MACHINING
Unit 04
E R EDUCA Machine Tool Systems
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CONTENTS
Element Information 2
Objectives 2
Rotary Movement 3
Belt Drives 3
Clutches 13
Gearing 17
Linear Movement 22
Speed Changing 27
Summary 38
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
ELEMENT INFORMATION
This element has been written to support your practical training and in
particular to develop your understanding of the way power is transmitted
on machine tools to the level required by the City and Guilds 228 course,
Mechanical Production Competences Part 2. If you are preparing for
assessment of Level III NVQ's then it will also serve as a source for
general underpinning and background knowledge.
OBJECTIVES
When you have completed this element you should be able to:
Whilst this element is designed for you to work at your own pace you
should allow approximately 10 hours to complete it.
ROTARY MOVEMENT
Regardless of the type of movement a machine tool finally makes, be it
rotating, sliding or reciprocating; included in the power transmission
system of the machine will be rotary movement, provided either
electrically by electric motors, or manually by turning a hand-wheel.
BELT DRIVES
Although a few modern computerised numerical controlled (CNC)
machine tools have dispensed with belt drives altogether, it is still the
case that most machine tool power transmission systems, including the
majority of CNC machines, have at least one belt drive.
Belt drives can be used in a variety of ways but on machine tools they
are invariably used to transmit power between two parallel shafts as
illustrated below.
Machine Headstock
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Belt Drive
Drive Motor
Keyed to each shaft is a pulley and the belt links the two; transmitting
power from one to the other. The transmission of power relies on the
frictional resistance to movement that exists between the belt and the
pulleys.
Usually the pulleys are of different diameters to enable the speed of the
driven shaft to be increased or decreased in relation to the driving shaft.
Thus a small diameter pulley driving a larger diameter pulley will result in
the larger pulley rotating at a slower speed. If the driving pulley had the
largest diameter, then the smaller diameter pulley would rotate at a
higher speed.
Often the pulleys are stepped so that two or three combinations of pulley
diameters, and output spindle speeds, are possible. We take a look at
pulley speeds later in the element.
Belt drives have the general advantage over other types of drive (gears,
for example) of being relatively cheap. But of more importance in
machine tool construction is that they can run at very high speeds, are
relatively quiet and create less vibration.
ACTIVITY 1
Take a break from reading and see what you have learnt about belt
drives so far.
First, simply add single words in the boxes below to complete each
statement.
speed is to be .
Now use the two boxes below to make your own list of the advantages
and disadvantages of belt drives.
Advantages
2
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Disadvantages
TYPES OF BELT
Let's continue by taking a closer look at the types of belt used on modern
machine tools. They are:
Vee
Toothed
Older machines also sometimes use flat belts and since some of these
machines are still in use these are also included in the following text.
Vee Belts
Vee belts are the most common type of belt used on machine tools,
particularly for transmitting power from the main drive motor to the
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40°
VEE BELT
The standard included wedge angle is 40°. Note that the sides of the
belt contact the sides of the pulley vee and that there is a clearance at
the bottom of the vee. There is very little slip on a correctly tensioned
belt in good condition.
Vee belts are available that meet a wide range of speed and power
requirements. Increased power can be transmitted when two or three
belts are used alongside each other, which is often the case with
machine tool drives. These arrangements are called multi-vee belt
drives but when vee belts are used in this way they have to be precisely
matched otherwise the work load is not evenly shared.
Tie Band
The individual belts are essentially the same as single belts, but they are
banded together by a textile band.
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A further advantage of this type of vee belt is that the banding prevents
individual belts from slipping out of the pulley grooves which single belts
sometimes do, particularly if they are not correctly tensioned.
Toothed Belts
TOOTHED BELT
The inner surface of the belt is toothed and the teeth fit in corresponding
grooves in the pulley. The belts are made of impregnated rubber with
steel wire reinforcing.
The centre distance between shafts has to be quite small but apart from
this, toothed belts are capable of high power transmission rates at very
high speeds without risk of slip. The speed ratios are fixed and cannot
be changed.
One instance of where you might find this type of drive on a machine tool
is to transmit the drive from servo motors to table leadscrews.
Flat Belts
Though no longer as commonly used as they once were, you are still
likely to come across flat belt drives, particularly on older machines.
Flat belts are less costly than either vee or toothed belts but they do tend
to slip under load and cannot operate at such high speeds. They were
once made of leather, rubber and woven cotton and canvas. Modern
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ACTIVITY 2
Time to break again and see what you now know about belts. Can you
answer these questions?
ACTIVITY 3
Take a pen and paper with you so that you can record what you see with
a view to completing the table below when you return to the classroom.
We can calculate an output speed when we know the input speed and
the pulley diameters. The shaft speeds in revolutions per minute are
indirectly proportional to the pulley diameters.
The diagram below shows a typical drive including the input speed and
the pulley diameters.
Ø 250 Ø 150
Output Motor
Rev/Min = ? Rev/min 2000
To calculate the speed of the driven pulley, that is the output speed:
2000 250
=
X 150
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200 x 150
X =
250
X = 120 rev/min
ACTIVITY 4
The diagram shows a belt drive that has three possible output speeds
Complete the table below.
Ø 175 Ø 200
Ø 150
Ø 175
Ø 200
Ø 150
Output Rev/Min = ?
1
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CLUTCHES
A very important component in the transmission of rotary movement is a
clutch. This device enables part of a power transmission to be separated
from the power source on a temporary basis. A car clutch is an everyday
example, enabling you to isolate the gearbox from the engine whilst you
change gear. Similar situations occur on machine tools.
TYPES OF CLUTCHES
Friction clutch
Dog clutch
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The most simple version of a friction clutch is where one of the shafts to
be linked is fitted with a flange that is keyed to, and therefore rotates
with, the driving shaft. The second shaft also has a flange keyed to the
shaft, but it can also slide along the shaft. Between the two flanges is a
friction disc. This basic principle is illustrated in the diagram on the
following page.
Housing
Pressure Spring
Input Shaft
Shaft
▲
Movement
As the sliding flange is moved towards the flange on the rotating shaft,
the friction disc is gradually sandwiched between the two, with some slip
occurring in the initial stages, until it is held firmly in position by pressure
exerted by a spring. The disc then transmits the drive from one flange to
the other.
The clutches fitted to machine tools are somewhat more complex than
this, often with more than one disc being included in the assembly. One
such example is illustrated as follows.
Friction Discs
Pressure Pressure
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MULTI-DISC C LUTCH
A variation of this type of clutch is the rim clutch. Here the drive is
transmitted through friction material that clamps on to the rim of a
rotating flange. As with the disc clutch, some slip occurs during the initial
stages of engagement so that the take up is smooth.
Rim is clamped
RIM CLUTCH
Dog Clutch
A dog clutch is a very simple device which consists of two flanges, one
fixed and one sliding. One flange has a slot across its face, the other a
corresponding projection, called a dog.
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DOG CLUTCH
As the sliding flange is moved towards the fixed flange, the dog engages
in the slot, providing that the two are in alignment. It goes almost without
saying that both shafts must be stationary whilst the clutch is engaged or
disengaged!
ACTIVITY 5
Time to take another accompanied visit to the workshop where your tutor
will show you examples of clutches fitted to machine tool drives. All you
have to do is take a few notes whilst you are there so that you can
complete the following table by adding the type of machine to which the
clutch was fitted, the type of clutch you saw and the function of the clutch
(for example, to isolate a leadscrew from a drive shaft).
GEARING
Until the advent of CNC machines, gears were a very important part of
all machine tool power transmission systems, but on these modern
machines the spindles are driven by variable speed electric motors and
feed rates are controlled by servo motors directly coupled to the
leadscrews. So gearing and gearboxes are no longer as prominent as
they were and they look set to decline even more as old machines are
replaced by the new. But that said, there are still many machines still in
use that have gearboxes and that use gearing in one way or another.
TYPES OF GEARS
Compared with belt drives, gears are much more costly. However, they
provide a very positive drive and the ratios are precise and constant.
Bevel gears
Worm and wheel
Spur gears
Spur Gears
Spur gears are straight toothed gears used to transmit drive between
parallel shafts. Although in theory only two shafts and two gears are
necessary, in practice more are involved. Gears are arranged in trains
which may be simple or compound. Each gear in a train becomes
either a driver gear or a driven gear, as shown below.
Driver
Two gears keyed
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together
Driver Driven
Driven
Driver
Driver
Driven
Bevel Gears
Bevel gears are used to transmit power between shafts other than
parallel. In the case of machine tools, the shafts are commonly at 90° to
each other.
The gears can both have the same number of teeth, in which case the
speed of both shafts will be the same; or they can be different, in which
case one shaft will rotate faster than the other. Both situations are
shown below.
BEVEL GEARS
Wheel
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Worm
The worm is not unlike a screw thread, but it has a special helical form.
One turn of the worm rotates the wheel by one tooth. This type of
gearing is used where the gearing ratio is high, 100:1 for example, and in
special types of mechanisms even higher than that. You won't find a
common workshop application that uses such a high ratio but a simple
workshop dividing head, with which you are probably familiar, has a
worm and wheel with a ratio of 40:1.
GEAR SPEEDS
You can calculate the speed of gears in much the same way as you
calculated pulley speeds earlier in the element. With gearing
calculations instead of the pulley diameters you use the number of teeth
each gear has.
The diagram below shows a simple gear train. What is the revs/min of
the output shaft?
Driver 75T
Rev/min 3000
Driven 50T
Rev/min = ?
3000 75
=
Driven rev/min 50
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
3000 x 75
Driven rev/min =
50
Notice that when just two gears are involved the direction of rotation is
reversed. Can you think how you can avoid this without affecting the
output speed? Sketch your answer in the box provided.
Answer:
Here is another example, this time calculate the speed of the output
shaft in the compound train shown in the diagram. Note that throughout
the rest of this text, the speed of a driver shaft is referred to as the input
rev/min and the speed of the driven shaft as the output rev/min.
Driver
1750 Rev/min
55T
Driven 45T
Driven 40T
Driver 30T Rev/min = ?
1750 = 45 x 40
Output rev/min 55 x 30
ACTIVITY 6
The table below shows three simple gear trains. Complete the table by
calculating the output speeds.
25T
35T
55T
35T
40T
3 1750 Rev/min
55T
65T
35T
38T
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LINEAR MOVEMENT
Now let's look at the way the rotary movement is converted into linear
movement in machine tools mechanisms. We begin by looking at one
which is extensively used, the screw and nut.
Cross slide
Slide
movement
Leadscrew Bearing
(restrained) Nut
Bearing
LATHE CROSS SLIDE
Calibration of Movement
From previous study you should know that on a single-start thread, one
turn of the screw causes the nut to make a linear movement (move a
distance equal) to the pitch of the thread.
Example: If the pitch of a screw is 5 mm, how far will the nut travel in 4
revolutions of the shaft?
= 5 x 4
= 20 mm
5
=
100
= 0.05 mm
The machine shop at your centre will provide you with good examples of
these mechanisms.
Look at a drilling machine and you will see that the feed is applied via a
rack and pinion. In this case the pinion is restrained and the spindle
(rack) moves. This is shown in the diagram on the following page.
Pinion
Rack
Machine Spindle
Look at a centre lathe and you will see a rack and pinion, as illustrated
below, is used to traverse the saddle along the lathe bed. This time it's
the rack that is stationary and the pinion that moves.
Pinion
Handwheel
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Each tooth on a pinion meshes with a tooth on the rack. In one turn of
the pinion the distance moved is equal to the pitch of the rack x number
of pinion teeth.
Example: If a rack has a pitch of 5 mm and the pinion has 35 teeth, how
far will the rack move in one revolution of the pinion?
Fixed-stroke
Adjustable stroke
Crank
R
Connecting Rod
Travel Length
Wheel
Fixed-stroke Mechanisms
With an adjustable stroke crank, the connection of the crank to the wheel
can be varied. In a simple example the wheel might have a tee slot
along which the nut retaining the crank can slide. Thus the distance R
can be increased or decreased and this will increase or decrease the
linear movement.
ACTIVITY 7
Connecting Link
Bull Wheel
Path of Crankpin
Slotted Link
Fixed Pivot
ADJUSTABLE CRANK
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The bull wheel rotates at a constant speed, but by altering the position of
the crank pin you change the radius R. Consequently, the movement of
the pivoted link varies and this in turn changes the length of the ram
movement.
Using the illustration as a starting point, this is what you have to do.
2 Dimension the drawing to show the stroke length for the new
setting.
2 What would be the effect on the length of the ram movement if you
reduced the radius R?
SPEED CHANGING
A common requirement of all machine tool power transmission systems
is the facility to change speeds. This is achieved in various ways, the
most simple of which we have already considered, that of changing belts
from one pair of pulleys to another.
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CONE PULLEYS
Belt
Belt Movement
CONE PULLEYS
To reduce the speed of B the belt is re-positioned to the right along the
cones. So the highest speed for shaft B is when the belt is in the
extreme left-hand position and the highest speed for shaft B is when the
belt is in the extreme right-hand position. Since the belt can be
positioned anywhere, the speed range is variable between the two
extremes. Whilst this type of belt drive is quite interesting, it has to be
said that it is not widely used. Ask your tutor if there is one for you to see
in your workshop, but it's unlikely that there will be.
SLIDING GEARS
Sliding Gears
Spline
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Fixed Gears
SLIDING GEARS
By moving the cluster either to the left or the right, three output speeds
are possible. Before the changes can be made the input shaft has to be
stationary or isolated by disengaging a clutch.
ACTIVITY 8
The diagram below shows the gearing for the headstock gearbox of a
centre lathe. Gear changes are possible by sliding the centre cluster to
the right and left.
Movement
75T
50T 65T Plain Shaft with Fixed
Gears
Movement
There are 9 output speeds available with this arrangement. See if you
can determine what they are. Then, in the table, make a simple line
diagram of each gearing combination and calculate the output speeds.
3
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7
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Of these three methods, the first is essentially a manual skill. The third
method is the exact opposite, to use it being simply a case of
programming a feed rate and the machine control system does the rest.
The second method falls somewhere between the two. You 'programme'
your feed rate by selecting one from a limited range available from a sub-
gear box which is part of the power transmission system of the machine,
but you engage and disengage the feed manually.
HYDRAULIC FEED
The following illustration shows the basic principle involved. Fluid under
pressure is directed first to one side of a piston to move the worktable
one way, and then to the other side to move it back again.
Table Movement
▲
▲
Table
Double-Acting
Cylinder
Piston
Fluid directed to
each end of the
cylinder in turn
HYDRAULIC FEED
includes the actuating cylinders but also a variety of valves for specific
purposes. The valve that controls the feed rate is a flow control valve.
Its function is simply to control the rate at which it flows into the operating
cylinder. The faster the rate of flow the more rapid the linear movement
of the slide or table.
NORTON GEARBOX
You will find a variety of feed gearboxes on common machine tools but
one that has been extensively used on centre lathes is the norton
gearbox. The following assignment gives you the opportunity to take a
close look at one.
ASSIGNMENT 1
Ask your tutor to direct you to a centre lathe that has a norton gearbox.
Your objective then is to find out how the gearbox works and to answer
the questions.
If you are not familiar with the designated machine, ask your tutor for
further instruction on what to do. Don't attempt to use the machine
until you have been told how to use it.
When you have finished ask your tutor to check your answers
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ACTIVITY 9
This final activity brings together most of the transmission features you
have been studying.
Whilst you are in the workshop make rough annotated sketches. When
you return to the classroom make a line diagram of the system in the box
on the following page clearly indicating all the power transmission
features.
When you have completed your diagram, ask your tutor to look at it
to see if you have included all the features
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
You have now reached the end of the Power Transmission element.
Well done. You should now have a good understanding of:
If you still need help with any of the topics covered in this element,
please talk to your tutor.
Good Luck!
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
CONTENTS
Unit Information 2
Objectives 2
Introduction 3
Structural Requirements 3
Loads Acting on Machines Tools 5
Vibration 6
Effect of Heat 6
Mounting of Machine Tools 11
Machine Levelling 13
Machine Tool Alignment 14
Slideways 15
Bearings 21
Alignment Checks 28
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
UNIT INFORMATION
This unit has been written to support your practical training and in
particular to develop your understanding of machine tool construction
and the way they are installed to the level required by the City and Guilds
228 course, Mechanical Production Competencies Part 2. It also serves
as study material for relevant underpinning knowledge for Level III
NVQ's.
OBJECTIVES
This unit is intended to be worked at your own pace but as a guide you
should allow approximately 8 hours.
INTRODUCTION
When you use a bench drill to drill holes you automatically expect the
holes to be round and perpendicular to the machine table. Similarly,
when you use a centre lathe to turn a plain diameter you expect it to be
round and parallel. In fact, whatever machine tool you use you tend to
take for granted that certain geometric characteristics such as
roundness, parallelism, concentricity, squareness, and so on,
appropriate to the work being undertaken, will be achieved. In doing so
you are relying on the following.
STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS
If a machine tool is to produce geometrically accurate work, the following
features must be incorporated in the design:
• adequate strength
• rigidity
• minimum of vibration
• dimensional stability
In addition to the above, the design of a machine tool must include the
means to accurately control the movement of the work and/or cutting
tool. Machine tool movement is the subject of a separate unit.
BASIC STRUCTURE
The vast majority of machine tool bodies are made of grey cast iron. The
advantages of this material when used for this purpose are:
When you are next in the workshops, look at the bodies of a range of
common machine tools and you will see how irregularly shaped they are.
To make them in any other way except as a casting, though not
impossible, would be very, very expensive.
However, although cast iron has good compressive strength, it has other
weaknesses that have to be considered by the machine tool designer.
For example, to enhance the rigidity, machine tool castings are either of
box section or heavily ribbed. Similarly, to ensure dimensional stability,
castings are stabilised by a heat treatment process or rough machined
and left to 'weather' for a few months before they are used. Both of
these procedures relieve the internal stresses resulting from the casting
process.
SUB-ASSEMBLIES
Apart from the base casting, machine tools include various other
castings. Each of these usually forms the basis of a sub-assembly that
is attached to the base casting (as in the case of a lathe head stock) or
to another sub-assembly (as in the case of the top slide of a lathe which
is attached to the saddle).
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Static
Dynamic
Deflecting
force
Machine
table
Deflection
Table
overhang
Spindle
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Deflecting Cutter
force Workpiece
Slide movement
Deflection
VIBRATION
Vibration results, in the main, from rotating parts such as drive motors,
machine spindles, gear boxes, lead screws, and so on. As machines get
older it usually gets worse, resulting in increased bearing wear, poor
surface finish, reduced tool life, and a lot of frustration! There is also a
safety aspect; undue vibration can cause work or tools to work loose.
You may have noticed that CNC machines in general, run much more
smoothly, and at much higher speeds. This is because the drive to the
machine spindle is invariably via belts direct from the drive motor. No
gear box is necessary because the speed of the motor is infinitely
variable and controlled via the machine control program.
A similar situation occurs with lead screws which were traditionally driven
via gears linked to the main gear box. Modern machines now use
directly coupled servo motors, also capable of infinitely variable speeds,
directly coupled to the lead screw so that not even a belt drive is
involved.
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EFFECT OF HEAT
Heat is another problem that has to be catered for in the design of
machine tools, particularly so with enclosed CNC machines. Heat can
cause expansion and so affect the dimensional stability of a machine.
HEAT SOURCES
using low friction slides and lead screws (see later text)
coolant
The heat from swarf can be avoided by not letting swarf build up –
modern machines often include conveyor belts to continually take it
away.
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SELF ASSESSMENT 1
Let's pause for a moment and see what you now know about the
problems associated with machine tool design. Complete the statements
below by adding one or two words in the boxes.
a A static load is
b A dynamic load is
ACTIVITY 1
3 Make a sketch to show how the bed castings of centre lathes are
ribbed to ensure rigidity.
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Rag bolt
Expanding nut (Rawlbolt)
Adjustable blocks
RAG BOLT
Machine Tool
Body
Grouting
Rag Bolt
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RAG BOLT
5 After two or three days, when the cement is set, the wedges are
removed and the rag bolt nuts tightened.
EXPANDING NUT
The most commonly used expanding nut fixing is the Rawlbolt which is
illustrated below. The nut is located in a hole drilled in the concrete and
the nut is expanded either by tightening a bolt or by tightening another
ordinary nut on a spindle that is attached to the expanding nut. Ask your
tutor if they can show you a Rawlbolt so that you can see exactly how
they work.
RAWLBOLT
2 Placing the Rawlbolts in the holes and then removing the nut or the
bolt, depending on the type being used.
ADJUSTABLE BLOCK
Load Bearing
ADJUSTABLE BLOCK
MACHINE LEVELLING
An essential part of mounting any machine is ensuring it is level before
the retaining nuts are finally tightened. This is done by reference to a
spirit level, preferably a precision level.
machine.
Readings are also taken across the bed at both ends, with the spirit level
resting on a bridge spanning the gap between the lathe guide ways.
Again the readings should all be virtually the same and indicate the bed
is level.
This type of levelling is usually sufficiently accurate for the vast majority
of installations. More precise methods can be used by using precision
instruments such as an autocollimator. Ask your tutor to show you an
autocollimator and explain how it is used to check that a machine tool is
level.
Now let's break for a minute and think about the levelling checks
appropriate to a drilling machine and a vertical milling machine.
ACTIVITY 2
In the boxes below briefly describe what tests you would make. If
necessary, talk to your tutor to find out what checks are necessary.
SLIDEWAYS
The features of a machine that provide alignment yet still allow for the
aligned assemblies to move are called slideways. There are four
commonly used slideways.
Flat
Vee
Dovetail
Cylindrical
FLAT SLIDES
Flat slides are used for heavy loads. They provide for both vertical and
horizontal location, independent of each other. Adjustment in the
horizontal plane is via grub screws exerting pressure on a gib strip.
Sliding
Set Screw
FLAT SLIDE
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VEE SLIDES
Vee slides can be either normal or inverted but are usually inverted.
They provide for horizontal alignment only. There is no mechanical
adjustment but they are self-adjusting up to a point, since any wear
which takes place on the flanks of the vee merely results in a very slight
loss of height but no horizontal misalignment.
Sliding
Fixed
VEE SLIDE
DOVETAIL SLIDES
Sliding
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Set
Screw
Fixed
Gib
Strip
DOVETAIL SLIDE
CYLINDRICAL SLIDES
Cylindrical slides provide for axial alignment, that is, for alignment about
a centre line.
Fixed Sliding
CYLINDRICAL SLIDEWAY
Often on machine tools two types of slide are used together. For
example, the tail stock of a lathe has an inverted vee and a flat slide.
Take a closer look at common slide combinations in the next activity.
LOW-FRICTION SLIDES
A common problem with slides such as those described above is that the
movement is not always smooth and is sometimes jerky, an effect known
as 'stick slip'.
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This problem has been around since the first machine was made and in
general very little was done about it until the high-performance CNC
machines were introduced. The slides of these machines are coated
with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). This material has a low coefficient of
friction, is slightly porous and lubricant retaining. There are also
hydrostatic slides where the bearing surfaces are always separated by
oil, or air supplied under pressure. Others have recirculating roller slides
as illustrated below where the sliding action is replaced by a smoother
rolling action.
Hardened steel
insert
Recirculating
rollers
Fixed member
ROLLER SLIDE
The balls, which in effect form the nut, recirculate in and out of the
thread. The thread is called a Gothic arch and is illustrated below.
Return Tube
(part of nut
assembly)
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Recirculating
Balls
Leadscrew
Nut
SLIDEWAY LUBRICATION
It's important that slideways are kept clean and well lubricated.
SLIDE PROTECTION
Most machines have felt inserts attached to the edges of the moving
element and these wipe the slide and prevent swarf from penetrating
between the mating surfaces.
ACTIVITY 3
For this activity you need to make an accompanied visit to the workshop
to look at typical applications of the machine slides previously described.
Ask your tutor to point out an example of each type of slide and the way
they are adjusted. Then as instructed by your tutor, in the box below
sketch the cross section of the bed of a centre lathe and indicate and
name the slides that locate and guide the carriage and the tailstock.
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BEARINGS
Earlier we looked at the forces acting on machine tools and in doing so
referred to spindle deflection. Spindle deflection results in a
misalignment, albeit temporary, and as a result the work produced can
be geometric and dimensionally inaccurate.
Imagine a similar situation, but this time one with a heavy, well-supported
work piece that will not bend even though the forces acting upon it are
severe. What is likely to happen? The answer is hopefully, nothing, but
it is quite feasible that in very extreme situations the spindle might deflect
slightly and thus it would no longer be in alignment with the guide ways
on the lathe bed.
To resist the forces to which they might be subjected and to retain their
alignment, machine spindles and other rotating parts have to be well
supported. This support is provided by bearings and in this section we
look at the types of bearings used in machine tool assemblies. But first
let's look at the forces themselves.
Axial Force
Radial
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
Radial Force
RADIAL FORCE
Axial
AXIAL FORCE
TYPES OF BEARINGS
Plain
Ball
Roller
Plain Bearings
The type bearing is best described as being simply a hole lined with a
bush. The spindle it supports passes through the bush as illustrated
below.
Housing
Bush
Shaft
PLAIN BEARING
The materials used for plain bearing bushes must be softer than the
shaft and must also have:
• Bronze
• Phosphor bronze
• Sintered bronze (made from powdered metal)
• White metal (tin/antimony/copper alloy)
• Nylon
• PTFE
Because of the sliding friction between the mating surfaces, wear can be
a problem. To prevent this, plain bearings must be regularly lubricated.
Radial Bearings
There are several bearings that fall into this category and these are
illustrated below. All of them, and the roller bearings dealt with later,
replace the sliding friction present in a plain bearing with rolling friction.
Consequently, in theory they require little or no lubrication, but in practice
they are usually packed with grease which also helps to prevent dirt and
foreign bodies from entering.
Radial
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
Load
Ball Thrust Bearing
Roller Bearings
Roller bearings can carry heavier loads than ball bearings of a similar
size but the friction present in the roller bearing is higher.
loads.
Roller
Needle Bearings
ACTIVITY 4
Ask your tutor to check your answers to see if they are correct
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
ALIGNMENT CHECKS
You should now have a basic understanding of how machines are
constructed and the design features that ensure the sub-assemblies are
maintained in correct alignment with each other even though in some
cases they are constantly moving.
Later in this unit you carry out alignment checks yourself but let's first
summarise the production objectives of three common machines, the
centre lathe, drilling machine and vertical milling machine, and
understand the alignment necessary to achieve them by completing the
next activity.
ACTIVITY 5
No Production Alignment
1 Parallel external and internal diameters Spindle must run 'true' and
on work held in a chuck or collet be parallel to the guide ways
attached to the machine spindle on the bed of the machine
No Production Alignment
2 Holes that are at right angles to the Spindle must be at right angles
surface of the machine table to the surface of the machine
table throughout its complete
revolution
No Production Alignment
ASSIGNMENT 1
On the following pages are some forms. At the top of each the feature
you are going to test is indicated. The left-hand column defines each
specific test.
In the centre column, make a simple diagram to show how you carry out
each test.
If you have an Inspection Test Certificate for the machine, compare your
findings to see if they are within the manufacturers' tolerances. If a Test
Certificate is not available, compare your findings with the permissible
error values given in the table. In the column at the far right of the table,
add the letter C (for Conformance) or N (for Non-conformance).
Begin by adding the name of the machine you are checking in the title
box.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
MACHINE TESTED
Run-out
of Flange 0.010
Face
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
Run Out of
Headstock 0.010
Centre
Parallelism
of Spindle 0.02 mm
Axis – per 300 mm
Vertical
Plane
Parallelism
of Spindle 0.02 mm
Axis – per 300 mm
Vertical
Plane
Parallelism
of Headstock
& Tailstock 0.02 mm
Centre – per 300 mm
Vertical
Plane
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
Straightness 0.007
of Slideways
Convex
0.006 mm
Flatness of per 300 mm
Slideways Concave
0.013 mm
per 300 mm
Parallelism
of Carriage + or –
Movement in 0.006
Horizontal per 300 mm
Plane
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
Parallelism
of Carriage
Movement in 0.006
Vertical per 300 mm
Plane
Parallelism
of Tailstock
Barrel 0.007
Movement in
Horizontal
Plane
Parallelism
of Tailstock
Barrel 0.010
Movement in
Vertical
Plane
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
SELF ASSESSMENT 2
You should now have a good idea of the problems associated with
machine tool alignment, see if you can answer the following.
is not flat
CONTENTS
Element Information 2
Objectives 3
Introduction 4
CNC Machines 4
Position Transducers 24
Summary 37
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
ELEMENT INFORMATION
This element has been written to support your practical training and in
particular to enhance your understanding of Computerised Numerically
Controlled (CNC) machines to the level required to complete Module 04,
Main Competences in Machine Tool Systems, of the City and Guilds 228
course, Mechanical Production Competences Part 2.
The element also introduces you to part programme writing, but note that
it is only an introduction to what is quite a complex subject. If you wish to
know more about CNC machining, ask your tutor to tell you about more
specific study options.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
OBJECTIVES
When you have completed this element you will be familiar with the basic
principles of CNC machines and machine control including:
– repeatability
– dimensional accuracy
– quality
– production rates
– costs
• position monitoring
This element should take you approximately 8 hours to complete, but this
is only a guide and you should work at your own pace.
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this element which is one of a series dealing with
mechanical engineering production competences.
It is the CNC machines used for turning, milling and drilling with which
we are concerned in this element.
CNC MACHINES
Let's begin by comparing CNC machines with conventional machines
capable of producing similar work.
The first difference we find is in the names by which the machines are
known. For decades turning machines have been called lathes, now
they are called turning centres; similarly, milling machines are now
called machining centres.
The reason for these name changes is that, compared with conventional
machines, CNC machines are much more versatile and capable of
producing a much wider range of operations. For example, it's possible
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
The most obvious difference between the old and new machines,
however, is their physical appearance. There are similarities of course,
but there are also major differences that you can't help noticing. For
example, CNC machines are often totally enclosed and they have no
hand wheels. But there are other differences as you will see when you
take a closer look.
ACTIVITY 1
If you didn't already know, you now know what CNC machines look like.
But how about the differences? In the space provided, write down
answers to the following questions.
High productivity rates are due to a number of factors such as very fast
slide positioning moves, high spindle speeds, optimum feed rates and
rapid tool changes. Very few breaks are required to measure the work
and, as with all automated processes, the output rate is consistently
maintained – no tea breaks, no trips to the toilet, no tiredness, which are
all typical of the interruptions to which manually controlled processes are
subjected.
DIMENSIONAL ACCURACY
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
The ability to sustain accurate slide movements, time and time again, is
referred to as repeatability. Typically, repeated slide movements of a
CNC machine are accurate to within + or – 0.008 mm. It would be quite
impossible for a person to match that sort of accuracy throughout a
working day.
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 03 6
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 ELEMENT 03
SURFACE FINISH
Good surface finish is also due to machine design. Spindle drive motors
have infinitely variable speeds so that the correct speed is used at all
times rather than one selected from a limited range. The drive from
motor to spindle is via belts which eliminates the vibration commonly
found with drives involving gearboxes. Feed rates are also infinitely
variable thus ensuring the correct feed rate is always used. Whilst low-
friction slides help to ensure very smooth slide movements.
COMPLEX SHAPES
TOOLING COSTS
Lower tooling costs are due to the use of standard tooling systems that
are based on the use of cemented carbide throw-away tips. If selected
as recommended by the manufacturers, the correct tool geometry for
carrying out a particular operation on a specified material is ensured. As
each tool reaches the end of its life it is discarded, so there are no re-
grinding costs. Such tooling was rarely used to its full capacity on
conventional machines because of the limited speed and feed ranges.
OPERATOR INVOLVEMENT
Less operator involvement often means that more than one machine can
be operated by the same person. Often one operator looks after a group
of machines, called a machining cell. The operator involvement is
reduced to one of monitoring the operation, loading and unloading the
part, checking the condition of the tooling and replacing if required,
occasionally measuring a sample part and adjusting the programme to
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
compensate for any errors. But all of these operator functions are
capable of being automated and in the more advanced companies they
often are. Even the swarf can be removed automatically !
SELF ASSESSMENT 1
Take a short break from reading and see what you have learned about
CNC machines and machining so far. Simply add one or two words in
the boxes in the statements below.
and .
is usually manned by .
The person who prepares the part programme has to plan a machining
sequence that will produce the part in as little time as possible. To do
this they must consider how the work is to be held, the most suitable
tooling to use, what cutting speeds and feeds to use, and so on. Much of
this information is then expressed in a programming language that can
be understood by the control system of the machine to be used.
The list on the following page is what a typical part programme look like.
The programme involves using six different tools to carry out a sequence
of milling, drilling and reaming operations.
N010 G71G90
N020 M06T01S400
N030 M03
N040 Y20
N050 G01X150F150
N060 G01Y60
N070 G01X-30
N080 G00Y-30
N090 M06T02S1300
N100 G81X20Y60Z24F100M03
N110 X60Y40
N120 X100Y20
N130 G00X-30Y-30
N140 M06T03S500
N150 G81X20Y60Z24F80M03
N160 X100Y20
N170 G00x-30Y-30
N180 M06T04S400
N190 G81X60Y40Z22F140M03
N200 G00X-30Y-30
N210 M06T05S1000
N220 G41X10Z-6M03
N230 G01Y62F155
N240 G02X18Y70I18J62
N250 G01X102
N260 G02X110Y62I102J62
N270 G01Y18
N280 G02X102I102J18
N290 G01X18
N300 G02X10Y18I18J18
N310 G01Y30
N320 G00Z0
N330 G40X60Y40
N340 G42G01Z-12
N350 Y60
N360 X100
N370 X85Y20
N380 X20
N390 X40Y60N380X20
N400 X40Y60
N410 X91
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
N420 X76Y29
N430 X29
N440 X49Y51
N450 X81
N460 X66Y39
N470 X39
N480 X59Y45
N490 G00Z2
N500 G40X-30Y-30
N510 M30
An activity later in the element provides you with the opportunity to write
a part programme.
DATA INPUT
Perforated Tape
The diagram below shows what a section of the same programme listed
on the previous page looks like when it has been transferred to
perforated tape. The tape has standard width of 25 mm and the length
of tape for this particular programme is about 1 metre long although
tapes are often very much longer than this. Each row of holes
represents a programme digit or alphabet character.
most programmes, taking just a few seconds, after which the tape can be
removed from the tape reader and stored until it is required again.
Magnetic Tape
Magentic tape input is also quite rapid but not as rapid as perforated
tape. It's not a method that gained much favour and there are relatively
few machines that use this method of data input.
Computer Input
ACTIVITY 2
3
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
2 Distance moved
DIRECTION
The diagram on the following page shows how this translates to the
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
–z+
–
+X
(a)
Head movement
–Y+
–X
+
Knee movement
–
Z
+ +W–
Spindle or head
(b)
movement
+X
–
Knee movement
+W–
–
Y
+
(c)
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
DISTANCE
ABSOLUTE DIMENSIONS
80
50
25
Datum
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
INCREMENTAL DIMENSIONS
POLAR DIMENSIONS
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
R5
0
60°
30°
Pole
(Datum)
The absolute co-ordinates of the first hole are X18Y18; for the second
hole they are X42Y23. The incremental co-ordinates for the two holes
are X18Y18 and X24 and Y5 respectively.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
5
23
18
18 24
42
Now turn back to the part programme on Page 10 and see if you can
identify the positioning move co-ordinates.
Look for the letters X, Y and Z
RATE
The rate of movement, called the feed rate, is defined in millimetres per
minute (mm/min) or metres per minute (m/min), or millimetre per
revolution of the work (mm/rev). In a part programme the feed rate has
the address letter F; see if you can spot the feed rates in the part
programme on Page 10.
When only one slide is programmed to move, the resulting cutter path is
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
Cutter Paths
When two slides are programmed to move at the same time, and at the
same constant feed rate, the resulting cutter path will still be a straight
line and will be at an angle of 45° as illustrated in Diagram A on the
following page. When the slides move at the same time but at different
constant feed rates, the resulting cutter path will still be a straight line but
not at an angle of 45° as shown in Diagram B on the following page.
ANGULAR MOVEMENT
Cutter path
Slide
movements
45°
a
Cutter path
Slide
movements
30° b
a
Slide movement
lengths unequal
Cutter path
Slide
movements
R2
R3
5
0
Cutter
SELF ASSESSMENT 2
Time to take another break and to see what you have learnt about slide
movement. As before, write one or two works in the boxes to complete
the statements 1 – 8 below.
8 The advantage of using the lower left-hand corner as the zero for
milling/drilling operations is that .
ACTIVITY 3
The upper drawing in the following diagram shows the positions of four
drilled holes. Add the absolute co-ordinate dimensions for the hole
positions on the lower undimensioned drawing.
20
10
25
15
20 40
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
• Open loop
• Closed loop
OPEN LOOP
Machine tool
Memory
Machine tool
Data flow
Feedback
Microcomputer
Control unit
Combined unit
The devices that control positional feedback are called transducers and
we take a look at these in the next section.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
POSITION TRANSDUCERS
The part programme provides the instruction and the machine servo
motor rotates, turning the lead screw, causing the machine slide to
move. Information about the position of the slide is then fed back to the
control unit and if this agrees with the programme requirement the slide
movement is confirmed and the programme proceeds.
The item that provides information about the slide position is called a
transducer. Basically, this is a device that receives information in one
form, converts it, and then transmits the information in a form that can be
understood by a receiver.
OPTICAL GRATINGS
There are in fact two gratings, each being a series of evenly spaced lines
etched either on a gelatine-coated glass or on stainless steel. One
grating is fixed to a part of the machine that doesn't move; the other is
located immediately above and is attached to the slide. Therefore one
grating is stationary and the other fixed. In addition, the upper grating is
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
Machine tool
Lead screw Servo motor
Data
Control unit
flow
Let's take a break from reading about this rather complex subject for a
short while and create your own optical grating.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
ACTIVITY 4
For this activity you need a piece of plain white paper, size A4. You also
need a small piece of clear plastic film, overhead projector film will do
nicely. This is what you have to do.
3 Pass the moving grating (film) over the fixed grating (paper) with
the moving grating lines slightly at an angle to the fixed gratings –
see the diagram below – and note the fringe effect.
Angle of inclination
Moiré fringes
Fringe
movement
Moving
Fixed grating
grating
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
Slide movement
ROTARY TRANSDUCER
Rotary transducers are attached to the end of the lead screw, either
directly or through a set of precision gears – see the diagram below.
Data
flow Control unit
Positional feedback
As with the optical gratings, rotary transducers are not easy to see but
your tutor will be able to tell you where to look and perhaps show you
one not already fitted to a machine.
Transducer Limitations
DETAIL
DRAWING
Production Planning
Machine Type
Operation Schedule
Programme Proving
PRODUCTION
OF PART
Machine Setting
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
For the purpose of this element, we will assume that all the preliminary
work has been done and all that remains is to write a part programme.
Earlier in the text it was mentioned that this can be done manually, with
the programmer working out all the machine movements, or it can be
computer-aided, when the movements and other data such as spindle
speeds and feed rates are worked out by the computer making an
analysis of the part geometry.
N010 G71G90
N020 M06T01S400
N030 M03
N040 Y20
N050 G01X150F150
N060 G01Y60
N070 G01X-30
N080 G00Y-30
N090 M06T02S1300
N100 G81X20Y60Z24F100M03
N110 X60Y40
N120 X100Y20
N130 G00X-30Y-30
N140 M06T03S500
N150 G81X20Y60Z24F80M03
N160 X100Y20
N170 G00X-30Y-30
N180 M06T04S400
N190 G81X60Y40Z22F140M03
N200 G00X-30Y-30
to as G codes
• The letter M defines a miscellaneous function, commonly
referred to as M functions
• The letter T defines the tool number
• The letter S defines the spindle feed
• The letter F defines the feed rate
ACTIVITY 5
In this activity you analyse a simple word address part programme with
reference to an equally limited imaginary part programming language.
The address letters are those commonly found in most programming
languages. The objective of the exercise is to make you familiar with the
way a word address language is composed.
G CODES
M FUNCTIONS
S Spindle speed
F Feed
The table on the following page shows the part programme for drilling the
four holes shown in the diagram below. Complete the table by briefly
describing what is happening at each block. A few descriptions have
already been added to help you.
80
10
Drill 4 holes ∅8
42
18
18
35
55
70
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
N040 T01F.2
N050 G00 x 18Y18Z2 Rapid move to 2 mm above part
surface
N060 G01Z-15F.1
N070 G00Z2
N080 X35Y42
N090 G01Z-15
N100 G00Z2
N110 X55
N120 G01Z-15
N130 G00Z2
N140 X70Y18
N150 G01Z-15
N160 G00Z2
N170 X0Y0
N180 M30 End of programme – spindle off,
coolant off
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
ACTIVITY 6
You will need help with this, so before you begin you need to discuss
what to do with your tutor.
You will need a list of the G codes and M Functions that are applicable to
the machine you are going to use – remember not all control systems
use the same codes.
When you are ready to start, write the program in the form. When you
have completed the programme, ask your tutor to check it.
Finally, ask your tutor to show you how to input the programme and
machine the part – it's likely this will be done for you but in any case
don't attempt to operate a machine unless you have been specifically
instructed on how to do so.
30
10
Drill ∅8
∅38 ∅20
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
3 x 45°
Material: Mild Steel
ACTIVITY 7
As with the previous activity, you will need help with this, so before you
begin you need to discuss what to do with your tutor.
As before you will need a list of the G codes and M Functions that are
applicable to the machine you are going to use – remember not all
control systems use the same codes you used for the turning activity
although there could well be similarities.
When you are ready to start, write the program in the form. When you
have completed the programme, ask your tutor to check it.
Finally, ask your tutor to show you how to input the programme and
machine the part – it's likely this will be done for you but in any case
don't attempt to operate a machine unless you have been specifically
instructed on how to do so.
50 20
10
10
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
10 50
20
10
35
Drill 2 holes ∅8
Material: Brass
SUMMARY
• Friends, Romans, Countrymen, le
me your ears, I come to bury Caes
not to praise him.
* SUMMARY
• The evil that men do lives on after
them but the good is oft interred
their bones.
• Hark! What light through yonder
window breaks?
• What’s in a name? A rose by any
name would smell as sweet.
• There was a young man from Cape
Horn who wished he’d never been
That brings you to the end of this element dealing with computer
controlled machine tools. Well done.
Below is a list of the topics with which you should now be familiar.
If you still need help with any of the topics covered by the element,
please talk to your tutor.
Have a look at the Module Map in the Introductory pack and select
the next module you think is appropriate. But before you begin,
discuss your choice with your tutor just to make sure you are
continuing on the right track.
Good luck !
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
CONTENTS
Element Information 2
Objectives 3
Introduction 4
Types of Maintenance 5
Lubrication Routines 14
Summary 19
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 1
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4
ELEMENT 4
ROUTINE LUBRICATION PROCEDURES
INFORMATION
This element has been written to support your practical training and in
particular to enhance your understanding of machine tool maintenance
and routine lubrication procedures to the level required for the City and
Guilds 228 Course, Mechanical Production Competences Part 2. It is
also suitable as study material for Level III NVQ Underpinning Knowledge
in Machine Tools Maintenance.
Before you attempt this element you should complete Element 4 which
deals with machine tool lubrication systems. If you haven't yet done so,
ask your tutor for advice.
In order to complete the activities included in this element you will need
access to a range of machine tools and maintenance manuals or
handbooks for these machines. Ask your tutor to arrange this for you.
You will also need a pencil, ruler and a sheet of plain paper in order to
construct a maintenance schedule for a selected machine.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 2
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4
OBJECTIVES
– running
– routine
– preventive
– breakdown
This element is written to allow you to work at your own pace, but as a
guide you need to allow approximately 6 hours for its completion.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 3
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this element which is one of a series dealing with machine
tool systems.
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 4
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4
TYPES OF MAINTENANCE
Properly maintained machines ensure the safety of the user, optimum
production rates, and the quality of the output. So in well-run machine
shops maintenance is planned.
• running
• routine
• preventive
• breakdown
RUNNING MAINTENANCE
• cleaning
• inspecting
• lubricating
• adjusting
and are invariably the responsibility of the person using the machine.
ROUTINE MAINTENANCE
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 5
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
BREAKDOWN MAINTENANCE
This type of maintenance is carried out when a part has failed and the
machine can no longer be used. This usually results in much gnashing of
teeth and wringing of hands as valuable production time is lost, so it is to
be avoided if at all possible. And the best way to avoid it is, of course, to
ensure that preventive maintenance is carried out correctly. That way,
although breakdowns may not be totally eliminated, they should at least
not occur too often.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 6
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4
SELF ASSESSMENT
The following statements may be true or false. If they are true, place a
tick in the box alongside. If they are false, put a cross in the box.
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 7
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4
ACTIVITY 1
Note that the table allows for 6 entries in each category; there may
be more or less depending on the machine you are asked to
consider. If there are more, list the six that are most important.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 8
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4
INSPECT
LUBRICATE
1 Top slide
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 9
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4
INSPECT
LUBRICATE
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 10
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4
3 This time fill in the table below listing the running maintenance
procedures for a surface grinder
INSPECT
LUBRICATE
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 11
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4
INSPECT
LUBRICATE
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 12
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4
ACTIVITY 2
• Task number
• Task description
• Signature
Make all the columns except the Task Description column about
25 mm wide, this will leave the maximum amount of space possible
for you to describe what has to be done
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 13
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4
When you have completed your schedule, discuss it with your tutor to make
sure you have included all the routine maintenance tasks for the machine,
and if possible compare your schedule with the one currently in use.
LUBRICATION ROUTINES
From completing the previous activities you now know that lubrication is a
very important feature of any machine tool maintenance programme.
The figure on the following page shows a typical lubrication chart for a
centre lathe. A chart such as this is a clear and concise way of indicating
what to lubricate and when to do it.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 14
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4
Gearbox
Oil Tank
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 15
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4
ACTIVITY 3
For this activity you are required to complete a lubrication chart for a
horizontal milling machine using the outline drawing of the machine
shown below, or alternatively your tutor may supply you with an outline
drawing more appropriate to the machine you are to consider.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
When you have completed the activity, discuss the chart with your tutor to
make sure you have indicated all the machine features that have to be
lubricated and also when the work should be carried out.
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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4
ACTIVITY 4
To do this you will need access to at least five machine tool manuals and
the sales brochures of a single oil company. Your tutor will let you have
these.
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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 4
1 Refer to the machine manuals and complete the first four columns of
the following table – for your guidance one entry has already been
completed
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2 Refer to the sales literature of the oil company and find the products
that equates to the manufacturer's recommendation and then enter
the details in the Alternative Lubricant column
SUMMARY
• To be or not to be that is the quest
• Friends, Romans, Countrymen, le
me your ears, I come to bury Caes
not to praise him.
* SUMMARY
• The evil that men do lives on after
them but the good is oft interred
their bones.
• Hark! What light through yonder
window breaks?
• What’s in a name? A rose by any
name would smell as sweet.
• There was a young man from Cape
Horn who wished he’d never been
This brings you to the end of the Maintenance Procedures unit. Well
done. You should now have a good understanding of the way machine
tool maintenance is classified and, in particular, you will know about
running maintenance – as a machinist, rather than a maintenance
engineer, it is the running maintenance that is most likely to be of concern
to you.
The review pack does, however, contain the answer to the self
assessment questions so you can make sure you got those right.
There are a number of units in this series which you can choose, but one
that is directly related to this Maintenance Procedures element is Unit on
Lubrication which deals with machine tool lubrication and lubrication
systems. If you haven't already completed this element, it would be most
appropriate if you made this your next task.
Good luck!
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 4 19
MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5
CONTENTS
Element Information 2
Objectives 2
Introduction 3
Lubrication Systems 7
Pressure Lubrication 11
Commissioning Procedures 30
Summary 32
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5
ELEMENT 5
MACHINE TOOL LUBRICATION SYSTEM,
CLUTCH AND BRAKE ADJUSTMENT,
COMMISSIONING
INFORMATION
This element has been written to support your practical training and in
particular to enhance your understanding of machine tool lubrication
systems and commissioning procedures to the level required for the City
and Guilds 228 course, Mechanical Production Competences Part 2. It is
also suitable for those studying for NVQ Level III Machining.
In order to complete the activities included in this element you will need
access to specific machine tools and maintenance manuals or handbooks
for these machines. Your tutor will arrange this for you.
OBJECTIVES
When you have completed this element you will be able to describe:
• how the cutting tool and workpiece are lubricated and/or cooled
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
This element is written to allow you to work at your own pace, but you
should allow approximately 8 hours for its completion.
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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this element which is one of a series dealing with machine
tool systems that have been written for the City and Guilds 228 Course in
Mechanical Engineering Competences, Part 2.
Finally, the element deals with commissioning procedures where you will
learn about the checks that must be made to ensure that a machine is
functioning correctly when it is first installed or after major maintenance
has been carried out.
Throughout the text you will come across on-the-spot questions to which
you may find or may not know the answers. If you know the answer to a
question, write it in the space provided. If you don't know the answer, you
will find it in the Review Pack.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5
LUBRICATION REQUIREMENTS OF
MACHINE TOOLS
Lubricants are required on machine tools for two purposes.
First, let's take a general look at lubricants and the lubrication of machine
tool elements.
Apart from power reduction, what other reasons are there for lubricating
moving parts?
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
VISCOSITY
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The first rule with machine tools is to use the lubricant or lubricants
recommended by the manufacturer or one of equivalent specification.
If you look in any machine tool handbook the chances are that the
lubricant recommended for a particular application will be defined by the
brand name given to it by the oil company; for example, Shell Vitrea 33 or
Mobil Vactra Medium. But the manufacturers of machine tools, whilst
recommending a particular brand, usually include the technical
specification so that users can choose an equivalent alternative if they
wish to do so.
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GREASE
Grease has a high viscosity and therefore does not readily penetrate into
locations where access is restricted. On the other hand, it stays in
position longer and often needs no further attention.
When grease is packed into ball and roller bearings it lubricates and
reduces friction. What other advantageous effect does it have?
Grease
SCREW-DOWN GREASER
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LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
Lubrication systems on machine tools vary from simple gravity-feed
devices to complex power-driven arrangements that deliver oil under
pressure.
You can find simple gravity feed lubrication devices on just about all
machine tools. Only the very expensive modern machines avoid the use
of them completely. Here are some of the devices you can expect to see.
Oil Cup
OIL CUP
The cup has to be constantly re-filled from an oil can, usually on a daily
basis.
Wick
Oil
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
Area
requiring
oil
The oil is transferred from the reservoir to the bearing surfaces via the
wick.
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What is the term used to describe the action that causes the oil to pass
along the wick?
The reservoir of the wick feed lubricator, like the oil cup, has to be
regularly replenished. But there is another problem common to both
types of lubricator.
Ask your tutor if you have identified the problem correctly. Then see if
you can find a gravity lubricator, either fitted to a machine or illustrated in
a textbook, that overcomes the problem.
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Oil is also commonly applied via a simple spring-loaded ball valve. When
the ball is depressed, oil can be pumped in using an oil can. These
lubricators are very common as you will see when you visit the workshop
to carry out Activity 1.
SPLASH LUBRICATION
SPLASH LUBRICATION
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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5
RING OILING
RING OILING
Note that the ring rotates due to the friction (in spite of the presence of oil)
that exists between the ring and the shaft.
With splash lubrication and ring oiling it is essential that the oil in the
reservoir is maintained at the correct level.
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PRESSURE LUBRICATION
Pressure lubrication is also referred to as 'force feed' lubrication. It
involves pumping the oil to the parts to be lubricated. The figure below
shows a complete system in diagrammatic form.
By-pass valve
To bearing support,
gears etc.
High pressure filter
Relief Valve
SUMP OIL
Low pressure filter
or strainer
DIAGRAMMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF PRESSURE LUBRICATING SYSTEM
reservoir
pump
relief Valve
filter
by-pass Valve
Jets of Oil
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
Oil flow
OIL DELIVERY
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TYPES OF PUMP
The pumps used for pressure feed systems on the vast majority of
modern machines are power driven, but you may still find machines still in
service with a manually operated piston pump, which the machine
operator has to remember to use from time to time, say every two hours
or so. This type of lubrication is commonly referred to as one-shot
lubrication.
Piston Movement
Oil
PISTON PUMP
OUTLET INLET
GEAR PUMP
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The figure below shows a vane pump. The pump includes an eccentric
rotor in which the vanes are fitted. As the rotor rotates, the vanes slide
outwards towards the inside surface of the pump body where they are
held in contact by centrifugal force. Oil enters via the inlet port to occupy
the space in front of each vane, and is impelled towards the outlet port.
As the space reduces due to the eccentricity of the rotor, the oil is forced
out of the outlet port.
Vane
Body
Inlet Port
Outlet Port
Rotor
VANE PUMP
The drive to power driven pumps is either via a belt or gearing, with the
initial source of power being the main drive motor of the machine. This
ensures that whenever the machine is running the machine elements are
being lubricated. Or does it?
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STRAINERS
Strainers, which are also referred to as low pressure filters, are similar
in effect to a tea strainer. They are essentially a mesh which prevents the
larger particles of debris from circulating. The oil passes through the
strainer by gravity feed and is not pumped through under pressure.
FILTERS
Filters, of which there are several different types, trap the finer particles of
debris by forcing the oil through an element, a mesh, or through a
restricted space that controls the size of particles that can pass.
Mesh Filters
The figure below shows the principle of a mesh filter. The mesh is made
up of finely woven wire held in a perforated support inside a metal casing.
(This is the type of filter used on motor vehicle engines).
Filtered oil
Filter element
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
MESH FILTER
When the filter becomes blocked, the complete unit has to be replaced.
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Edge Filter
The figure below shows an edge filter. The filter consists of spaced metal
discs.
Clean
Dirty Oil
Scraper Oil
EDGE FILTER
What feature of the filter do you think controls the size of the particles that
can be trapped?
Scrapers built into the filter unit enable the debris trapped at the edge of
the discs to be removed from time to time to keep the filter serviceable.
MAGNETIC PLUGS
Instead of filters, many machine tools have magnetic plugs. They are
particularly favoured on enclosed lubrication systems such as gearboxes
where usually the only debris is the metallic 'dust' that results from
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
general wear due to the contact of one moving part with another.
OIL FLOW
MAGNETIC PLUG
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The plugs screw into the gearbox housing, or some point in the system
where the plug will come into the oil flow. To clean them, all that is
required is to unscrew the plug, wipe off the metal particles and then
replace the plug again.
VALVES
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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5
ACTIVITY 1
For this activity you need to make an accompanied visit to the workshop
to see examples of the lubrication features you have read about.
When you are in the workshop, ask your tutor to show you the items
listed in the following table fitted to machine tools. Complete the table
adding the machine type(s) on which you see the item and briefly
describe the machine element being lubricated.
Oil Cup
Wick Feed
Lubricator
Sight Feed
Lubricator
Ball Valve
Oiler
Grease
Nipple
Strainer
Filter
Magnetic
Plug
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
Hand-operated
Pump
Power-driven
Rotary Pump
Sight Glass
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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5
ACTIVITY 2
For this activity you need access to the handbook of a selected machine
tool. Your tutor will arrange this for you.
Find the pages in the book that deal with lubrication and then complete
the table below to summarise how the headstock is lubricated.
Oil specification
Type of lubrication
Filter/strainer type
When you have completed the table, ask your tutor to look at your work to
see if your interpretation of the manufacturer's instructions are correct.
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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5
SELF ASSESSMENT 1
Which of the following statements are correct? Tick those that are right
and place a cross against those that are wrong.
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The best fluid from a cooling point of view is water, but its lubricating
properties are poor, especially in a metal cutting situation where the
pressure between the tool face and chip is very high. And of course there
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
TYPES OF CUTTING
soluble oil
straight cutting oil
chemical solutions
gases
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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5
Soluble Oil
The problem of lubrication and corrosion that prohibits the use of plain
water is solved by mixing it with a soluble oil. The result is the creamy
white mix which is commonly referred to as 'suds' or 'slurry'.
ACTIVITY 3
For this activity you will need access to the mixing instructions, provided
by the manufacturer, of the soluble oil used in your training workshop.
From this literature, and by talking to your tutor, find out the answers to
the following questions.
3 What is the soluble oil/water mix for use when turning mild steel
using a high speed steel (HSS) turning tool?
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
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Now visit the library and see if you can find out more information about
soluble oils and in particular the answers to the questions below.
A soluble oil and water mix is not suitable for all metal cutting situations.
Sometimes straight oils are used, particularly where the cutting conditions
are harsh such as when broaching or gear cutting. Straight oils can be
either mineral, vegetable or animal, and they are sometimes mixed
together to form special compounds.
Straight cutting oils often contain sulphur which enables them to withstand
the extreme cutting conditions even better. These oils are commonly
known as EP oils, EP standing for extreme pressure.
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
Chemical Solutions
Chemical solutions are cutting fluids that contain no oil so they are
generally more stable and have no tendency to foam. They have a high
water content, so their cooling properties are very good. On the other
hand, their resistance to pressure, and therefore their ability to lubricate
the surface between the face of the cutting tool and the chip, is not
particularly good and so they are not suitable for extreme cutting
conditions. They are also relatively expensive.
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Gases
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ACTIVITY 4
To complete this section dealing with cutting fluids, let's make sure you
have a general understanding of what cutting fluid, if any, you should use
in general machining situations when machining the materials listed
below. You will find the answers in textbooks in the library.
Brass
Bronze
Cast Iron
Copper
Duralumin
Magnesium Alloys
Nickel Alloys
Mild Steel
Polythene
PVC
Both types of system include a reservoir, pump and pipework, but with
coolant systems there is less emphasis on filtering and in many instances
there is nothing more than wire mesh strainers to remove swarf from the
cutting fluid.
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The figure below explains how settlement trays work. The design varies
from one machine to another, but basically the outlet of fluid from one
tray to the next is higher than the lowest point of the tray, so any
sediment that settles gets left behind. By having a series of trays, by the
time the cutting fluid leaves the last tray, practically all of the grinding dust
is left behind.
Fluid input
Overflow
Return
pipes
flow
Sump
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ACTIVITY 5
For this activity you again visit the workshop to look at a surface grinder to
look more closely at the system used to lubricate and cool the grinding
action.
The figure below shows the outline of a typical surface grinder. Using the
illustration as a basis, sketch in the system and name all the parts.
SURFACE GRINDER
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
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Flat surface joints, such as gearbox covers, are fitted with a gasket (or
flat seal) between the two mating surfaces. Where the surface to be
sealed is cylindrical, such as where rotating shafts protrude from
gearboxes, a ring seal (such as the type commonly known as an 'O' ring)
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
is fitted. Both of these types of seal, when fitted correctly, have a long life
and so contamination of lubricant with cutting fluid is not a major problem
in such instances.
It is where flat surfaces slide over each other, – for example, the table
slides on milling machines and the carriage and cross slides of lathes –
that cutting fluid penetration is more of a problem. In such instances, a
wiper made of felt or a material with similar properties, is incorporated at
the outer edge of the moving part. Next time you are in the workshop,
take a closer look at the wiper assemblies on lathe carriages and similar
situations to see how the problem is dealt with. Exactly how separation is
achieved varies from machine to machine, so the best thing to do is to
take a look at a few examples.
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SELF ASSESSMENT 2
Which of the following statements are correct? Tick those that are right
and place a cross against those that are wrong.
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MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS UNIT 04 – ELEMENT 5
The different types of clutches that are found on machine tools are:
multi-plate
rim
dog
The element on which you are now working requires you to be able to
adjust a clutch and/or a brake. Procedures vary according to the design
of the clutch or brake, so you will need help practical from your tutor.
When you have completed the adjustments, list the procedures in the two
boxes which follow.
Procedure:
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
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Procedure:
COMMISSIONING PROCEDURES
For the final part of this element we consider machine tool commissioning
procedures.
• Safety
© 1995 Further Education National Consortium Version 01
• Installation
• Function
SAFETY CHECKS
Safety checks are always completed first and they include checking:
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INSTALLATION CHECKS
OPERATION CHECKS
Operational checks involve running the machine under light load and
checking the following.
Finally, the machine should be run at sustained high load and the above
checks repeated.
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DOCUMENTATION
You have now reached the end of this element which has covered a more
diverse range of topics than is usually the case. Well done!
As you will know, the element you have completed is one of a series
written especially for the City and Guilds Mechanical Engineering
Competences Part 2 course and in particular for the main competence in
machine tool systems. If you already have a work programme, you
should continue with the next element. If not, ask your tutor which
element to attempt next.
MECHANICAL PRODUCTION C & G 2280 – MACHINING – MACHINE TOOL SYSTEMS – UNIT 4 – ELEMENT 5 32