The Structure and Functions of Blood

Note: Knowledge of the structure and function of blood and aspects of the heart and
vascular system are part of training in various therapies, (incl. e.g. Massage, Aromatherapy,
Acupuncture, Shiatsu, etc.). This page is intended to include detail suitable for introductory
courses, and some ITEC Diplomas.
This page is divided into the following sections:
1. The Functions of Blood
(generally - as opposed to the functions of particular components of
blood).
2. The Composition of Blood
(incl. the different types of blood cells and their properties and
functions).
3. Process of Oxygenation of Tissues due to Circulation of Blood
4. Types of Leucocytes (White Blood Cells)

1. Functions of Blood

Transports:
1.
Dissolved gases (e.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide);

Waste products of metabolism (e.g. water, urea);

Hormones;

Enzymes;

Nutrients (such as glucose, amino acids, micro-nutrients (vitamins &

minerals), fatty acids, glycerol);
Plasma proteins (associated with defence, such as blood-clotting and
anti-bodies);
Blood cells (incl. white blood cells 'leucocytes', and red blood cells
'erythrocytes').

Maintains Body Temperature

2.

Controls pH
3. The pH of blood must remain in the range 6.8 to 7.4, otherwise it begins
 to damage cells.

Removes toxins from the body

4. The kidneys filter all of the blood in the body (approx. 8 pints), 36 times
every 24 hours. Toxins removed from the blood by the kidneys leave the
body in the urine.
(Toxins also leave the body in the form of sweat.)

Regulation of Body Fluid Electrolytes

5. Excess salt is removed from the body in urine, which may contain
around 10g salt per day
(such as in the cases of people on western diets containing more salt
than the body requires).

2. Composition of Blood
Blood consists of many components (constituents).
These include:
Plasma
55
%
Components, i.e. 'Blood Cells'.
45
Of these, 99% are erythrocytes (red blood cells) and 1% are leucocytes
%
(white blood cells) and thrombocytes (blood platelets).
This is summarised in the following diagram, and described in further detail
below.
The summary chart above includes: erythrocytes (red blood cells), thrombocytes (blood platelets) and leucocytes (white blood cells). It
also includes categories of leucocytes: agranulocytes and granulocytes (also known as polymorphonucleocytes), which may also be
sub-divided into lymphocytes, monocytes, basophils, neutrophils and eosinophils.

The following table includes further general information about the constituents
of blood.

Structure Functions

Normal blood plasma is 90-92 The medium in which the

Plasma
% water. blood cells are transported
This is the straw-coloured around the body (by the
fluid in which the blood cells blood vessels) and are able
are suspended, and consists to operate effectively.
of:

Dissolved substances Helps to maintain optimum

including electrolytes such body temperature
as sodium, chlorine, throughout the organism.
potassiun, manganese, and
calcium ions; Helps to control the pH of
the blood and the body
Blood plasma proteins tissues, maintaining this
(albumin, globulin, within a range at which the
fibrinogen);
 Hormones. cells can thrive.

Helps to maintain an ideal

balance of electrolytes in
the blood and tissues of the
body.

Immature erythrocytes have Carry oxygen (process

Erythrocytes
a nucleus but mature described in more detail -
(Red blood erythrocytes have no below).
cells)
nucleus.

Haem
Erythrocytes have a
"prosthetic group" (meaning
"in addition to" - in this case,
in addition to the cell). The
active component of this
prosthetic group is Haem.
Haem relies on the
presence of iron (Fe).
Haem combines with
oxygen to form
oxyhaemoglobin:

... continued in section

below.
Erythrocytes are eventually
broken down by the spleen
into the blood pigments
bilinubin and bilviridin, and
iron. These components are
then transported by the
blood to the liver where the
iron is re-cycled for use by
new erythrocytes, and the
blood pigments form bile
salts. (Bile breaks down
 fats.)
Have a longevity of approx.
120 days.
There are approx. 4.5 - 5.8
million erythrocytes per
micro-litre of healthy blood
(though there are variations
between racial groups and
men/women).

There are different types of Major part of the immune

Leucocytes
leucocytes (described in system.
(White blood more detail - below),
cells) classified as:

Granular: e.g. Neutrophils,

Eosinophils, Basophils.

Agranular (do not contain

granules): e.g. Monocytes,
Lymphocytes.

Have a longevity of a few

hours to a few days (but
some can remain for many
years).
There are approx. 5,000 -
10,000 leucocytes per
micro-litre of blood.

Blood platelets are cell To facilitate blood clotting - the

Trombocytes
fragments; purpose of which is to prevent
(Platelets) loss of body fluids.
Disk-shaped;
Diameter 2-4 um
(1 micro-metre = 1 um =
0.000001m);
Have many granules but no
nucleus;
Have a longevity of approx.
5-9 days.
 There are approx. 150,000 -
400,000 platelets per micro-
litre of blood.

3. The Oxygenation of Blood

The oxygenation of blood is the function of the erythrocytes (red blood cells)
and takes place in the lungs.
The sequence of events of the blood becoming oxygenated (in the lungs) then
oxygenating the tissues (in the body) is as follows:

The Right Ventricle (of the heart) sends de-oxygenated blood to the lungs.

While in the lungs:

1. Carbon Dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the lungs, and
2. Oxygen (breathed into the lungs) combines with haemoglobin in the
blood as it passes through the lung capillaries.
Oxyhaemoglobin returns to the heart via the pulmonary vein and then
enters the systemic circulation via the aorta.
There is a low concentration of oxygen in the body tissues. They also
contain waste products of the metabolism (such as carbon dioxide).
Due to the high concentration of oxygen in the blood and the low
concentration of oxygen in the tissues,

... the high concentration of carbon dioxide in the tissues diffuses into the
blood. (95% of this carbon dioxide dissolves in the blood plasma.)
Blood returns from the tissues back to the heart via the superior vena
cava (from the upper-body) and the inferior vena cava (from the lower-
body)

4. Types of Leucocytes (White Blood Cells)

Lymphocytes: Monocytes: *Basophils: *Neutrophils: *Eosinophils:

Approx. 24% of Approx. 4% of 60-70% of leucocytes are 2-4% of leucocytes are 0.5-1% of leucocytes
leucocytes are leucocytes are basophils. neutrophils. are eosinophils.
lymphocytes. These monoocytes. These Diameter 10-12 micro- Diameter 10-12 micro- Diameter 8-10 micro-
produce anti-bodies are also known as metres. metres. metres.
and include: phagocytes.
They combat microbes
Phagocytosis. Destruction Combat the effects of Liberate heparin,
by the process of
* T-Cells of bacteria with lysozyme histamine in allergic histamine, and
phagocytosis.
and strong oxidants. reactions; seratonin in allergic
* B-Cells Phagocytize antigen- reactions,
antibody complexes; intensifying
Destroy some parasitic inflammatory
* Natural Killer Cells worms. response.

* It is only possible to observe the differences between these by staining

them.

Further notes about the types of leucocytes identified above:

Lymphocytes:
Phagocytosis:
The term "antigen" refers to something that
is not naturally present and 'should not be in
the body'. A phagocyte is a cell able to engulf and d
bacteria, protozoa, cells, cell debris, and o
T Cells (lymphocytes) are activated by the small particles. Phagocytes include many
thymus gland. leucocytes (white blood cells) and
macrophages - which play a major role in
B Cells (lymphocytes) are activated by other body's defence system.
lymphoid tissue. The 'B' indicates 'bone
marrow' cells. Phagocytosis is the engulfment and diges
bacteria and other anigens by phagocytes
Both T-cells and B-cells:
(1) destroy antigens, and This is illustrated below.
(2) produce 'memory cells' and anti-bodies.
Basophils:
An increased (higher than usual)
percentage of basophils in the blood may
indicate an inflammatory condition
somewhere in the body.
Neutrophils & Monocytes:
Neutrophils are the first leucocytes to
respond to bacterial invasion of the body.
They act by carrying out the process of
phagocytosis (see opposite), and also be
releasing enzymes - such as lysozyme, that
destroy certain bacteria.
Monocytes take longer to reach the site of
infection than neutrophils - but they
eventually arrive in much larger
numbers.Monocytes that migrate into
infected tissues develop into cells called
wandering macrophages that can
phagocytize many more microbes than
neutrophils are able to.
Monocytes also clear up cellular debris after
an infection.
Eosinophils:
An increased (higher than usual)
percentage of eosinophils in the blood may
indicate parasitic infection somewhere in
the body.
The white blood cells (WBC) act as your body's protectors, providing it immunity
against infections. Also called leukocytes, WBC are essentially of five types -
basophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes (T cells and B cells), monocytes and
neutrophils. The normal count of white blood cells in the body is 4,500-10,000 white
blood cells/mcL. The body needs to maintain this WBC count, to keep its immunity
intact. When WBCs fall below this range, the immune system of the body gets weak,
making it susceptible to infections. In case you are suffering from the problem, rest
assured that there are certain ways through which you raise the white blood cells. In
the following lines, we have provided information on how to increase the white blood
cell (WBC) count in the body, just for you.

Ways To Increase Your WBC Count

Have A Healthy Diet

There is nothing better than a healthy diet, to increase the count of white blood cells
in your body and reward you with an efficient immune system. Include lots of fresh
fruits and vegetables in your diet. The phytochemicals that lend fruits and vegetables
their rich colors help the body build a strong immune system as well. So, start eating
five to nine servings of fruits and vegetables on an everyday basis. In fact, you
should cover two-thirds of your plate with vegetables, fruit, whole grains, and beans,
and the rest with lean protein

Indulge In Regular Exercise

The importance of exercise can never ever be overemphasized in your life. Be it
getting rid of the excess fat, keeping blood sugar levels under check or increasing
the white blood cells in your body, indulging in a physical activity on a regular basis
always comes as one of the most effective remedies. Exercising for at least 30
minutes in a day will provide you with a lot of benefit. It does not mean that you can
only hit the gym or lift weights at home. Just be active for the said time, say by
walking climbing stairs, cycling, etc.

Switch Over To Green Tea

Regular consumption of green tea can also go a long way in increasing your WBC
count, by stimulating the production of white blood cells. All you have to do is replace
1-2 cups of tea/ coffee/ colas with decaffeinated green tea, on a daily basis. The tea
comprises of catechin, a type of antioxidant that contains a specific catechin -
epigallocatechin gallate or egcg (which gives it antigen-fighting abilities). Green tea
catechins have been known to help perk up lymphocyte responses and even boast
of anti-inflammatory effects.

Some More Ways

• Consult a doctor and take a multivitamin specific to your age and gender. Do
make sure that it includes a healthy amount of zinc.
• Include lots of lean protein sources in your diet. You should consume 0.8 to
1 gram of protein per kilogram of your body weight.
• Try not to let your total fat intake go beyond 30 percent of your daily calories.
At the same time, of the total fat intake, make sure that 5-10 percent comes
from saturated fats.
• Increase your consumption of friendly bacteria; say in the form of yogurt or
kefir drink. Such bacteria stimulate the immunity cells in your gastrointestinal
tract.

Instructions
Things You'll Need:
• Green tea
• Multivitamin
1. 1
Balance every meal for a healthy diet. Diet is the single most important
aspect to keeping your body healthy. White blood cells are produced and
function at their peak when you fill your plate 2/3 full of vegetables, beans
and whole grains. The rest should be lean meat or fish.
2. 2
Eat the right vegetables. Certain varieties of vegetables help increase
white blood cells more than others. These include broccoli, cauliflower,
spinach, pumpkin and carrots.
 3. 3
Exercise every day for at least 30 minutes. You don't have to do a
physical workout, but make sure you keep your body active for 30
minutes. That could mean gardening or walking around a mall. Keep your
blood pumping and your muscles working to increase white blood cells.
4. 4
Drink green tea. Green tea helps stimulate the production of white blood
cells. Decaffeinated green tea is better for your body, and 1 or 2 cups a
day should do the trick.
5. 5
Take a multivitamin specific to your age and gender. You don't have to
take a pharmacy full of supplements to improve your white blood cell
count. A simple multivitamin formulated for you will help substantially.
Zinc is important, so make sure it includes a healthy amount of zinc.

Read more: How to Increase White Blood Cells | eHow.com

http://www.ehow.com/how_5139714_increase-white-blood-
cells.html#ixzz1G7aKCAuZ

Instructions
Things You'll Need:
• Green tea
• Multivitamin
1. 1
Balance every meal for a healthy diet. Diet is the single most important
aspect to keeping your body healthy. White blood cells are produced and
function at their peak when you fill your plate 2/3 full of vegetables, beans
and whole grains. The rest should be lean meat or fish.
2. 2
Eat the right vegetables. Certain varieties of vegetables help increase
white blood cells more than others. These include broccoli, cauliflower,
spinach, pumpkin and carrots.
3. 3
Exercise every day for at least 30 minutes. You don't have to do a
physical workout, but make sure you keep your body active for 30
minutes. That could mean gardening or walking around a mall. Keep your
blood pumping and your muscles working to increase white blood cells.
4. 4
 Drink green tea. Green tea helps stimulate the production of white blood
cells. Decaffeinated green tea is better for your body, and 1 or 2 cups a
day should do the trick.
5. 5
Take a multivitamin specific to your age and gender. You don't have to
take a pharmacy full of supplements to improve your white blood cell
count. A simple multivitamin formulated for you will help substantially.
Zinc is important, so make sure it includes a healthy amount of zinc.

Read more: How to Increase White Blood Cells | eHow.com

http://www.ehow.com/how_5139714_increase-white-blood-
cells.html#ixzz1G7aKCAuZ