° as illustrated in Diagram A on the
following page. When the slides move at the same time but at different
constant feed rates, the resulting cutter path will still be a straight line but
not at an angle of 45° as shown in Diagram B on the following page.

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 03 18


MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

ANGULAR MOVEMENT

Diagram A – Slide Feed Rates Identical

Cutter path
Slide
movements
45°
a

Cutter Slide movement


lengths equal

Diagram B – Slide Feed Rates Different

Cutter path
Slide
movements

30° b
a
Slide movement
lengths unequal

But the production of many parts involves machining curves and


contours and to achieve this the slides still have to move at the same
time but the feed rates have to vary. Fortunately, the part programmer
doesn't have to work out when to change the feed rates or what feed rate
to use, it's all done automatically by the computer.

The following diagram shows a typical example of a machined profile


that requires a constantly varying feed rate.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

PROFILE REQUIRING VARYING FEED RATE

Cutter path

Slide
movements
R2
R3

5
0

Cutter

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

SELF ASSESSMENT 2

Time to take another break and to see what you have learnt about slide
movement. As before, write one or two works in the boxes to complete
the statements 1 – 8 below.

1 The directions of movement in the horizontal plane are defined on a


machining centre by the letters and .

2 The directions of movement are defined on a turning centre by the


letters and .

3 On both turning centres and machining centres, movement parallel


to the spindle axis is defined by the letter .

4 Apart from the direction, the complete definition of a machine slide


movement includes the and
.

5 The speed at which a machine slide moves is determined by the


programmed which is expressed
in .

6 A machine zero is a fixed position and cannot be changed except


on a temporary basis using the facility.

7 A programme zero can be set but for milling/


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

drilling operations it is usually set at the


corner of the work piece.

8 The advantage of using the lower left-hand corner as the zero for
milling/drilling operations is that .

Now check your answers with the Review Pack

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 03 20


MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

ACTIVITY 3

The upper drawing in the following diagram shows the positions of four
drilled holes. Add the absolute co-ordinate dimensions for the hole
positions on the lower undimensioned drawing.

DRILLED PART DETAILS

20
10
25
15

20 40
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Now check your answer with the Review Pack


MECHANICAL PRODUCTION – C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 03 21
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

MACHINE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Now you have an understanding of how CNC machines are controlled,


and slide movements defined, let's take a closer look at the control
systems.

There are two types of control system.

• Open loop

• Closed loop

OPEN LOOP

The following illustration shows an open-loop system. In this


arrangement, which was common on the very early CNC machines, the
machine slide movements are made as dictated by the part programme
but there is no feedback to the control unit to confirm the desired
movement has been accurately made.

CNC CONTROL SYSTEM – OPEN LOOP

Machine tool

Data flow Control unit


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

The illustration below shows a closed-loop system. In this arrangement


there is a positional feedback to the control unit and if the returned data
is incorrect the control unit takes corrective action so that the error is not
repeated. Practically all modern CNC machines incorporate a closed-
loop control system.

CNC CONTROL SYSTEM – CLOSED LOOP

Memory
Machine tool

Data flow

Feedback
Microcomputer
Control unit

Combined unit

The devices that control positional feedback are called transducers and
we take a look at these in the next section.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

POSITION TRANSDUCERS

The concept of monitoring a machine slide movement via a closed loop


control system can be summarised as:

INSTRUCTION – MOVEMENT – INFORMATION – CONFIRMATION

The part programme provides the instruction and the machine servo
motor rotates, turning the lead screw, causing the machine slide to
move. Information about the position of the slide is then fed back to the
control unit and if this agrees with the programme requirement the slide
movement is confirmed and the programme proceeds.

The item that provides information about the slide position is called a
transducer. Basically, this is a device that receives information in one
form, converts it, and then transmits the information in a form that can be
understood by a receiver.

A variety of transducers have been developed and fitted to CNC


machines. Two of the more common types are described below.

OPTICAL GRATINGS

An optical grating transducer transmits linear movement of a slide as a


voltage signal in the form of a series of pulses.

There are in fact two gratings, each being a series of evenly spaced lines
etched either on a gelatine-coated glass or on stainless steel. One
grating is fixed to a part of the machine that doesn't move; the other is
located immediately above and is attached to the slide. Therefore one
grating is stationary and the other fixed. In addition, the upper grating is
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

angled very slightly in relation to the other.

It's not easy to see such a transducer on a machine because it is an


integral part of the structure but the following diagram show you where a
linear transducer is typically located. Your tutor may be able to point one
out to you or, if not, they may have a free-standing example to show you.

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

POSITION OF AN OPTICAL TRANSDUCER

Machine tool
Lead screw Servo motor

Data
Control unit
flow

Optical grating Positional feedback

As one grating moves in relation to the other, a fringe pattern called a


Moire fringe is created. There is mathematical connection between the
spacing of the gratings, the angle of inclination and the apparent fringe
movement. (To help you understand the concept, in the next Activity you
create a Moire fringe pattern so you can see what actually happens for
yourself.)

The measurement of the slide position involves monitoring the fringe


pattern. If the gratings are etched on glass, a light source is directed
through the glass; if on stainless steel the light is reflected off the
surface. The light is focused onto a photo transistor, which responds to
whether the light is interrupted or not, that is, whether a fringe is present
or not present. Each fringe creates an electrical pulse which is fed back
to the control unit, and since each pulse represents a known linear value
the distance moved can be measured.

Let's take a break from reading about this rather complex subject for a
short while and create your own optical grating.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

ACTIVITY 4

For this activity you need a piece of plain white paper, size A4. You also
need a small piece of clear plastic film, overhead projector film will do
nicely. This is what you have to do.

1 Across the width of the paper, accurately draw a series of vertical,


evenly-spaced lines about 25 mm high and 4 mm apart to create a
fixed grating.

2 On the plastic film, draw a second set of lines also 4 mm apart to


create a moving grating, but this time the overall length needs only
to be about 40 mm.

3 Pass the moving grating (film) over the fixed grating (paper) with
the moving grating lines slightly at an angle to the fixed gratings –
see the diagram below – and note the fringe effect.

PRINCIPLE OF AN OPTICAL GRATING

Angle of inclination
Moiré fringes

Fringe
movement

Moving
Fixed grating
grating
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Slide movement

4 Read the preceding notes again, they will probably be more


meaningful now.

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 03 26


MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

ROTARY TRANSDUCER

Now let's move on to the rotary transducer.

Whereas the optical grating transducer measures linear movement of the


machine slide, the rotary transducer measures rotary movement, or
angular displacement, of the slide lead screw.

Rotary transducers are attached to the end of the lead screw, either
directly or through a set of precision gears – see the diagram below.

POSITION OF A ROTARY TRANSDUCER

Leadscrew Machine tool

Transducer Servo motor

Data
flow Control unit

Positional feedback

As with the optical gratings, rotary transducers are not easy to see but
your tutor will be able to tell you where to look and perhaps show you
one not already fitted to a machine.

The size of a rotary transducer is typically up to about 100 mm in


diameter and 300 mm in length, but they can be much smaller.

The technology associated with a transducer is quite complex and not


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

easy to understand. Fortunately, a detailed understanding of how they


work is not necessary for this particular course of study. All that you
need to appreciate is that as the lead screw rotates, a voltage is induced
within the transducer and that this voltage varies according to the
angular position of the lead screw. An encoder in the transducer
analyses the voltage and transmits information back to the control unit.
This information enables the control unit, in effect, to count the number of
revolutions and part revolutions the lead screw has made, thus
confirming that the movement achieved corresponds to the programmed
position.

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

Transducer Limitations

Although the transducers described on the previous page meet most


monitoring requirements they do have their limitations. One monitors
slide movement, the other revolutions of a lead screw. Neither of these
give the exact position of the tool in relation to the work, which is what
really matters if the work piece is to be precisely machined.

Consequently, many machine control systems also incorporate facilities


for in-process measurement whereby electronic probes touch the work
surface. The contact position is then fed back to the control unit and
from this the work size is determined. If there is a discrepancy, the
tooling is adjusted slightly to compensate. Ask your tutor if any of the
CNC machines in your workshop have in-process measurement
facilities.

WRITING A PART PROGRAMME


Now we introduce you to the process of writing a part programme.

Before a start can be made on compiling a CNC part programme there


are many other things to consider. The diagram below shows a flow
diagram indicating all the factors that have to be considered in the
process of using the information included on a detail drawing to produce
a part. As you can see, there is much to think about before you can start
to write a part program.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

APPROACH TO PART PROGRAMMING

DETAIL
DRAWING

Production Planning

Part Size Stock Material Form


Type of machining required

Machine Type

Operation Schedule

Work Holding Method Tooling Type


Speeds and Feeds

CNC Part Programme


Tooling Preparation

Programme Proving

Programme Input to Control System

PRODUCTION
OF PART

Machine Setting
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

For the purpose of this element, we will assume that all the preliminary
work has been done and all that remains is to write a part programme.
Earlier in the text it was mentioned that this can be done manually, with
the programmer working out all the machine movements, or it can be
computer-aided, when the movements and other data such as spindle
speeds and feed rates are worked out by the computer making an
analysis of the part geometry.

The part geometry is detailed by the draughtsman when they make a


drawing. If the drawing is produced using computer-aided draughting
(CAD) then it is often possible to download the drawing detail into the
computer-aided part programming application and use the drawing as
the basis for preparing the part programme.

There is, however, no standard computer-aided part programming


software. All systems are different and take a little while to get to know
and use efficiently. It is not possible, or necessary, to go into too much
detail about this type of programming in this introductory module, but it
would enhance your understanding of CNC if you could see an example
of such software being used. Ask your tutor if computer-aided
programming is available in your training centre and if so, ask if you can
see a demonstration of how it works.

Manual part-programming does tend to be more standardised even


though there are various methods being used and variations between
control systems. The most commonly used approach involves a
programming language called word address, which is also the same
format that is produced when computer-aided part programming is used.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

WORD ADDRESS PART PROGRAMMING


The part programme on Page 10 is in word address format. Part of the
programme is again reproduced below. The characteristics of the
programme are explained in the following text.

N010 G71G90
N020 M06T01S400
N030 M03
N040 Y20
N050 G01X150F150
N060 G01Y60
N070 G01X-30
N080 G00Y-30
N090 M06T02S1300
N100 G81X20Y60Z24F100M03
N110 X60Y40
N120 X100Y20
N130 G00X-30Y-30
N140 M06T03S500
N150 G81X20Y60Z24F80M03
N160 X100Y20
N170 G00X-30Y-30
N180 M06T04S400
N190 G81X60Y40Z22F140M03
N200 G00X-30Y-30

• Each line of programme code is called a block


• Each block is numbered, either consecutively or incrementally,
and each block number is preceded with the letter N
• A block consists of one or more words
• Each word is addressed by a letter, that is it begins with a
letter
• The letters X, Y and Z indicate slide movements, followed by
the distance in millimetres
• The letter G defines preparatory functions, commonly referred
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

to as G codes
• The letter M defines a miscellaneous function, commonly
referred to as M functions
• The letter T defines the tool number
• The letter S defines the spindle feed
• The letter F defines the feed rate

Although some G codes and M functions are common to a good many


programming languages, the availability of others varies from one
programming system to another.
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION – C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 03 31
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

ACTIVITY 5

In this activity you analyse a simple word address part programme with
reference to an equally limited imaginary part programming language.
The address letters are those commonly found in most programming
languages. The objective of the exercise is to make you familiar with the
way a word address language is composed.

Part Programming Language:

G CODES

G00 Rapid positioning, normally at the highest feed rate available


G01 Positioning at a programmed feed rate
G02 Circular slide movement, clockwise direction
G03 Circular movement, anti-clockwise direction
G70 Absolute positioning
G71 Incremental positioning
G90 Inch units
G91 Metric units

M FUNCTIONS

M00 Programme stop


M03 Spindle on clockwise
M08 Coolant off
M09 Coolant on
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

M30 End of programme

Other Word Address Letters:

S Spindle speed
F Feed

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

The table on the following page shows the part programme for drilling the
four holes shown in the diagram below. Complete the table by briefly
describing what is happening at each block. A few descriptions have
already been added to help you.

DRILLED PART DETAIL

80
10

Drill 4 holes ∅8

42

18

18
35

55

70
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

BLOCK PROGRAMME CODE DESCRIPTION

N010 G91 Metric programming


N020 G70 Absolute programming
N030 M03 S1000M09

N040 T01F.2
N050 G00 x 18Y18Z2 Rapid move to 2 mm above part
surface
N060 G01Z-15F.1
N070 G00Z2

N080 X35Y42
N090 G01Z-15

N100 G00Z2
N110 X55

N120 G01Z-15
N130 G00Z2
N140 X70Y18

N150 G01Z-15
N160 G00Z2

N170 X0Y0
N180 M30 End of programme – spindle off,
coolant off
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Now check your answer with the Review Pack

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 03 34


MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

ACTIVITY 6

This activity involves writing a simple part programme to produce the


turned part shown in the diagram below using any suitable machine that
is available for you to use in your training centre.

You will need help with this, so before you begin you need to discuss
what to do with your tutor.

You will need a list of the G codes and M Functions that are applicable to
the machine you are going to use – remember not all control systems
use the same codes.

When you are ready to start, write the program in the form. When you
have completed the programme, ask your tutor to check it.

Finally, ask your tutor to show you how to input the programme and
machine the part – it's likely this will be done for you but in any case
don't attempt to operate a machine unless you have been specifically
instructed on how to do so.

TURNED PART DETAIL

30

10
Drill ∅8

∅38 ∅20
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

3 x 45°
Material: Mild Steel

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION – C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 03 35


MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

ACTIVITY 7

This activity involves writing a simple part programme to produce the


milled part shown in the diagram below using any suitable machine that
is available for you to use in your training centre.

As with the previous activity, you will need help with this, so before you
begin you need to discuss what to do with your tutor.

As before you will need a list of the G codes and M Functions that are
applicable to the machine you are going to use – remember not all
control systems use the same codes you used for the turning activity
although there could well be similarities.

When you are ready to start, write the program in the form. When you
have completed the programme, ask your tutor to check it.

Finally, ask your tutor to show you how to input the programme and
machine the part – it's likely this will be done for you but in any case
don't attempt to operate a machine unless you have been specifically
instructed on how to do so.

MILLED/DRILLED PART DETAIL

50 20
10

10
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

10 50

20

10

35
Drill 2 holes ∅8
Material: Brass

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 03 36


MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03

• To be or not to be that is the quest

SUMMARY
• Friends, Romans, Countrymen, le
me your ears, I come to bury Caes
not to praise him.
* SUMMARY
• The evil that men do lives on after
them but the good is oft interred
their bones.
• Hark! What light through yonder
window breaks?
• What’s in a name? A rose by any
name would smell as sweet.
• There was a young man from Cape
Horn who wished he’d never been

That brings you to the end of this element dealing with computer
controlled machine tools. Well done.

Below is a list of the topics with which you should now be familiar.

• CNC machines and their advantages


• Part programmes and their input
• Slide movement and positioning
• Machine control systems
• Positioning transducers
• The basis of writing a part programme

If you still need help with any of the topics covered by the element,
please talk to your tutor.

What to study next

Have a look at the Module Map in the Introductory pack and select
the next module you think is appropriate. But before you begin,
discuss your choice with your tutor just to make sure you are
continuing on the right track.

Good luck !
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION – C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 03 37


MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4

CONTENTS
Element Information 2

Objectives 3

Introduction 4

Types of Maintenance 5

Running Maintenance Procedures 8

Routine Maintenance Procedures 13

Lubrication Routines 14

Choosing Oils and Lubricants 17

Summary 19
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 1
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4

ELEMENT 4
ROUTINE LUBRICATION PROCEDURES

INFORMATION
This element has been written to support your practical training and in
particular to enhance your understanding of machine tool maintenance
and routine lubrication procedures to the level required for the City and
Guilds 228 Course, Mechanical Production Competences Part 2. It is
also suitable as study material for Level III NVQ Underpinning Knowledge
in Machine Tools Maintenance.

Before you attempt this element you should complete Element 4 which
deals with machine tool lubrication systems. If you haven't yet done so,
ask your tutor for advice.

In order to complete the activities included in this element you will need
access to a range of machine tools and maintenance manuals or
handbooks for these machines. Ask your tutor to arrange this for you.

You will also need a pencil, ruler and a sheet of plain paper in order to
construct a maintenance schedule for a selected machine.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 2
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4

OBJECTIVES

When you have completed this element your will:

• be familiar with the concept of planned maintenance as


applied to machine tools

• understand the meaning and extent of the maintenance


procedures classified as

– running
– routine
– preventive
– breakdown

• know how to prepare a maintenance programme and a


lubrication chart for a typical machine tool

This element is written to allow you to work at your own pace, but as a
guide you need to allow approximately 6 hours for its completion.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 3
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4

INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this element which is one of a series dealing with machine
tool systems.

This element concerns the programmed maintenance and lubrication of


machine tools and it has been written for the City and Guilds 228 Course
in Mechanical Production Competences Part 2. It also serves as useful
underpinning knowledge for those preparing for Level III NVQ
Assessments.

Right at the outset it must be said that, in the writer's experience,


machines are often not maintained as well as they should be. There's
usually some feature or other that is not adjusted correctly or is damaged
and in need of replacement. But provided the machine meets statutory
safety requirements and is otherwise safe to use the user usually has
to make the best of it and overcome any problems as best they can.
Hopefully the machine tools you use will not have been neglected in this
way, but don't bet on it! In any case, never use a machine that you
consider to be unsafe and always report any defects that you
consider require attention.

We begin this element by looking at the maintenance procedures that


should be applied to ensure machines are maintained in good condition,
are safe to use and capable of producing accurate work.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 4
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4

TYPES OF MAINTENANCE
Properly maintained machines ensure the safety of the user, optimum
production rates, and the quality of the output. So in well-run machine
shops maintenance is planned.

Planned maintenance procedures applicable to machine tools are


classified as being:

• running

• routine

• preventive

• breakdown

Each of these categories is described below.

RUNNING MAINTENANCE

Running maintenance procedures include:

• cleaning

• inspecting

• lubricating

• adjusting

Running maintenance procedures are carried out on a day-to-day basis


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

and are invariably the responsibility of the person using the machine.

ROUTINE MAINTENANCE

Routine maintenance is the term used to describe procedures performed


at specific intervals defined either in days or weeks, or by hours of use.

Routine maintenance, like running maintenance, includes inspection,


lubrication and adjustment procedures but also provides the opportunity
to carry out more complex work such as the repair or replacement of
worn or damaged parts.

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 5
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4

In some instances, routine maintenance includes the replacement of parts


regardless of their condition. It is possible they may be still fully
serviceable, but nevertheless they are still replaced. It must be said,
however, that the replacement of still-serviceable parts is, in many a
machine shop, not practised. It is often a case of 'if it ain't broke, don't fix
it'. Such an attitude is perhaps understandable bearing in mind the high
costs that can be involved, but loss of production due to machine
breakdown can also be expensive and where this is likely to be the case it
is wiser to have a preventive maintenance programme in place.

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

Preventive maintenance is a term used to collectively describe planned


running and routine maintenance – note in particular the word planned.
When maintenance is carried out efficiently, and to a pre-defined
schedule, it prevents major breakdowns.

Incidentally, the word preventative is sometimes used instead of


preventive, but that is incorrect as there is no such word as preventative.

BREAKDOWN MAINTENANCE

This type of maintenance is carried out when a part has failed and the
machine can no longer be used. This usually results in much gnashing of
teeth and wringing of hands as valuable production time is lost, so it is to
be avoided if at all possible. And the best way to avoid it is, of course, to
ensure that preventive maintenance is carried out correctly. That way,
although breakdowns may not be totally eliminated, they should at least
not occur too often.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 6
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4

SELF ASSESSMENT

The following statements may be true or false. If they are true, place a
tick in the box alongside. If they are false, put a cross in the box.

1 In all machine shops the maintenance of the machine


tools is planned

2 Cleaning is not generally included as part of a running


maintenance programme

3 Running maintenance is the responsibility of the


maintenance engineer

4 Routine maintenance is carried out at specific intervals


defined either in days, weeks or hours of use

5 Routine maintenance does not include lubrication

6 Routine maintenance is always the responsibility of the


machine user

7 Preventive maintenance is a collective term for running


and routine maintenance

8 Breakdown maintenance is planned to avoid losing


valuable production time

9 All maintenance procedures must be fully documented

10 When maintenance is carried out, for safety reasons


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

the person responsible must sign to say they have


completed the work

Now check your answers with those in the Review Pack

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 7
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4

RUNNING MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES


Maintenance procedures vary according to the machine type. In this
section we consider the running maintenance procedures applicable to
two types of machine tool, the centre lathe and the vertical milling
machine.

ACTIVITY 1

1 In this first activity you make an accompanied visit to the workshop


to take a look at a centre lathe and to discuss with your tutor the
running maintenance that this type of machine requires. It will also
be helpful to look at the machine maintenance manual.

Remember, running maintenance procedures involve cleaning,


inspecting, lubricating and adjusting. You can forget about the
cleaning, but your objective is to find out what other maintenance
should be carried out and then to complete the table on the following
page. To help you, one or two entries have already been made.

Note that the table allows for 6 entries in each category; there may
be more or less depending on the machine you are asked to
consider. If there are more, list the six that are most important.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 8
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4

RUNNING MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

MACHINE: Centre lathe MAKE:

INSPECT

1 Headstock oil level

LUBRICATE

1 Top slide

ADJUST (if necessary)

1 Tension of drive belt


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 9
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4

2 This time look at a vertical milling machine. As before, discuss the


running maintenance requirements of this type of machine with your
tutor, read the manual and then complete the table below.

RUNNING MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

MACHINE: Vertical milling MAKE:

INSPECT

LUBRICATE

ADJUST (if necessary)


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 10
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4

3 This time fill in the table below listing the running maintenance
procedures for a surface grinder

RUNNING MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

MACHINE: Surface grinder MAKE:

INSPECT

LUBRICATE

ADJUST (if necessary)


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 11
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4

4 Finally, list the running maintenance procedures for a pillar drill.

RUNNING MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

MACHINE: Pillar drill MAKE:

INSPECT

LUBRICATE

ADJUST (if necessary)


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 12
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4

ROUTINE MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES


Routine maintenance is sometimes the responsibility of the machine user
but more often than not, and particularly in larger machine shops, it is the
responsibility of a maintenance engineer or technician.

Ideally such maintenance procedures are well defined, carried out at a


predetermined time and a record kept that they have been carried out.
Note the word 'ideally' – it is often not the case and there is no
implementation schedule, no documentation and no record kept.

ACTIVITY 2

For this activity you are required to draw up a routine maintenance


schedule for procedures to be carried out monthly for a machine tool as
advised by your tutor.

You will need to refer to the Instruction/Maintenance manual for the


machine and it will also be helpful to talk to the maintenance engineer or
technician who is responsible for the routine maintenance of the machine
you are considering.

Construct your schedule as follows.

1 Present the information you gather in tabular form

2 At the top of the form include a heading Monthly Maintenance


Schedule

3 Below the main heading construct four columns with headings as


follows.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

• Task number

• Task description

• Date carried out

• Signature

Make all the columns except the Task Description column about
25 mm wide, this will leave the maximum amount of space possible
for you to describe what has to be done

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4

4 When you have constructed a table, compile a list of tasks, including


brief notes to guide the person undertaking the work. To hep you,
here's a few examples of items that should be featured on your
schedule and a few pointers regarding the supplementary
information you should include.

• Gearbox oil levels – when is an oil change due?

• Drive belt condition and tensioning – how should the


correct tension be measured?

• Cross-slide lead screw backlash adjustment – what


amount of backlash is acceptable?

• Clutch adjustment – how can you determine if the clutch


needs adjusting?

When you have completed your schedule, discuss it with your tutor to make
sure you have included all the routine maintenance tasks for the machine,
and if possible compare your schedule with the one currently in use.

LUBRICATION ROUTINES
From completing the previous activities you now know that lubrication is a
very important feature of any machine tool maintenance programme.

The figure on the following page shows a typical lubrication chart for a
centre lathe. A chart such as this is a clear and concise way of indicating
what to lubricate and when to do it.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 14
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4

LUBRICATION CHART FOR CENTRE LATHE

after cleaning down


– Grease often –
Oil every day
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Top-up every week


Oil every week

Gearbox

Oil Tank

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4

ACTIVITY 3

For this activity you are required to complete a lubrication chart for a
horizontal milling machine using the outline drawing of the machine
shown below, or alternatively your tutor may supply you with an outline
drawing more appropriate to the machine you are to consider.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

LUBRICATION CHART FOR MILLING MACHINE

When you have completed the activity, discuss the chart with your tutor to
make sure you have indicated all the machine features that have to be
lubricated and also when the work should be carried out.
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 16
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4

CHOOSING OILS AND LUBRICANTS


A perennial maintenance problem in workshops containing a mix of
machinery, as is the case with most machine shops, is that the oils and
lubricants recommended for use by the machine tool manufacturers vary.
For commercial reasons they often recommend products of a particular
brand and their manuals contain dire warnings about any other brand that
they have not recommended.

It is often economically and physically impossible to stock a wide range of


oils and lubricants and so it is usually necessary to consider alternative
products of equivalent specifications to those recommended.

The easiest way to do this is to call in a technical representative of one of


the major oil companies. Often for no charge they will carry out a survey
and give advice regarding the range of oils and lubricants use – all of
which, naturally, will be their products.

If it is not possible to get an oil company to analyse your needs, then it


has to be done some other way. Fortunately there is British Standard BS
5063:1974 that classifies lubricants for machine tool applications and the
products of all leading manufacturers conform to this standard, and so
the needs of a workshop can be rationalised by simply finding a product
manufactured to the same standard.

ACTIVITY 4

In this activity you attempt to rationalise the lubricants required for a


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

range of machine tools where the lubricants recommended by the


manufacturers vary. In other words, you need to find out the minimum
number of lubricants to keep in stock to meet all the needs of all the
machine tools being considered.

To do this you will need access to at least five machine tool manuals and
the sales brochures of a single oil company. Your tutor will let you have
these.

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4

Complete the activity as follows.

1 Refer to the machine manuals and complete the first four columns of
the following table – for your guidance one entry has already been
completed

MACHINE TYPE APPLICATION LUBRICANT S PECIFICATION ALTERNATIVE


RECOMMENDED CHARACTERISTICS LUBRICANT
BY MANUFACTURER

Colchester Headstock Shell Tellus 27 Specific gravity: 0.870


Triumph gearbox Flash point closed: 210°C
Centre lathe Viscosity: Redwood No. 1
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4

2 Refer to the sales literature of the oil company and find the products
that equates to the manufacturer's recommendation and then enter
the details in the Alternative Lubricant column

3 On completion, discuss your work with your tutor to see if they


approve of your conclusions. It might also be a good idea to see if
your recommended lubricants are the same as those currently being
used to lubricate the machines you surveyed.

SUMMARY
• To be or not to be that is the quest
• Friends, Romans, Countrymen, le
me your ears, I come to bury Caes
not to praise him.
* SUMMARY
• The evil that men do lives on after
them but the good is oft interred
their bones.
• Hark! What light through yonder
window breaks?
• What’s in a name? A rose by any
name would smell as sweet.
• There was a young man from Cape
Horn who wished he’d never been

This brings you to the end of the Maintenance Procedures unit. Well
done. You should now have a good understanding of the way machine
tool maintenance is classified and, in particular, you will know about
running maintenance – as a machinist, rather than a maintenance
engineer, it is the running maintenance that is most likely to be of concern
to you.

The activities you have completed were directly related to the


maintenance of machine tools in your training workshop, so you will not
find model answers in the Review Pack. However, before you move on,
be sure to discuss your work with your tutor to make sure you reached
the right conclusions.

The review pack does, however, contain the answer to the self
assessment questions so you can make sure you got those right.

WHAT TO STUDY NEXT


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

There are a number of units in this series which you can choose, but one
that is directly related to this Maintenance Procedures element is Unit on
Lubrication which deals with machine tool lubrication and lubrication
systems. If you haven't already completed this element, it would be most
appropriate if you made this your next task.

Good luck!

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 19
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

CONTENTS
Element Information 2

Objectives 2

Introduction 3

Lubrication Requirements of Machine Tools 4

Lubrication of Machine Tools Elements 4

Lubrication Systems 7

Pressure Lubrication 11

Strainers and Filters 14

Lubrication System Maintenance 18

Lubrication and Cooling of the Cutting Tool and Work 20


Piece

Cutting Fluid Systems 24

Separation of Cutting Fluids from Machine Tool 27


Lubricants

Clutches and Brakes 29

Commissioning Procedures 30

Summary 32
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 1
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

ELEMENT 5
MACHINE TOOL LUBRICATION SYSTEM,
CLUTCH AND BRAKE ADJUSTMENT,
COMMISSIONING

INFORMATION
This element has been written to support your practical training and in
particular to enhance your understanding of machine tool lubrication
systems and commissioning procedures to the level required for the City
and Guilds 228 course, Mechanical Production Competences Part 2. It is
also suitable for those studying for NVQ Level III Machining.

In order to complete the activities included in this element you will need
access to specific machine tools and maintenance manuals or handbooks
for these machines. Your tutor will arrange this for you.

OBJECTIVES

When you have completed this element you will be able to describe:

• how machine elements such as gearboxes and slides are


lubricated

• how the cutting tool and workpiece are lubricated and/or cooled
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

• how clutches and brakes are adjusted

• machine tool commissioning procedures

This element is written to allow you to work at your own pace, but you
should allow approximately 8 hours for its completion.

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 2
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this element which is one of a series dealing with machine
tool systems that have been written for the City and Guilds 228 Course in
Mechanical Engineering Competences, Part 2.

This element concerns the systems associated with the lubrication of


machine tool elements such as gearboxes and slides, and also the
systems that cater for the lubrication and cooling of the cutting tool and
workpiece.

It also deals with other elements of machine tools where lubrication is


definitely not a requirement – brakes and clutches. Your tutor will
demonstrate how brakes and clutches are adjusted and, circumstances
permitting, you will have the opportunity to make an adjustment yourself.

Finally, the element deals with commissioning procedures where you will
learn about the checks that must be made to ensure that a machine is
functioning correctly when it is first installed or after major maintenance
has been carried out.

Throughout the text you will come across on-the-spot questions to which
you may find or may not know the answers. If you know the answer to a
question, write it in the space provided. If you don't know the answer, you
will find it in the Review Pack.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

LUBRICATION REQUIREMENTS OF
MACHINE TOOLS
Lubricants are required on machine tools for two purposes.

1 To lubricate elements of the machine such as gearboxes, slides etc

2 To lubricate and cool the cutting tool and workpiece

First, let's take a general look at lubricants and the lubrication of machine
tool elements.

LUBRICATION OF MACHINE TOOL


ELEMENTS
PURPOSE OF LUBRICATION

The primary purpose of a lubrication is to reduce friction and as a result


to reduce the resistance to motion.

By reducing the resistance to motion, less power is required. But power


reduction is not the only advantage.

Apart from power reduction, what other reasons are there for lubricating
moving parts?
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

VISCOSITY

In general terms, lubricating oil is often described as being thick or thin.


It is a casual way of referring to the viscosity of the oil, viscosity being
the resistance the oil has to flowing. Thus a thick oil has high viscosity
and a thin oil low viscosity.

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

Viscosity is measured in various ways. For instance, you may be familiar


with the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) scale that is used to
specify oils used for motor vehicle lubrication that you can buy at filling
stations. The SAE number for gearbox oil is higher than that for the
engine. In other words, the gearbox oil is thicker.

Why do you think the engine oil has lower viscosity?

CHOOSING MACHINE TOOL LUBRICANTS

The first rule with machine tools is to use the lubricant or lubricants
recommended by the manufacturer or one of equivalent specification.

If you look in any machine tool handbook the chances are that the
lubricant recommended for a particular application will be defined by the
brand name given to it by the oil company; for example, Shell Vitrea 33 or
Mobil Vactra Medium. But the manufacturers of machine tools, whilst
recommending a particular brand, usually include the technical
specification so that users can choose an equivalent alternative if they
wish to do so.

There is more information about choosing lubricants in Element 4 in this


series which deals with programming machine tool maintenance and
explains why it is sometimes necessary to use lubricants other than those
recommended and how to select alternatives. It is likely you have
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

already completed this element or are planning to do so.

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 5
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

GREASE

So far we haven't mentioned grease which is extensively used to lubricate


machine tools.

Grease has a high viscosity and therefore does not readily penetrate into
locations where access is restricted. On the other hand, it stays in
position longer and often needs no further attention.

When grease is packed into ball and roller bearings it lubricates and
reduces friction. What other advantageous effect does it have?

Grease is applied by forcing it through a grease nipple using a grease


gun, or by using a greaser such as the one shown below. The grease is
forced into the area to be lubricated by screwing down the cap.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Grease

SCREW-DOWN GREASER

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
Lubrication systems on machine tools vary from simple gravity-feed
devices to complex power-driven arrangements that deliver oil under
pressure.

GRAVITY FEED LUBRICATION

You can find simple gravity feed lubrication devices on just about all
machine tools. Only the very expensive modern machines avoid the use
of them completely. Here are some of the devices you can expect to see.

Oil Cup

OIL CUP

The cup has to be constantly re-filled from an oil can, usually on a daily
basis.

Wick Feed Lubricator

Wick

Oil
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Area
requiring
oil

WICK FEED LUBRICATOR

The oil is transferred from the reservoir to the bearing surfaces via the
wick.

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 7
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

What is the term used to describe the action that causes the oil to pass
along the wick?

The reservoir of the wick feed lubricator, like the oil cup, has to be
regularly replenished. But there is another problem common to both
types of lubricator.

Apart from replenishing the reservoirs, what is the second common


problem associated with both the oil cup and wick feed lubricators?

Ask your tutor if you have identified the problem correctly. Then see if
you can find a gravity lubricator, either fitted to a machine or illustrated in
a textbook, that overcomes the problem.

Make a sketch of the lubricator in the box below.


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 8
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

Oil is also commonly applied via a simple spring-loaded ball valve. When
the ball is depressed, oil can be pumped in using an oil can. These
lubricators are very common as you will see when you visit the workshop
to carry out Activity 1.

What is the purpose of the spring-loaded ball valve in a simple oil


lubricator?

SPLASH LUBRICATION

Splash lubrication involves either having part of the mechanism – the


lower gears in a gear train for instance – dipping in an oil reservoir as
they rotate, with the effect that oil is splashed around inside the housing.

Oil flung Oilway inside


off gears casing

This gear rotates in


the oil
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

SPLASH LUBRICATION

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

RING OILING

A variation of the splash lubrication involves a ring or chain dipping in the


oil. This arrangement is not commonly used on machine tools but you
may come across an example one day. It is not very suitable for high
speeds and therefore the splash effect is not very pronounced; the oil is
transferred from the ring to the shaft by physical contact rather than by
splashing.

RING OILING

Note that the ring rotates due to the friction (in spite of the presence of oil)
that exists between the ring and the shaft.

With splash lubrication and ring oiling it is essential that the oil in the
reservoir is maintained at the correct level.

How can a machine operator or a maintenance engineer be sure that the


oil level in a ring oiling reservoir is correct?
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 10
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

PRESSURE LUBRICATION
Pressure lubrication is also referred to as 'force feed' lubrication. It
involves pumping the oil to the parts to be lubricated. The figure below
shows a complete system in diagrammatic form.
By-pass valve

To bearing support,
gears etc.
High pressure filter
Relief Valve

Oil return to sump


Pump

SUMP OIL
Low pressure filter
or strainer
DIAGRAMMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF PRESSURE LUBRICATING SYSTEM

The components that go to make up the complete system are the:

reservoir
pump
relief Valve
filter
by-pass Valve

An important feature of pressure lubrication on machine tools is the ability


to deliver the oil precisely to where it is needed as illustrated below.

Jets of Oil
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Oil flow

OIL DELIVERY

A variation of pressure lubrication is where the oil is delivered as a mist.


This is achieved by mixing the oil with dry air. The main advantage of
mist lubrication is that oil temperature can be kept lower.

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 11
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

TYPES OF PUMP

The pumps used for pressure feed systems on the vast majority of
modern machines are power driven, but you may still find machines still in
service with a manually operated piston pump, which the machine
operator has to remember to use from time to time, say every two hours
or so. This type of lubrication is commonly referred to as one-shot
lubrication.
Piston Movement

Oil

Oil from Sump

PISTON PUMP

Occasionally piston pumps are used for power-driven lubrication systems,


but rotary pumps, either incorporating gears or a vane to impel the oil, are
more commonly used.

The principle of operation of a gear pump is shown below. One gear is


driven and this is turn drives the second gear. Oil passing in via the inlet
is trapped between each gear tooth and the inside wall of the pump is
forced out through the outlet. The meshing of the gear teeth prevents the
oil from return to the inlet port.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

OUTLET INLET

GEAR PUMP

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

The figure below shows a vane pump. The pump includes an eccentric
rotor in which the vanes are fitted. As the rotor rotates, the vanes slide
outwards towards the inside surface of the pump body where they are
held in contact by centrifugal force. Oil enters via the inlet port to occupy
the space in front of each vane, and is impelled towards the outlet port.
As the space reduces due to the eccentricity of the rotor, the oil is forced
out of the outlet port.
Vane

Body
Inlet Port

Outlet Port

Rotor

VANE PUMP

The drive to power driven pumps is either via a belt or gearing, with the
initial source of power being the main drive motor of the machine. This
ensures that whenever the machine is running the machine elements are
being lubricated. Or does it?

How can we be sure when a machine is running its lubrication pump is


definitely functioning?
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 13
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

STRAINERS AND FILTERS


The function of strainers and filters is to remove particles of swarf and
other debris from the oil and thus prevent them from blocking the
lubricating system or causing damage to the machine.

STRAINERS

Strainers, which are also referred to as low pressure filters, are similar
in effect to a tea strainer. They are essentially a mesh which prevents the
larger particles of debris from circulating. The oil passes through the
strainer by gravity feed and is not pumped through under pressure.

FILTERS

Filters, of which there are several different types, trap the finer particles of
debris by forcing the oil through an element, a mesh, or through a
restricted space that controls the size of particles that can pass.

Mesh Filters

The figure below shows the principle of a mesh filter. The mesh is made
up of finely woven wire held in a perforated support inside a metal casing.
(This is the type of filter used on motor vehicle engines).

Unfiltered oil into centre

Filtered oil

Filter element
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Outer perforated support

MESH FILTER

When the filter becomes blocked, the complete unit has to be replaced.

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 14
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

Edge Filter

The figure below shows an edge filter. The filter consists of spaced metal
discs.
Clean
Dirty Oil
Scraper Oil

EDGE FILTER

What feature of the filter do you think controls the size of the particles that
can be trapped?

Scrapers built into the filter unit enable the debris trapped at the edge of
the discs to be removed from time to time to keep the filter serviceable.

MAGNETIC PLUGS

Instead of filters, many machine tools have magnetic plugs. They are
particularly favoured on enclosed lubrication systems such as gearboxes
where usually the only debris is the metallic 'dust' that results from
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

general wear due to the contact of one moving part with another.

OIL FLOW

MAGNETIC PLUG

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

The plugs screw into the gearbox housing, or some point in the system
where the plug will come into the oil flow. To clean them, all that is
required is to unscrew the plug, wipe off the metal particles and then
replace the plug again.

Magnetic plugs have one obvious failing. What is it?

VALVES

If you look at the diagrammatic arrangement of the lubrication system


shown on Page 11, you will see that it includes two valves, a relief and a
by-pass valve.

What is the purpose of a relief valve?

What is the purpose of a by-pass valve?


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 16
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

ACTIVITY 1

For this activity you need to make an accompanied visit to the workshop
to see examples of the lubrication features you have read about.

When you are in the workshop, ask your tutor to show you the items
listed in the following table fitted to machine tools. Complete the table
adding the machine type(s) on which you see the item and briefly
describe the machine element being lubricated.

LUBRICATION MACHINE(S ) MACHINE ELEMENT BEING LUBRICATED

Oil Cup

Wick Feed
Lubricator

Sight Feed
Lubricator

Ball Valve
Oiler

Grease
Nipple

Strainer

Filter

Magnetic
Plug
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Hand-operated
Pump

Power-driven
Rotary Pump

Sight Glass

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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

LUBRICATION SYSTEM MAINTENANCE


Finally, let's look at the maintenance procedures associated with
lubrication systems by considering the maintenance recommended for a
particular machine tool.

ACTIVITY 2

For this activity you need access to the handbook of a selected machine
tool. Your tutor will arrange this for you.

Find the pages in the book that deal with lubrication and then complete
the table below to summarise how the headstock is lubricated.

Machine type Centre lathe

Machine element Headstock gearbox

Oil specification

Type of lubrication

Filter/strainer type

Method of filling reservoir

Oil level indicator

Oil supply indicator

Period between oil changes


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

When you have completed the table, ask your tutor to look at your work to
see if your interpretation of the manufacturer's instructions are correct.

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 18
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

Finally, with reference to the machine tool handbook, and by talking to


your tutor, find out what maintenance procedures are recommended for
the lubrication system you have just looked at and list them in the box
below.

SELF ASSESSMENT 1

Which of the following statements are correct? Tick those that are right
and place a cross against those that are wrong.

1 Lubrication reduces friction and so less power is


used

2 Thin oil has a low viscosity

3 Grease packed into restricted spaces keeps dirt


out

4 The term used to describe the flow of oil along


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

the wick of a wick lubricator is molecule attraction

5 With splash lubrication the oil is pumped under


pressure to the parts to be lubricated

6 With ring oiling, the ring rotates because there is


friction between it and the shaft

7 With pressure lubrication the oil is always


supplied as a mist

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 19
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

8 With gear pumps, one gear is driven from an


external source and this gear in turn drives the
second gear

9 Strainers are also referred to as low pressure


filters

10 Magnetic plugs trap all metallic debris

Check your answers with the Review Pack

LUBRICATION AND COOLING OF THE


CUTTING TOOL AND WORK PIECE
COOLANT, LUBRICANT OR CUTTING FLUID?

Due to the heat generated by the cutting action in most machining


situations, cooling is more important than lubricating. That's why the term
coolant is more commonly used than lubricant. But since lubrication is
involved – in a few very severe metal cutting situations it can be equally
as important as cooling if not more so – the term cutting fluid is really the
most appropriate. So throughout the following text, cutting fluid is the
term used.

PROPERTIES OF A CUTTING FLUID

The best fluid from a cooling point of view is water, but its lubricating
properties are poor, especially in a metal cutting situation where the
pressure between the tool face and chip is very high. And of course there
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

is the problem of corrosion. So it is a non-starter.

TYPES OF CUTTING

The types of cutting fluid commonly used are:

soluble oil
straight cutting oil
chemical solutions
gases

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 20
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

Soluble Oil

The problem of lubrication and corrosion that prohibits the use of plain
water is solved by mixing it with a soluble oil. The result is the creamy
white mix which is commonly referred to as 'suds' or 'slurry'.

Soluble oil can be mixed with oil to water ratios as low as 1 to 10 to 1 to


100, but it is important to follow the oil manufacturers instructions
because the correct mix depends on the type of work being carried out,
the workpiece material and the cutting tool material.

ACTIVITY 3

For this activity you will need access to the mixing instructions, provided
by the manufacturer, of the soluble oil used in your training workshop.
From this literature, and by talking to your tutor, find out the answers to
the following questions.

1 What's the oil specification?

2 What are the permitted oil/water ratios?

3 What is the soluble oil/water mix for use when turning mild steel
using a high speed steel (HSS) turning tool?
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

4 How should a soluble oil/water mix be prepared?

5 What storage conditions with regard to temperature and light are


necessary when storing a soluble oil/water mix and why are such
conditions necessary?

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 21
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

Now visit the library and see if you can find out more information about
soluble oils and in particular the answers to the questions below.

6 Soluble oil contains an emulsifier. What is the purpose of this?

7 Soluble oil may contain a disinfectant. Why is this sometimes


considered necessary?

8 Soluble oil sometimes includes an extreme pressure additive. What


sort of cutting situation would justify the use of this type of oil?

Straight Cutting Oil

A soluble oil and water mix is not suitable for all metal cutting situations.
Sometimes straight oils are used, particularly where the cutting conditions
are harsh such as when broaching or gear cutting. Straight oils can be
either mineral, vegetable or animal, and they are sometimes mixed
together to form special compounds.

Straight cutting oils often contain sulphur which enables them to withstand
the extreme cutting conditions even better. These oils are commonly
known as EP oils, EP standing for extreme pressure.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

Chemical Solutions

Chemical solutions are cutting fluids that contain no oil so they are
generally more stable and have no tendency to foam. They have a high
water content, so their cooling properties are very good. On the other
hand, their resistance to pressure, and therefore their ability to lubricate
the surface between the face of the cutting tool and the chip, is not
particularly good and so they are not suitable for extreme cutting
conditions. They are also relatively expensive.

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 22
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

However, chemical solutions are sometimes coloured and sometimes


transparent. You have already thought about the advantages of a
transparent cutting fluid. But here is something else to think about.

Why are chemical solution fluids sometimes coloured?

What is the advantage of a transparent cutting fluid?

Gases

When machining some materials, either compressed air or carbon


dioxide is used as a coolant, but the cooling effect is limited and of course
it doesn't lubricate; neither does it wash the chips away. So why use it?
You should find out the answer to that question when you complete the
next activity.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 23
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

ACTIVITY 4

To complete this section dealing with cutting fluids, let's make sure you
have a general understanding of what cutting fluid, if any, you should use
in general machining situations when machining the materials listed
below. You will find the answers in textbooks in the library.

MATERIAL TO MACHINE CUTTING FLUID

Brass

Bronze

Cast Iron

Copper

Duralumin

Magnesium Alloys

Nickel Alloys

Mild Steel

Polythene

PVC

CUTTING FLUID SYSTEMS


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

There are similarities between the power-driven systems used to lubricate


machine tool elements and those used to lubricate and cool the cutting
tool and workpiece.

Both types of system include a reservoir, pump and pipework, but with
coolant systems there is less emphasis on filtering and in many instances
there is nothing more than wire mesh strainers to remove swarf from the
cutting fluid.

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 24
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

There is one particular exception to this, namely grinding machines.


Because of the dust-like nature of the swarf, settlement tanks (or trays)
are used together with filters having elements that can be either cleaned
or renewed.

The figure below explains how settlement trays work. The design varies
from one machine to another, but basically the outlet of fluid from one
tray to the next is higher than the lowest point of the tray, so any
sediment that settles gets left behind. By having a series of trays, by the
time the cutting fluid leaves the last tray, practically all of the grinding dust
is left behind.

Fluid input

Machine machine Settlement trays –


shape enables swarf
from

to be raked out when


cleaning
Swarf

Overflow
Return

pipes
flow

Sump

Filter and pump units – both free standing


© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

PRINCIPLE OF SETTLEMENT TRAYS

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 25
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

ACTIVITY 5

For this activity you again visit the workshop to look at a surface grinder to
look more closely at the system used to lubricate and cool the grinding
action.

The figure below shows the outline of a typical surface grinder. Using the
illustration as a basis, sketch in the system and name all the parts.

SURFACE GRINDER
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 26
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

MAINTENANCE OF CUTTING FLUID SYSTEMS

The routine maintenance of cutting fluid systems is essentially one of


cleaning – not a very pleasant job and one avoided by most people. But
cleaning is essential because otherwise bacteria can grow and the oil
becomes pungent.

Cleaning a cutting fluid system includes the following:

1 Discard the old oil – there should be procedures in place regarding


how and where to discard it and these must be followed
2 Clean out all the debris from sumps and settlement trays
3 Clean strainers and filters, replacing filter elements where
appropriate
4 Refill the sump with new cutting fluid
5 Check for adequate delivery
6 Check system for leaks

SEPARATION OF CUTTING FLUIDS FROM


MACHINE TOOL LUBRICANTS
A design problem facing machine tool manufacturers is how to prevent
cutting fluids which flow, somewhat uncontrolled, all over the machining
area, from contaminating other lubricants and therefore damaging the
machine. It is a particular problem when a cutting fluid with a high water
content is likely to be used because of the corrosion risk.

Flat surface joints, such as gearbox covers, are fitted with a gasket (or
flat seal) between the two mating surfaces. Where the surface to be
sealed is cylindrical, such as where rotating shafts protrude from
gearboxes, a ring seal (such as the type commonly known as an 'O' ring)
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

is fitted. Both of these types of seal, when fitted correctly, have a long life
and so contamination of lubricant with cutting fluid is not a major problem
in such instances.

It is where flat surfaces slide over each other, – for example, the table
slides on milling machines and the carriage and cross slides of lathes –
that cutting fluid penetration is more of a problem. In such instances, a
wiper made of felt or a material with similar properties, is incorporated at
the outer edge of the moving part. Next time you are in the workshop,
take a closer look at the wiper assemblies on lathe carriages and similar
situations to see how the problem is dealt with. Exactly how separation is
achieved varies from machine to machine, so the best thing to do is to
take a look at a few examples.
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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

SELF ASSESSMENT 2

Which of the following statements are correct? Tick those that are right
and place a cross against those that are wrong.

1 Water is a poor coolant and because of this it is


unsuitable as a cutting fluid

2 Soluble oil is not suitable for all metal cutting


situations

3 When mixing a soluble oil the water is added to the oil


and stirred vigorously

4 You can safely wash your hands in soluble oil that


includes a disinfectant

5 EP oils are used when the cutting pressure is high

6 Chemical solutions are sometimes coloured

7 The best cutting fluid to use when machining


magnesium alloys is soluble oil

8 In general, there is more emphasis on filtering cutting


fluids that there is other lubricants used on machine
tools

9 It is essential to prevent cutting fluids contaminating


other lubricants
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

10 Cork wiper pads prevent cutting fluid from penetrating


underneath the saddle and bed slideways on a centre
lathe

Check your answers with the Review Pack

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 28
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

CLUTCHES AND BRAKES


So far this element has dealt with making movement easier by reducing
friction. Now we look at brakes and clutches which rely on friction to
operate correctly and consequently must not be contaminated by oil or
grease.

The different types of clutches that are found on machine tools are:

multi-plate
rim
dog

These are described and illustrated in Element 1 in this series entitled


Power Transmission, which you may have already completed. If you
have, refer again to the section dealing with clutches; if not, ask your tutor
to let you see a copy.

The element on which you are now working requires you to be able to
adjust a clutch and/or a brake. Procedures vary according to the design
of the clutch or brake, so you will need help practical from your tutor.

When you have completed the adjustments, list the procedures in the two
boxes which follow.

Adjustment of a machine tool clutch

Procedure:
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 29
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

Adjustment of a machine tool brake

Procedure:

COMMISSIONING PROCEDURES
For the final part of this element we consider machine tool commissioning
procedures.

Commissioning is the term used to describe the checks that have to be


carried out before a machine is declared serviceable and ready for use.
The procedures are carried out at the time the machine is installed or after
it has been out of service for extensive maintenance or repair.

The checks fall into three groups:

• Safety
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

• Installation

• Function

SAFETY CHECKS

Safety checks are always completed first and they include checking:

Power supply – in particular, check there is no damage to insulation


and no obvious hazards

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 30
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

Electrical switches – check all the switches work correctly, paying


particular attention to safety switches such as micro switches that
protect against overrun
Emergency stop button – check that it works
Fixed guards – check they are in position and securely retained
Adjustable guards – check that they are fully adjustable and can
be securely retained throughout their range of adjustment
Interlocking guards – to ensure the machine is electrically
immobilised if they are not correctly positioned

INSTALLATION CHECKS

Installation checks include checking the following:

Alignments – usually only when the machine is first installed


(machine tool alignment is dealt within Element 2 in this series)
Oil leves – a glance at the site glasses of all fast rotating gearboxes
is essential

OPERATION CHECKS

Operational checks involve running the machine under light load and
checking the following.

• Gearbox oil pressures


• Oil flow
• Oil temperatures
• Oil leaks
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

• Function of coolant systems, also check for leaks in the


pipework
• Clutch, for corrent operation
• Brake, for correct operation

Finally, the machine should be run at sustained high load and the above
checks repeated.

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 31
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5

DOCUMENTATION

The maintenance of all machine tools, including commissioning


procedures, should be documented, with the maintenance personnel
working to schedules that reflect the procedures recommended by the
manufacturer.

When commissioning procedures have been completed, the maintenance


record should include a signature to authorise the use of the machine.

Element 4 in this series deals with machine tool maintenance and


maintenance procedures in more detail.

• To be or not to be that is the quest


• Friends, Romans, Countrymen, le
me your ears, I come to bury Caes
not to praise him.
SUMMARY
* SUMMARY
• The evil that men do lives on after
them but the good is oft interred
their bones.
• Hark! What light through yonder
window breaks?
• What’s in a name? A rose by any
name would smell as sweet.
• There was a young man from Cape
Horn who wished he’d never been

You have now reached the end of this element which has covered a more
diverse range of topics than is usually the case. Well done!

You should now have a sound understanding of lubrication techniques,


both as applied to the machine tool itself and to the cutting action. Also,
you may have had the opportunity to adjust a clutch or a brake, or at least
you have witnessed a demonstration of the procedure. And finally, you
also know about the checks that have to be carried out before a machine
is handed over for general use.

Where appropriate, you will find answers to the questions posed


throughout the text in the Review Pack. However, you will not find model
answers to the activities you carried out because they were based on
locally available machinery, so you must be sure to discuss your work
with your tutor to make sure they agree with your findings.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01

WHAT TO STUDY NEXT

As you will know, the element you have completed is one of a series
written especially for the City and Guilds Mechanical Engineering
Competences Part 2 course and in particular for the main competence in
machine tool systems. If you already have a work programme, you
should continue with the next element. If not, ask your tutor which
element to attempt next.

MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 32

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