1 Patricia Hernandez 3B

Andean Civilizations, 200-1500

Cultural Response to Environmental Change

-People living in high mountain valleys and on the dry coastal plain were able to overcome the challenges
posed by effective organization of human labor
-Collective achievements were accomplished with the recordkeeping system called khipus, system of knotted
colored cords, used to aid administration and record population counts and tribute obligations
-Large scale drainage and irrigation works and the terracing of hillsides control erosion and provide additional
farmland led to an increase in agricultural production.
-They undertook road building, urban construction, and even textile production collectively
-Sharing of responsibilities began at household
-Ayllu—provided the foundation for Andean achievement
 Members held land communally
 Members claimed descent from a common ancestor, but not necessarily related
 Thought of each others as siblings and were obligated to help each other in tasks that required
more labor than a single household could provide
 Reciprocal obligations provided the model for the organization of labor and the distribution of good at
every level of Andean society
 Ayllu members were expected to provide labor and goods to their hereditary chief
-Mit’a required members of ayllus to work the fields and care for the herds of llamas and alpacas owned by
religious establishments, the royal court, and the aristocracy
 Laborers built and maintained roads, bridges, temples, palaces, and large irrigation and drainage
projects
 Produced textiles and goods essential to ritual life such as beer made from maize and coca (dried
leaves chewed as a stimulant and now used as source of cocaine)
-Work was divided along gender lines, but work of men and women was interdependent
 Hunting, military service, and government were reserved for men
 Women had numerous responsibilities in textile production, agriculture and home
-Ayllu was tied to Andean system of production and exchange
-Each community sought to control a variety of environments so as to guarantee access to essential goods
 Coastal regions produced maize, fish and cotton
 Mountain valleys contributed quinoa (local grain) as well as potatoes and other tubers
 Higher elevation contributed the wool and meat of llamas and alpacas
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 Amazonian region provided coca and fruits

-Ayllus sent out colonist to exploit the resources of these ecological niches
-colonists remained linked to their natural region and kin group by marriage and ritual
-Historian refer to the system of controlled exchange across ecological boundaries as a vertical integration, or
vertically
-Historical periodization of Andean history is similar to Mesoamerica.
 Both regions had highly integrated political and economic systems long before 1500
 Pace of agricultural development, urbanization, and state formation in the Andes also similar to that of
Mesoamerica
-However, in the Andean region unique environmental challenges led to distinctive highland and coastal
cultures with separate periodizations
-Here, more that in Mesoamerica, geography influenced regional cultural integrations and state formation

Moche and Chimu

After collapse of Chavin, the Moche developed cultural and political tools that allowed them to dominate the
north coastal region of Peru
-They didn’t establish a formal empire or created unified political structures
-The most powerful of urban centers, such as Cerro Blanco, did establish hegemony over smaller towns and
villages
-There is also evidence that the Moche extended their political and economic control over their neighbors
militarily
-Archeological evidence shows that they cultivated maize, quinoa, beans, sweet potatoes, and manioc with the
help of massive irrigation works
-At higher elevations they produced coca, used ritually.
-Archeological excavations reveal the existence of complex networks of canals and aqueducts that connected
fields with water sources as far as 75 miles
-These hydraulic works were maintained by mit’a labor imposed on Moche commoners and on subject
peoples
-Maintained large herds of llamas and alpacas to transport goods across the region’s difficult terrain
-Wool, along with cotton provided by farmers, provided raw material for thriving Moche textile production
-Meat was important part of their diet
-Existence of mural and decorated ceramics suggests that society was highly stratified and theocratic
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-The need to organize large numbers of laborers to construct and maintain the irrigation system helped
promote class divisions
-Wealth and power was concentrate, along with political control, in the hands of priests and military leaders
-Hierarchy was further reinforced by the military conquest of neighboring regions
-Residences of the elite were built atop large platforms at Moche ceremonial centers, literally lived above
commoners
-Moche rulers and other members of the elite wore tall headdresses
-They used gold and gold allow jewelry to mark their social position
-Social distinctions were also reflected in burial practices
-Found in the tomb of a warrior-priest, was a rich treasure including gold, silver, copper jewelry, textiles,
feather ornaments sand shells, also buried with him were two women and three men, each retainer had one
foot amputated to ensure his of her continued subservience and dependence in the afterlife
-Commoners devoted their life to subsistence farming and to the payment of labor dues owed to their ayllu
and to the elite
-Men and women were involved in agriculture, care of llama herds, and on the household economy
-They lived with their families in one-room buildings clustered in the outlying areas of cities and in
surrounding agricultural zones
-The high quality of textiles, ceramics, and metallurgy indicates the presence of numerous skilled artisans
-Craftsmen produced highly individualized portrait vases
-Ceramics were also decorated with line drawings representing myths and rituals
-The most original of Moche ceramic vessels were decorated with explicit sexual acts
-Also accomplished metal smiths, producing beautiful gold and silver objects devoted to religious and
decorative functions or to elite adornment
-Metallurgy served more practical ends as well: artisans produced a range of heavy copper and copper alloy
tools for agricultural and military purposes
-No written sources=no detailed history can be written
-The archeological record makes clear that the rapid decline of the major centers coincided with a succession
of natural disasters in the 6th century and with the rise of new military and with the rise of a new military
power in the Andean highlands
-When an earthquake altered the course of the Moche River, major flooding damaged the urban centers
 Also altered by long-term climate changes
-During the 6th century a 30 year period of drought expanded the area of coastal dunes, and powerful dunes,
and powerful winds pushed sand onto fragile agricultural lands, overwhelming the irrigation system
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 As the land dried, periodic heavy rains caused erosion that damage fields and weakened the economy
that had sustained ceremonial and residential centers
 Succession of disasters undermined the authority of religious and political leaders, whose privileges
were based on their ability to control natural forces through rituals
-Despite the massive efforts to keep the irrigation canals open and the construction of new urban centers in
less vulnerable valleys to the north, Moche civilization never recovered
-The Wari— contributed to the disappearance of the Moche by putting pressure on trade routes that linked the
coastal region with the highlands
-At the ends of the Moche period— the Chimu developed a new and more powerful coastal civ.
 Chan Chan, capital of Chimu empire, was constructed around 800 C.D. near the earlier Moche cultural
center
 After 1200 C.E. Chimu began period of aggressive military expansion
 Controlled 625 miles of the Peruvian coast
-Within Chan Chan was a series of walled compounds, each one containing a burial pyramid
 Scholars believe that each ruler built his own compound and was buried within it upon his death
 Sacrifices and rich grave goods accompanied each royal burial
-Rulers separated themselves from the masses of society by their consumption of rare and beautiful textiles,
ceramics, and precious metals as a way of suggesting the approval of the gods
-Chimu dynasty practiced split inheritance: goods and lands of the deceased ruler went to secondary heirs or
for religious sacrifices
 The royal heir who inherited the throne was forced to construct his own residence compound and
then undertake new conquests to fund his household
 After in the Inca conquered the northern coast in 1465, they borrowed from the rich rituals and court
customs of Chimu

Tiwanaku and Wari

Initial occupation may have occurred as early as 400 B.C.E., but significant urbanization began only after 200
C. E.
-Expansion depended on the adoption of technologies that increased agricultural productivity
-Modern excavations provide the outline of vast drainage that reclaimed nearly 200,000 acres of rich lakeside
marshes for agriculture
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-System of raised fields and ditches permitted intensive cultivation similar to that achieved by use of
chinampas in Mesoamerica
-Fish and llamas provided proteins to a diet largely dependent on potatoes and grains
-Llamas also crucial for the maintenance of long-distance trade relationships that brought in corn, coca,
tropical fruits, and medicinal plants
-Urban center of Tiwanaku was distinguished by the scale of its construction and by the high quality of its
stone masonry
 Large stones and quarried blocks were moved many miles to construct a large terraced pyramid,
walled enclosures, and a reservoir
-Despite a limited metallurgy that produced only tools of copper alloy, artisans built large structures of finely
cut stone that required little mortar to fit the blocks
-Also produced gigantic human statuary
-Little is known of the social structure since all walls and decorative arts don’t offer suggestive guidance
found in the burial goods of the Moche
-Tiwanku was a highly stratified society ruled by hereditary elite
-Most women and men devoted their time to presence of agriculture and the care of llama herds
-The presence of specialized artisans is evident in the high quality construction in public buildings and in
locally produced ceramics
-Many scholar portray Tiwanaku as the capital of a vast empire
-The elite controlled a large, disciplined labor force in the surrounding region
-Military conquests and the establishment of colonial populations provided the highland capital with dispensable
supplies of products from ecologically distinct zones
-Cultural influence extended eastward to the jungles and southward to the coastal regions and oases of the
Atacama Desert in Chile
-In comparison with Teotihuacan, it had a relatively small full-time population of around 30,000
-Not a metropolis but a ceremonial and political center for a large regional population
-The contemporary site of Wari was located about 450 miles to the northwest of Tiwanku, near the northern
Peruvian city Ayacucho
-Culture and technology tied to Tiwanku, but exact relationship remains unclear
-Some scholars suggest the Wari began as a dependency of Tiwanku, other suggest that they were joint
capitals of a single empire, however, there is little evidence for either position.
-There were sustained cultural contacts between the two societies, but each had a unique cultural signature
-Wari was larger than Tiwanku, measuring nearly 4 square miles
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 City center was surrounded by a massive wall and included housing blocks
 Less-concentrated housing for commoners was located in a sprawling suburban zone
 Wari’s development with no central planning
-Small scale of monumental architecture and the absence of cut stone masonry in public and private buildings
distinguish Wari from Tiwanku
 Not clear if differences come from weakness of elite or the absence of specialized construction rafts
 Ceramic style was also different from Tiwanku’s
-Wari’s military expansion occurred at the time of increasing warfare throughout the Andes
 As a result, roads were built to maintain communication with remote fortified dependencies
 Perhaps as consequence of military conflict, both Tiwanku and Wari declined by about 1000 C.E.
 Inca inherited their political legacy

The Inca
Developed a vast imperial state, which they called “Land of Four Corners”
-Population of more than 6 million inhabitants and stretched from the Maule River in Chile to northern
Ecuador and from the Pacific Coast across the Andes to the upper Amazon and, in the south, into Argentina
-One of many competing military powers in the southern highlands, an area of political significance after the
collapse of Wari
-Centered in the valley of Cuzco, the Inca were initially organized in as chiefdom based on reciprocal gift
giving and the redistribution of food and textiles
-Strong and resourceful leaders consolidated political authority in the 1430s and undertook and ambitious
campaign of military expansion
-Built on traditional Andean social customs and economic practices
-Built legacy by conquering additional distant territories and increasing the scale of forces exchanges
-Crucial to this process was the development of a large, professional military.
-Andean peoples used state power to broaden and expand the vertical exchange system that had permitted
ayllus to exploit a range of ecological niches
-They were pastoralists
-Prosperity and military strength depended on vast herds of llamas and alpacas, which provided food and
clothing as well as transport for goods
-Both men and women were involved in the care of these herds
-Women were responsible for weaving and men were drivers in long-distance trade
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-This pastoral tradition provided the Inca with powerful metaphors that helped to shape their political and
religious beliefs
-They believed that the gods and their ruler shared the obligations of the shepherd to his flock—an akin to
Old Testament references to “The Lord is My Shepherd”
-Collective efforts by mit’a laborers made the Inca Empire possible
 Cuzco, the imperial capital, and the provincial cities, the royal court, the imperial armies, and the
state’s religious cults all rested on this foundation.
 System also created the material surplus that provided the bare necessities for the old, weak, and ill
of Inca society
 Each ayllu contributed 1/7 of its adult male pop. To meet these collective obligations
 Draft laborers serves as soldiers, construction workers, craftsmen, and runners to carry messaged
along post roads, drained swamps, terraced mountainsides, filled in valley floors, built and maintained
irrigation works, and built storage facilities and roads
 Inca laborers constructed 13,000 miles of road, facilitating military troop movements, administration and
trade
-Imperial admin. was similarly superimposed on existing political structures and established elite groups
-The hereditary chiefs of ayllus carried out administrative and judicial functions
-As the Inca expanded, they generally left local rulers in place, by leaving in place the rulers of the defeated
societies, the Inca risked rebellion, but the controlled these risks by means of thinly veiled system of hostage
taking and the use of military garrisons
-Rulers of defeated regions were required to send their heirs to live at the Inca royal court in Cuzco
-Leaders even required that representations of the important local gods be brought to Cuzco and promoted
imperial integration while at the same time providing hostages to ensure the good behavior of subject peoples
-Conquest magnified the authority of the Inca ruler and led to the creation of an imperial bureaucracy drawn
from among his kinsmen
-The royal family claimed descent from the Sun, the primary Inca god
 Members lived in palaces maintained by armies of servants
 The lives of the ruler and members were dominate by political and religious rituals that helped
legitimize their authority
-Among the many obligations associated with kingship was the requirement to extend imperial boundaries by
warfare, thus each new ruler began his reign with conquest
-Inca were highly skilled stone craftsmen: their most impressive building were constructed of carefully cut
stones fitted together without mortar
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-City was laid out in the shape of a giant puma.

-At the center were the palaces that each ruler built when he ascended to the throne, as well as the major
temples.
 The richest was the Temple of the Sun
 Its interior was lined with sheets of golf, and its patios was decorated with golden representation of
llamas and corn
 Ruler made every effort to awe and intimidates visitors and residents, alike with a nearly continuous
series of rituals, feasts, and sacrifices.
-Sacrifices of textiles, animals, and other goods sent as tribute dominated the city’s calendar
 Destruction of these valuable commodities, and a small number of human sacrifices, helped give the
impression of splendor and sumptuous abundance that appeared to demonstrate the ruler’s claimed
descent from the Sun
-Cultural achievement rested on the strong foundation of earlier Andean civilizations
-Calendar is lost to us
-All communications other than oral was transmitted by khipus borrowed from earlier Andean civilizations
-In weaving and metallurgy, Inca technology, building on earlier regional developments, was more advanced
that in Mesoamerica.
-Craftsmen produced utilitarian tools and weapons of copper and bronze as well as decorative objects of gold
and silver
-Women produced textiles of extraordinary beauty from cotton and the wool of llamas and alpacas
-Didn’t produce new technologies but increased economic output and added to the region’s prosperity
-The conquest of large pop. in environmentally distinct regions allowed the Inca to multiply the yields
produced by the traditional exchanges b/w distinct ecological niches
-The expansion of imperial economic and political power was purchased at the cost of reduced equality and
diminished local autonomy
-The imperial elite, living in richly decorated places in Cuzco and other urban centers, was increasingly cut
off from the masses of Inca society.
-The royal court held members of the provincial nobility at arm’s length, and commoners were subject to
execution if they dared to look directly at the ruler’s face
-After only a century of regional dominance, the Inca Empire faced a crisis in 1525
 The death of the Inca ruler Huayna Capac at the conclusion of the conquest of Ecuador initiated a
bloody struggle for the throne
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 Powerful faction coalesced around two sons whore rivalry compelled both the professional military and
the hereditary Inca elite to choose sides
 Civil war was the result
 The Inca state controlled a vast territory spread over more than 3,000 miles of mountainous terrain
 Regionalism and ethnic diversity had always posed a threat to the empire
 Civil war weakened imperial institutions and ignited the resentments of conquered peoples
 On the eve of the arrival of Europeans, the destructive consequences of this violent conflict
undermined the institutions and economy of Andean civilizations