Back Analysis and Performance of Block A Long Hole Open Stopes –

Kanowna Belle Gold Mine

P.M. Cepuritis & E. Villaescusa
WA School of Mines, Kalgoorlie, Australia
R. Lachenicht
Barrick Gold Australia, Kalgoorlie, Australia

ABSTRACT: Common back analysis techniques, such as empirical stability graph methods, are limited in
their ability to identify and quantify the relative contributions of the various factors that influence excavation
performance. A comprehensive back analysis of existing stoping operations was deemed necessary to criti-
cally assess key contributing factors to existing and future performance of open stoping at Kanowna Belle,
such as drill and blast, development undercutting, induced stress rock mass damage, rock mass quality, and
large scale geological features. The back analysis strategy firstly adopted targeting earlier, shallower, primary-
secondary stoping blocks to potentially minimise the contribution of the effects of stress induced rock mass
damage on stoping performance. In this regard, Block A stopes were chosen for this critical review. Perform-
ance of Block A stopes was assessed through analysis of post extraction geometric data, utilising the results of
CMS surveys. The studies undertaken highlight the impact of various stress-path dependent damage mecha-
nisms, in situ rock mass quality and the influence of stope-scale geological structure on open stope perform-
ance.

1 INTRODUCTION rectly beneath an existing open pit to depths of

Common back analysis techniques, such as empiri-
cal stability graph methods, are limited in their abil-
ity to identify and quantify the relative contributions
of the various factors that influence excavation per-
formance, such as; stope geometry, development lo-
cation and undercutting, rock mass characteristics, in
situ and induced stresses, large scale geological
structures, rock reinforcement, drill and blast proc-
esses and time dependency (Clark and Pakalnis,
1997). The purpose of this paper is to report on an
initial back analysis study of Kanowna Belle Gold
Mine Block A long-hole open stopes, utilising 3-
dimensional linear elastic numerical modelling, to-
gether with models of rock mass quality and large-
scale geological structures.
1.1 Kanowna Belle Underground Operations
Underground operations at Kanowna Belle Gold
Mine (KBGM) are situated beneath the Kanowna
Belle Open Pit, with large-scale long hole operations
commencing in 1998. Current production stopes at
Kanowna Belle are being mined at depths in excess
of 1200m in challenging conditions, which will only
increase as operations continue to head deeper. The
Block A stopes of Kanowna Belle consist of large
primary-secondary sub-level open stopes, mined di-
around 400m below surface. Mining was under-
taken using using transverse longhole open stopes, in
a primary/secondary extraction sequence in conjunc-
tion with cemented fill. The stopes are two lift high
(60m), and 15m and 20m along strike for the pri-
mary and secondary stopes respectively. The stopes
have widths varying from 10m to 35m and are all
filled with paste fill. Cable reinforcement was
mainly restricted to “rib-roc” type patterns, installed
from sub-levels into the hangingwalls.
2 GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The geometry of the Kanowna Belle deposit is
shown in section and plan in Figure 1. The Kanowna
Belle deposit is hosted by sedimentary volcanoclas-
tic and conglomeratic rocks, which are separated
into hangingwall and footwall sequences by a major,
steeply SSE dipping zone of structural disruption.
This structure has localised emplacement of the Ka-
nowna Belle porphyry, which hosts at least 70% of
known mineralisation. The main orebody (Lowes
Shoot) has a strike length of 500m, width of 5m to
50m, and down-plunge extent greater than 1250m
and is dominated by the presence of the Fitzroy
Fault. The position of this structure relative to the
mining hangingwall and footwall changes with depth
 50000mN
N

49600mN
σ3 041/80
100
Block A
σ2 228/17 σ1 124/06
10000mRL 10000mRL 80

Principal Stress (MPa)

Block B
Fitzroy Fault
60

Block C 40

9600mRL 9600mRL

20
Block D

0
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Depth (m)
49600mN

50000mN

Block E σ1 = 0.0706 Depth(m) + 4.65 (r2 = 0.92)

9200mRL 9200mRL
σ2 = 0.0416 Depth(m) + 5.82 (r2 = 0.77)
σ3 = 0.0366 Depth(m) – 3.58 (r2 = 0.96)
18000mE

20000mE

20200mE

Figure 2. In-situ stress regime for Kanowna Belle Gold Mine

(from Villaescusa et al, 2003)
50000mN 50000mN

3.2 Ubiquitous Discontinuity Data

Fitzroy Fault The generalised discontinuity pattern for Block A
has been derived from underground and open pit line
traverse mapping and is shown in Figure 3. The
mapping indicates that there are three main orienta-
tions, with a slight anisotropy sub-parallel to the
49800mN 49800mN Fitzroy Fault.

Grave Dam Grit Mineralisation 3.3 Rock Mass Quality

Porphyry Felsics
Golden Valley Conglomerate
Figure 1. Cross-section (top) and plan at 10090mRL (bottom)
of generalised geology of Kanowna Belle Gold Mine.
and has a significant impact on the variability of
ground conditions.
3 ROCK MASS MODEL
3.1 In-situ stress
The in situ stress at Kanowna Belle has been esti-
mated using the conventional CSIRO Hollow Inclu-
sion (HI cell) methodology. A number of stress
measurements have been carried out at a variety of
locations and depths. A summary of the in-situ stress
conditions for Kanowna Belle Gold Mine (Villaes-
cusa et al, 2003) is shown in Figure 2.
Intact uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) values
for the hangingwall, ore and footwall rock types in
Block A were obtained from laboratory testing. The
results show that the hangingwall has the highest in-
tact rock strength (mean approx. 150MPa), with the
footwall and the orebody showing mean intact rock
strengths around130MPa, however displaying higher
variability.
Rock mass quality for the Block A stopes was
also assessed by utilising the discontinuity linear fre-
quency (DLF) data from diamond drill hole logging.
Drilling directions were reasonably consistent, being
sub-normal to the major discontinuity set (see Figure
3), thereby reducing bias for this orientation. The
DLF model confirmed that the main control on rock
mass quality was large-scale discontinuities, princi-
pally the Fitzroy Fault. Rock mass quality was
 N
Fisher
Concentrations
>0.5%
>1.75%
>4%
491 Poles
Fisher
Concentrations
>0%
>3%
>6%
>9%
51006 Poles
Figure 3. Contoured lower hemisphere projections showing
poles to discontinuities (top) and trend and plunge of drilling
directions (bottom) relative to mine grid north
also assessed utilising the Geological Strength Index
(GSI) (Hoek, 1994). A mean GSI of around 75 was
estimated for rock masses remote from major dis-
continuities. Rock mass strength was initially esti-
mated utilising the Hoek-Brown failure criteria
(Hoek and Brown, 1998) ;
σ 1 = σ 3 + mbσ 3σ c + sσ c
2
(1)
where mb and s are Hoek-Brown material con-
stants, σc = unconfined compressive strength for in-
tact rock. The mb and s parameters were estimated
from GSI (Hoek, 1994).The mean unconfined rock
mass strength was initially estimated to be around
20MPa.
3.4 Large Scale Structures
Large-scale structures are defined in this paper as
significant geological features (i.e. discontinuities)
that have the ability to influence the stability of ex-
cavations, such as open stopes. In this regard, large-
scale structures are those geological features that
have been mapped and interpreted over at least one
mine level interval. For sub-vertical structures, this
would indicate dip continuities in excess of 25m.
The major factors for assessing whether a large-
scale feature will affect the performance of an exca-
vation include;
− Proximity
Figure 4. Schematic showing some intuitive over-break scenar-
ios dependant on proximity, intersection position and orienta-
tion of large- scale structures and local rock mass conditions.
− Orientation
− Intersection
− Strength and constitutive properties
− Control on local rock mass quality
A schematic on some likely over-break scenarios,
based on an intuitive assessment, involving large
scale structures is shown in Figure 4. Large-scale
structures where interpreted from geological map-
ping undertaken on mine levels and declines in and
around Block A. The mapping, conducted by KBGM
mine staff, was conducted mainly on backs, with the
3-dimensional trace of each geological structure sub-
sequently determined. Geological information, such
as dip, dip direction and feature type, where recorded
during mapping. To assist in interpreting structures
between levels, each structure was classified by type
(i.e. fault, shear, mineralised or non-mineralised
vein, contact, etc) and by its terminations;
− both unknown
− structure-unknown
− rock-unknown
− structure-structure
− structure-rock
− rock-rock
Termination type was used to assist in determin-
ing the persistent primary features from impersistent
and/or secondary features. To further assist in inter-
pretation, the dip and dip direction data where used
to generate “pseudo-fact” surfaces of each structure.
This process involves generating a small 3-
dimensional surface from each trace, with the strike
restricted by the mapped trace and the dip extension
 both unknown
structure-unknown
rock-unknown
structure-structure
structure-rock
rock-rock
Figure 5. Perspective of 10075mRL (+/- 15mRL window) look-
ing north-east, showing development of a large-scale structural
model, utilising termination-classified mapped traces (top),
“pseudo-fact” models (middle) and final interpretation (bot-
tom).
projected a limited distance, typically less 5m. This
enables 3-dimensional visualisation of be linked by
interpolation between levels utilising 3-dimensional
geological modelling software. A summary of the
process is shown in Figure 5.
After constructing the model of large-scale struc-
tures, the model was validated against the termina-
tion classifications. This process ensures that the
modelled structures adhere to the geological hierar-
40
Discontinuity linear frequency (m )
-1
30
20
10
A
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Distance to modelled structure (m)
l
Figure 6. Plot of discontinuity linear frequency (DLF) versus
distance to modelled large-scale structure, showing areas of
low DLF potentially indicating “healed” structures or over-
extrapolation (region indicated by circled A) and high DLF ar-
eas indicating “unknown” potential structures (circled B)
chy. In addition, the 3-dimensional DLF model was
used as a tool to validate the position, location and
extents of modelled large-scale structures. It is as-
sumed that high DLF will exist in close proximity to
large-scale structures and decreases exponentially
with distance to major structures.
Figure 6 shows DLF plotted against distance to
modelled structures which can be used to highlight
structures that have low DLF, potentially have poor
control on local DLF, or structures that have poten-
tially been over extrapolated (region marked by cir-
cled A in Figure 6). More importantly, this plot can
also indicate potential additional structures indicated
by high DLF away from modelled structures. Fur-
thermore, plots for each individual structure can be
created, providing for structure specific DLF-
Distance characteristics.
4 NUMERICAL MODELLING
Stress-based back analysis of Block A stopes was
undertaken utilising the 3-dimensional linear elastic
numerical modelling code Map3D (Mine Modelling,
2000). The main purpose of the numerical modelling
was to identify the effects of induced stress on stop-
ing performance (ie principally over-break). The
planned outcome of the numerical modelling was to
estimate various stress levels that define “damage
levels” within the rock mass that correspond to par- “Un-yielded” “Yielded” “Removed”
ticular rock mass behaviour that directly affects “Un-removed” rock mass outside
rock mass outside ? planned void
stope performance. Large-scale structures were not planned void
explicitly incorporated in the model.
Amount of “Yielded”
rock mass unknown “Un-yielded”
with CMS data “Un-removed”
4.1 Mine Geometry rock mass inside
The mine geometry was constructed within the planned void
“Yielded”
Map3D modelling utilising the mine design shapes “Un-removed” “Yielded”
provide by Kanowna Belle Gold Mine. The shapes rock mass inside “Removed”
where further sub-divided to more accurately reflect planned void rock mass inside
the sub-level mining sequence. The geometry and planned void
stope sequence for Block A is shown in Figure 7.
“Yielded”
Surface at 10360mRL Open Pit Block A “Un-removed”
Primaries Un-yielded / Yielded boundary (EDZ) rock mass outside
Jan ’98 - Dec ‘99 Un-removed / Removed boundary planned void
Secondaries Inside / Outside planned void boundary
10 Jan ’00 - Mar ’01
6 Figure 8. Schematic showing CMS profile with respect to pos-
1 4 2
5 sible yielded rock mass conditions and planned void geometry.
9 13 3 BLOCK A
8 12 7
11
10000mRL Wiles (2001) suggested that rock mass damage
can be related to the relative level of linear elastic
Figure 7. Schematic longitudinal section showing stoping se- over-stressing (Figure 9a). These various stress lev-
quence for Block A (modified from Cepuritis and Villaescusa, els are dependant on site-specific parameters and can
2006). be correlated using observed response and the results
from numerical modelling.
This model anticipates that below a site specific
4.2 Assumptions damage threshold the response is elastic and usually
The principal assumption of the numerical model- very little damage can be observed. As the level of
ling back analysis is that the CMS data points repre- overstressing is increased, the observed damage (i.e.
sent points in the rock mass where stress induced irrecoverable strain) should increase, leading to a
failure has occurred as a direct result of induced zone of potential overbreak (POB). Increased over-
stresses exceeding the local rock mass strength, stressing beyond this level may cause stress driven
failures and eventually the rock mass may become
which in turn, is manifested as over-break at this lo- unsupportable. Wiles (2001) proposed that this
cation. Unfortunately, this assumption may lead to methodology could be incorporated into a compre-
significant variability in back analysis results, as the hensive back analysis technique to assist in quantita-
CMS profile does not necessarily define the excava- tive mine design (Figure 9b).
tion damage zone (EDZ) or yield zone of rock mass The damage model described above assumes that
(see Figure 8). CMS points could actually represent the level of overstressing is a direct cause of mono-
“yielded” yet “un-removed” rock mass, where the tonic increase in σ1, whilst confinement is kept con-
local shape and span may arch and hold up yielded stant. The stress path experienced by the rock mass
material. This also depends on the geometry (i.e. ori- can vary (see Figure 9c), with “excess stress” gener-
entation, size and shape) and intensity of existing ated by either;
− A loss of confinement, for example a stope wall
and created discontinuities (Villaescusa et al, 2003).
or back (-∆σ3),
In this case, linear elastic modelling may over- − An increase in load, for example a pillar (+∆σ1),
estimate the stress state at failure. In addition, or
“yielding” of the rock mass may not be solely attrib- − A combination of both, typical of an abutment
uted to stress-induced rock mass damage, yet may be failure (+∆τmax)
caused by other influences such as poor drill and Depending on the loading conditions (i.e. loading
blast practices. stiffness), and the stress path to failure, the amount
and type of observed damage can be significantly
different (Board, 2000). The damage criteria must
4.3 Linear Elastic Damage Models therefore be related, or even classified, to the stress
Linear elastic models for stress related damage, and path observed. A limitation of the linear elastic dam-
their impact on excavation and performance have age model is that there is limited provision for dif-
been proposed by numerous authors (Baczynski ferent damage mechanisms based on the stress path.
1974, Martin 1997, Diederichs et al 2004).
4.4 Reliability of Numerical Back Analysis of Stope σ
? C V1= 40.9% ?
σ CV1= 45.4% σ?
C V3= 183.9% CV3= 224.4%
Walls
x x x
In the numerical back analysis of pillars, the degree σ
? CV1= 44.2%
Point used in pillar CV3= 176.3%
of over-stressing can generally be calibrated to the back analysis
severity of rock mass behaviour (Wiles, 2005). In CV1= 69.3%
CV1= 85.9% CV3= 111.4%
addition, stress values used for pillar back analysis CV3= 181.4% ?
σ
are usually taken at the mid-point (i.e. centre of the CV1= 65.3%
pillar core), where the local, or mean, pillar stress CV3= 117.3% σ?
?σ
x
does not vary significantly. In contrast, back analy- CV1= 1.4%
ses conducted on stope wall surfaces potentially will x C V3= 7.9%
x
contain CMS data points from all regions close to Figure 10. Example 2D linear elastic stress analysis, with
the excavation wall where stress conditions can vary graphs of induced stresses versus distance, showing coefficient
quite significantly, affecting the reliability of results. of variation for σ1 (CV1) and σ3 (CV3) for various CMS profiles.
This is a significant aspect to remember when back
analysing open stope walls. − Significant rock mass strength heterogeneity
across the study area.
Unsupportable
σ - driven failure
σ1 σ1 Unsupportable
POB 5 RESULTS

The numerical modelling exercise primarily focus-

sed on primary stopes, as such it was assumed that
Damage POB σ - driven there was minimal stress induced damage prior to
failure
stope excavation and that the stress path in the im-
mediate vicinity of the stopes was attributable to the
σ3 - Confinement ε1 primary stope mining sequence. In order to try to
a)
improve reliability and to study the effects of rock
Collapse Unstable mass heterogeneity, the local DLF and distance to
σ1 Stable σ1
∆σ3 major structure were interpolated onto each CMS
∆ττ max data point. The CMS-numerical modelling database
∆σ1 was then interrogated and divided into two main data
Increasing
damage
sets;
Undamaged
− points considered to be located in massive to
moderately jointed rock, and remote from poten-
tial large scale discontinuities (DLF<7 and dis-
σ3 σ3 tance to modelled structures >5m),
b) c) − points representing highly fractured rock mass,
Figure 9. a) Linear elastic stress damage model (after Wiles, potentially influenced by large-scale structures
2001) for monotonically increasing stresses, together with as- (DLF>7 and distance to modelled structures <5m)
sumed strain damage, b) generalised damage model (after Plots of σ1 versus σ3 were created for both data
Wiles, 2001) and c) stress path over-stressing. sets, contoured by depth of over-break, and are
shown in Figures 11 and 12. It should be noted that
As a demonstration of this, results from 2- the depth of over-break contours should not be used
dimensional boundary element modelling of pillars as a reliable quantitative measure of stope perform-
(W:H ratio of 1:0.75, K-ratio of 2) are shown in Fig- ance, as they are influenced by the scale, orientation
ure 10. Graphs of the induced stresses versus dis- and shape of the individual stope wall surfaces ana-
tance along a sampling line are shown for a variety lysed.
of sampling regimes. It can be seen that, depending In addition to depth of over-break contours, the
on the sampling regime (i.e. where CMS profile data sets were further sub-divided in to regions
lies), there is significant variability in both σ1 and σ3 based on the stress-path experienced. The basis for
values, with points closer to the abutments showing this simple classification is shown in Figure 13.
more variability. For massive to moderately jointed rock masses
Wiles (2005) also suggested that some additional (Figure 11), the onset of increased over-break shows
sources of variability in back analysis may include, a good correlation with the estimated Hoek-Brown
but not limited to; strength envelop. More significantly, depth of over-
− Incorrect pre-mining stress state orientation or break increases with over-stressing, and progres-
stress ratio assumptions, sively increases as the loading path changes from
− Geometric construction errors, monotonic loading, shear through to low confine-
− Chaotic rock mass behaviour, ment conditions. It can also be seen that there is a
significant change in rock mass behaviour under 80
monotonic
unloading conditions, where increases in fall-off oc- loading
high
curs, particularly close to the stope scale “rock confinement
mass” damage initiation criteria, which was found to 70 sub-
be approximated by; perpendicular
to wall surface
60
σ 1 = 0.33σ cm + 1.5σ 3 (2) sub-parallel to
shear wall surface
where σcm = unconfined rock mass strength. The 50

σ1 (MPa)
value of σcm agrees well with the estimated rock
mass compressive strength as described in Section
40
3.3. This behaviour is similar to observed brittle low σ1-σ3=25MPa
rock mass failure mechanisms in smaller scale hard confinement
rock excavations under low confinement conditions 30
<2.5m
(Martin 1997, Martin and Maybee 2000).
2.5 – 3.0m
For highly fractured rock masses close to large- 3.0 – 3.5m
20
scale structures (Figure 12), the maximum depth of 3.5 – 4.0m
over-break is similar to Figure 11, however, the 4.0 – 4.5m
over-break generally occurs at lower stress levels, 10 4.5 – 5.0m
and the extent of over-break occurs over a wider unloading
range of stress conditions. It is interesting to note
that over-break occurs at similar stress-levels in the 0
-20 -10 10 20 30
“unloading” region as displayed in Figure 10, how- σ3 (MPa)
ever the observed depths of over-break are generally
lower. Figure 12. Plot of s1 versus s3 for rock mass conditions where
the DLF >7 and distance to a modelled structure <5m, showing
contours of over-break and regions indicating major structure
orientation relative to stope wall surface (dashed lines).
80 estimated
rock mass
strength
σ1
70 monotonic
monotonic -15° 15°
loading high shear
confinement -45°
60
confined

∆σ1,∆σ3
50 shear low
σ1 (MPa)

rock mass confinement In situ stress

damage
40 -90°
initiation
unloading
30 low -180°
<2.5m
confinement
2.5 – 3.0m
20 3.0 – 3.5m σ3
3.5 – 4.0m Figure 13. Schematic for simple stress-path classification used
4.0 – 4.5m in the back analysis.
10 unloading 4.5 – 5.0m
The main increase in over-break for highly frac-
tured rock masses appears to begin at a constant
-20 -10 0 10 20 30
stress level of around σ1-σ3=25MPa (at moderate
σ3 (MPa) levels of confinement, where σ3 > 2.5MPa). In addi-
tion, there appears to be another increase in over-
Figure 11. Plot of σ1 versus σ3 for massive to moderately
jointed rock, showing contours of over-break and loading con- break at around σ1-σ3=42MPa.
ditions (thin dashed lines), theoretical Hoek-Brown rock mass A review of the relationship between the orienta-
strength (thick solid line) and estimated rock mass damage ini- tion of the large-scale structures and the stope sur-
tiation criteria (thick dashed line). faces indicates that the majority of over-break lo-
cated immediately the above the first stress level (σ1-
σ3=25MPa) occurs where the major structural orien-
tation (large-scale) is largely sub-parallel to the stope
surface. The second zone of increased over-break
(σ1-σ3=42MPa) appears to coincide with major
structural orientations that are sub-perpendicular to
the stope wall surfaces. This may indicate that over-
break here is characterised by failure of small zones
of poor rock mass quality at moderately low shear
stresses (compared to massive to moderately jointed
rock). Figure 12 indicates that stopes with poor rock
mass conditions and/or are in close proximity to a
large-scale structure, generally are observed to have
more wide-spread over-break characteristics. The ac-
tual shape and extent of over-break will of course, be
dependent on orientation of both the surface and
structure, proximity to surface, position of intersec-
tion and strength characteristics of the structure and
local rock mass conditions (see Figure 4).
6 CONCLUSIONS
The work undertaken in this study has highlighted
the beneficial use of termination characteristics in
the interpretation and modelling of 3-dimensional
models of large-scale geologic structures. The study
also highlights the importance of combined utilisa-
tion of termination and DLF-Distance characteristics
for validating structural models.
While the numerical modelling exercise did not
explicitly model large–scale structures (e.g. as non-
linear displacement discontinuities), the back analy-
sis method employed did show that;
− over-break levels occur at different stress levels
for different rock mass qualities based on DLF-
distance characteristics,
− stress damage levels can potentially be used to
ascertain an increase in the depth of over-break
depending on DLF-distance characteristics,
− Large-scale structures and surrounding poor rock
mass conditions contributed to the majority of
over-break, however, the influence of large-scale
structures on stope performance are still probably
best assessed using non-linear displacement dis-
continuity methods, and
− For both massive to moderately jointed and for
highly fractured rock masses, the amount and dis-
tribution of over-break below 2.5m is highly un-
predictable and is potentially attributable to small
scale structural failures, blast induced damage
and local fall-off around development.
Further work may include applying a reliability
based approach (Wiles, 2005) to depth of over-break
for various rock mass conditions, and extending this
to prediction, using stress-damage levels and DLF-
distance based volumetric queries to highlight poten-
tial over-break zones (Cepuritis and Villaescusa,
2006).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to thank Kanowna Belle Gold Mine, Bar-
rick Australia, for kindly providing us with their
CMS and mine geology data and for allowing us to
publish this paper. We would also like to acknowl-
edge Zaparo Pty Ltd for allowing the use of their
Leapfrog3D software to assist in this work.
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