© The College of Estate Management 2006

Paper 3567V2-0

Fire precautions

Contents

1. Introduction
1.1 Fire safety engineering

2. Sprinkler systems
2.1 General principles
2.2 Sprinkler system components
2.3 Maintenance
2.4 Alternative fixed suppression systems

3. Dry and wet risers

3.1 The system
3.2 Design and components
3.3 Fire extinguishers

4. Automatic fire detection and alarm systems

4.1 The system
4.2 Detectors
4.3 Maintenance and testing

5. Fire stops and seals

5.1 Pipe and cable protection
5.2 Fire dampers

6. Ventilation of escape routes and zones

6.1 Smoke clearance
6.2 Smoke control
6.3 Pressurisation of escape routes

7. Fire safety during the construction of buildings

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1 Introduction
Good fire precautions are important, because a serious fire in a public building has
the potential to harm many people. In all building types fire has the potential to
destroy the building and its contents, leading to an economic cost often way in excess
of the simple replacement cost of the building and contents when the effects on lost
business and people’s lives are taken into account. Serious fires in historic buildings
and archive resources can destroy irreplaceable heritage. In Europe it is estimated that
on average fire is responsible for 5 000 deaths per year and consumes 1% of the
annual gross domestic production.

1.1 Fire safety engineering

Fire safety engineering has emerged as a building discipline in response to the need to
provide fire safe solutions for larger and more complex buildings. Construction
specialists with a good understanding of how fire can affect a building and its
occupants soon demonstrated their worth on construction projects and are now
commonly involved on building projects of all types ranging from simple schools to
large international airports to football stadia, etc. Consequently, this relatively
specialist sector of the construction industry is expanding in size.

In the United Kingdom the Building Regulations set a series of functional

requirements for fire safety related to the need to ensure buildings:

z Have an adequate means of escape

z Will not collapse prematurely in a fire
z Will not encourage excessive fire spread and a major conflagration
z Have adequate facilities for the fire brigade to fight fires and rescue occupants
if required.

Guidance on suitable measures and methods for meeting these functional

requirements is given in Approved Document B: Fire Safety 2000.

The majority of the following notes relate to fire safety in commercial, industrial or
public buildings. In public buildings the risk posed by serious fire tends to be the
potential loss of life. In commercial and industrial buildings the potential cost of fire
tends to be economic loss, where the risk can be exacerbated by the storage of
hazardous materials, or in the case of warehouses, simply by the high volume of
combustibles present. These notes discuss the common precautionary measures that
can be taken to protect buildings against the risk of fire, either in response to
legislative or insurance requirements or as a matter of good practice.

Guidance on fire safety engineering for buildings is given in British Standard BS

7974 Part 1 – Application of Fire Safety Engineering Principles to the Design of
Buildings, BSI 2001, which is supported by seven PD guidance documents on various
aspects of fire safety engineering. For large, complex and innovative buildings fire
engineering can be used to develop a fire strategy that considers the building
holistically, including how its occupants are likely to respond in a fire, to develop the
fire strategy and determine appropriate fire safety measures. However, a fire
engineer’s involvement in a project will more typically involve looking at an aspect
of a building that cannot easily comply with one aspect of Building Regulations, such
as extended travel distances. The fire safety engineering solution, therefore, requires
sufficient compensatory features to justify the extended travel distances, but the rest
of the building can be designed and constructed in accordance with the requirements
of Approved Document B.
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A fire safety solution will look at providing a combination of active, passive and
design features that achieve the required balance between the needs of the building
design and those of safety. The features that need to be considered include:

z Means of escape
z Fire alarm and automatic fire detection
z Behavioural response of the occupants
z Measures taken to prevent fire
z Spread of smoke and fumes and if necessary measures to control it
z Fire development and its containment
z Structural response to fire
z Fire separation
z Facilities for the fire services
z Standard of fire safety management.

2 Sprinkler systems
2.1 General principles
Sprinkler systems use the cheapest extinguishing medium of water to suppress and
control fire growth. Water is contained within the system and is released when the
thermal sprinkler heads are subjected to hot enough gases to operate. The thermal
device can be a soldered link that parts, or, more commonly, a glass bulb with an air
bubble within it that will expand at different rates to cause the glass to shatter and
release the water. Only the heads subjected to high enough temperatures operate and
approximately 70% of all fires are controlled by five heads or fewer.

Sprinklers were developed for property protection, and over the last 100 years during
which they have been installed have achieved a very good success rate. During these
100 years there have been very few fires that have managed to overwhelm a properly
installed and maintained sprinkler system, thus saving the building and protecting the
occupants within it.

Property protection still remains the principal reason for sprinklers to be installed
within the UK, with the majority of systems being installed in industrial and
commercial premises. However, the value of sprinklers as a measure to protect life
has been increasingly recognised. In Scotland, legislation has been introduced to
make sprinkler systems compulsory in residential homes (see
www.scottishexecutive.com). Similarly, in England and Wales, changes to Approved
Document B are also likely to make sprinklers mandatory in residential homes and
high-rise apartment buildings. At present, sprinklers are only required for industrial
and commercial buildings greater than 30m in height and in retail units that face on to
enclosed malls. There has also been a move towards developing sprinkler systems for
dwellings and some local authorities have promoted their use in high-risk housing,
such as in cases of multiple occupancy.
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2.2 Sprinkler system components (Figure 1)

A sprinkler system comprises distribution pipework, sprinkler heads, and a water
supply. The pipework is usually in galvanised medium grade steel, but for certain
residential systems it may be either copper pipe or especially approved plastic pipe.
Systems for low hazard occupancies, such as school buildings, can be employed
directly from the town’s water main, but more commonly are supplied via a break
tank with standby and duty pumps.

Although the water supply most commonly comes from a sprinkler tank with an infill,
if suitable it can come from a private reservoir or alternative guaranteed water supply.
Continuity of water supply is of paramount importance and the sprinkler pumps
should have a backup emergency generator in the event of a mains failure.
Alternatively one of the pumps can be a direct diesel-driven type.

FIGURE 1 Components

The majority of sprinkler systems are wet systems, which as the name suggests is
where the pipework is constantly charged with water. Dry systems have also been
developed, in which the pipework is filled with compressed air and a pre-action valve
is provided that only operates when the fire alarm has signalled, allowing it to be
filled with water. Thereafter, water will only be released to combat the fire if the
smoke temperatures are hot enough to cause one of the heads to operate. Dry systems
are installed where there is a concern with the freezing of pipework in large
warehouses and where there are concerns regarding accidental or malicious damage.

A combination of these systems is also feasible where the pipework is filled with
water in summer but becomes a dry system in winter.

The sprinkler head type most commonly seen is the pendant type, which hangs
beneath the ceiling. This comprises a solder link or thermal bulb that has to part to
allow the water to flow through an opening of pre-designated size to hit the deflector
below to develop a water spray pattern to protect, typically, an area of approximately
10m2. The deflectors should not be more than 300mm below the ceiling, and there
must be a clear space of 300mm below the deflector within a radius of 600mm from
each sprinkler to allow the spray pattern to develop. Similarly, sprinklers must not be
located within 600mm of columns or beams.
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There have been many developments of sprinkler heads, including:

z Concealed sprinkler heads, where the head is recessed in the ceiling behind a
soldered plate, commonly used in offices
z Sidewall sprinklers, which are used to project water on to a floor beneath a
void
z Extra suppression fast response (ESFR) heads, which have been developed to
protect high-bay storage without intermediate sprinklers.

The most significant development in sprinkler head technology is the quick response
type, as shown in Figure 2. This type of head has increased surface area and a lower
thermal mass that enables it to respond quicker in a fire. All sprinkler systems
installed for life safety should employ the quick response type heads.

The design and hazard classification of a sprinkler system is dependent on the type of
goods stored and the method of storage. The selected hazard classification for the
system determines the density of water that has to be developed and the maximum
area of operation that has to be assured. This then determines the size of the water
tank and pumps, which must be able to deliver the required water volume at the
needed system pressure.

2.3 Maintenance
Sprinkler systems should be inspected and tested weekly to ensure that alarm
apparatus and water/air pressures are correct. Systems should be inspected in more
detail on a three-monthly basis for damage and the water/air supply, pumps, etc
tested. Sprinkler system pumps should undergo a full load test annually.

FIGURE 2 Quick response sprinkler heads

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Deluge and water mist systems

A deluge system is a specialist type of sprinkler installation where water is applied to
the fire through large capacity heads that are permanently open. The water supply is
controlled by a deluge valve that can either be pneumatically operated to release the
water supply or in some cases be manually operated. Deluge systems are commonly
provided to protext industrial machinery where there is potential for flammable fuel
or coolant leaks.

Water mist systems deliver water at a high pressure through nozzles with small holes
in them to provide a very fine spray with droplets measured in microns. The water
droplets have a greater surface area than conventional sprinkler drops, giving them a
greater capacity to absorb heat. In addition, water mist systems partially work by
excluding air from the seat of the fire. Consequently, water mist systems require only
approximately 10% of water volume compared to an equivalent sprinkler system.

Water mist systems have been used for around 100 years in specialist marine
applications, but are now being more commonly used within buildings for
applications such as protecting computer data rooms.

2.4 Alternative fixed suppression systems

There are certain building types for which sprinklers or deluge systems are not
appropriate. The following section considers some of the alternative systems.

Foam systems use either chemical foam formed by chemical reaction or mechanical
foam formed from air and water. Foam systems can be used to suppress liquid pool
fires by forming a blanket on it that prevents oxygen getting to the fire. High
expansion foam works on a similar principle but fills the whole space it is protecting
to exclude the oxygen.

The type of foam used is dependent upon the potential for fire and the location. The
three categories of foam are:

z High expansion foam, used where penetration down to the seat of the fire is
important, eg engine rooms, warehouses and aircraft.
z Medium expansion foam, which is heavier than the previous foam and used
for external fires, eg petroleum storage areas.
z Low expansion foam, which has a relatively low expansion rate, ie 20:1, and
is used for boiler houses and transformer areas.

Foam can be manufactured either from chemicals, such as sodium bicarbonate and
aluminum sulphate, in an aqueous solution with a foaming agent, or by a mechanical
means of mixing water, foam and air commonly known as ‘foam air’.

Foam inlet systems are fixed pipework systems which allow the fire service to inject
foam to high-risk areas, such as electrical substations. The fire brigade carries the
foam concentrate on its tenders and will mix it with the water that it is injecting to
form the foam.

Dry chemical systems use powders such as sodium bicarbonate or potassium

chloride, which extinguish by preventing oxygen from uniting with the burning fuel.
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Inert gas systems have come to the fore with the phasing out of halon, (as an ozone
depleting gas in accordance with the Montreal protocol). Commonly used inert gases
are those that naturally occur in the atmosphere, such as argon, nitrogen or argonite,
which is a combination of both. Inert gases work by injecting sufficient quantities,
typically 35% by volume, to expel sufficient air from the enclosure to drive the
oxygen concentration down to around 13%. At oxygen concentrations below 13%
combustion will not occur.

90% of the inert gas has to be delivered within the first 60 seconds and therefore it is
normal to provide a pressure relief vent that prevents an excessive over-pressure from
developing within the enclosures.

There are chemical replacements for halons, such as FM200, which prevent
combustion occurring at a chemical level. These types of suppressants are popular in
America, but less so in Europe, where inert gases are preferred. Their one advantage
is that because they work on a chemical basis the system needs to deliver less
concentration, typically 8%, and, therefore, less space is required for the system and
the bottles can often be stored in the space that they are protecting.

3 Dry and wet risers

3.1 The system
In high-rise buildings, those with deep basements and large plan storage buildings, it
is necessary to provide internal mains to provide the fire brigade with a ready supply
of water for them to connect their hoses to. These internal mains can be either dry
risers or wet risers.

As the name implies, a dry riser does not retain water permanently but is simply
(mainly) vertical pipe that can be connected to the fire brigade pumps in the event of
a fire. The fire brigade charges a dry riser by connecting their hoses to a hydrant and
then supplying the necessary pressure via the pumps in their tender. Generally dry
risers should be 100mm diameter for buildings up to 45m high, and 150mm diameter
for buildings up to 60m high, although this does also depend on the number of outlets
at each floor level.

The maximum height at which a dry riser can be used is 60m, ie a building of
approximately 20 storeys. This height is governed by the maximum pressure that the
pumps on the fire brigade tenders can generate.

The alternative wet riser can be used for buildings exceeding 60m in height, but can
also be used in buildings where it is difficult for the fire brigade to gain access to a
rise inlet. The system is permanently charged with water at all times and has a system
of tanks and duplicate pumps to ensure adequate water pressure at the highest point.

If wet risers are to be installed they should be made operational as soon as possible to
ensure that the building under construction is properly protected.
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3.2 Design and components

A dry or wet riser is commonly formed from galvanised steel pipework and fittings;
the diameter of the pipe depends upon the height of the building. Both systems
require the pipework to be bonded to earth.

Inlets to dry risers should be sited on the external wall of the building 760mm above
ground level and as close as practical to the riser. Two inlets are required for a
100mm diameter riser; four inlets to a 150mm riser. Inlets should be fitted inside a
metal box glazed with wired glass and labelled ‘dry riser inlet’ which is broken to
enable connection.

With a wet system duplicate pumps are provided capable of a 410kPa at the highest
outlet and with a maximum pressure of 520kPa. Flow rates should be 15 litres/sec;
the pumps should be connected to an emergency generator in the event of a mains
failure.

The water is provided by means of a break tank or reservoir, which should be a

minimum of 45m3. A fire brigade breeching inlet at street level should be provided.

The outlet to a riser is usually situated in a protected firefighting lobby, which should
be a minimum of 5m2 to provide sufficient space for the fire brigade to set up their
hoses. The firefighting lobbies and stairs are provided with smoke control to keep
reasonable conditions for fire brigade operations. The stairs and lobbies are combined
to form a firefighting shaft, and in buildings greater than 18m in height and
basements more than 10m deep, firefighting lifts should be provided. A typical
arrangement of a firefighting shaft is shown in Figure 3.

FIGURE 3 Firefighting shaft – typical layout

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FIGURE 4 Dry riser

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FIGURE 5 Wet riser

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3.3 Fire extinguishers

In addition to fire brigade facilities, buildings should be provided with the means for
the building’s occupants to fight fires. This may enable fires to be dealt with in their
early stages and prevent them from developing into major incidents.

In the United Kingdom, hand-held fire extinguishers are the preferred choice; they
should be positioned near building exits, ensuring that no-one has to travel 30m to
reach one. Water-based extinguishers are the most common extinguisher type and are
used for normal combustibles. CO2 extinguishers are also often provided in the office
environment to deal with electrical fires. Foam extinguishers are also provided in
industrial applications for dealing with flammable liquid fires.

In some buildings fixed hose reels can be used for first aid firefighting. A firefighting
hose can be supplied directly from the town’s main or a fire main and should
discharge at least 0.4 litres/sec at 6m from the nozzle.

4 Automatic fire detection and alarm systems

4.1 The system
Automatic fire detection and alarm systems are now commonly fitted in most
buildings. Although there are few buildings where this is an actual Building
Regulations requirement, it is often required by the insurer. An automatic fire
detection system can be an effective property protection measure when linked to a
remote monitoring centre that will summon the fire brigade in the event of the system
operating.

The components of a typical automatic fire detection and alarm system are:

z Automatic sensor, which, as discussed in the following section, is typically an

optical or ionisation smoke detector.
z Smoke detector panel, which at its simplest, will be zoned to allow the fire
location to be discovered once the position of the activated detector head is
identified.
z Fire protected wiring.
z Manual call points that enable occupants to raise the fire alarm by breaking the
frangible panel and pressing the button.
z Main electrical supply, with either a diesel generator backup or, more
commonly, a battery backup system.
z Warning device, which can be a sounder or, more typically in a public
building, a voice alarm system. In environments with high ambient noise
levels, beacons are used to give visual alarms.

Not all systems have to be hard-wired. Radio-based detection systems were originally
developed for installation in existing buildings and those of historic note where the
installation of a hard-wired system would be problematic. Now, radio detection
systems are accepted for all locations; guidance on their installation is given in BS
5839 Part 1 – The Code of Practice for the Design, Installation and Commissioning of
Automatic Fire Detection and Alarm Systems, 2004.
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4.2 Detectors
Types of automatic fire detection device include:

z Optical heads, which work on the smoke particles scattering the passage of
light in a chamber.
z Ionisation heads, which use a radioactive source to cause ionisation of
molecules to cause a flow between positively and negatively charged plates.
The introduction of smoke particles causes a change in this flow, in turn
causing an alarm signal to be given. Because of the requirement for a
radioactive source the use of ionisation detectors in commercial properties is
being phased out.
z Heat detectors, which are either fixed temperature or rate of rise, and are used
in environments such as commercial kitchens, where there is too much
potential for a smoke detector to cause unwanted alarms. There are also linear
heat detection cables, which are used to protect cable ducts and extensive
spaces such as car parks.
z Beam detectors are used to protect tall spaces, by projecting a beam to a
reflector. If the strength of the returning beam is disrupted an alarm is given.
z Aspirating detectors sample the atmosphere they are protecting by using a
small fan to positively draw smoke through a series of sampling points in small
plastic tubes. The air/smoke is then passed through an optically-based central
detector. This approach can provide much greater sensitivity than point
detectors, and is therefore used to protect data rooms, where the very early
detection of potential signs of fire can enable trained staff to intervene and
isolate the power, sometimes even before flaming ignition occurs. Aspirating
detectors have also found favour in historic buildings, because the sampling
pipe and points can be hidden.
z Flame detectors, which work on either the ultraviolet or infrared spectrum, and
are line of sight devices, meaning that they must be able to see the fire. These
specialist type detection devices are used to protect risks such as liquor storage
areas, where any alcohol fire is unlikely to produce much visible smoke, and in
very large spaces such as cathedrals, where conventional point detectors would
not be practical because of the volume involved.

In addition to the above, the following methods of detection are being developed but
have not yet been widely recognised or adopted.

z Carbon monoxide (CO) detectors are being proposed for dwellings, the
principle being that CO is always present in a fire in large quantities, and
concentrating on this fire signal eliminates unwanted alarms.
z Image sampling, where computer programs analyse images being captured on
a building’s closed circuit television (CCTV) system for unique fire signals.
This offers the advantage that CCTV systems can be dual functioning,
monitoring areas for fire as well as security.

4.3 Maintenance and testing

As with all fire systems the fire detection and alarm system should be regularly
inspected, tested and maintained. Activities include a weekly test of the alarm via a
manual call point, a different one of which should be operated each week, regular
inspections of the system and its power supply, and functional testing of each
detection device annually.
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5 Fire stops and seals

5.1 Pipe and cable protection

The importance of fire compartmentation was emphasised in earlier study notes.

Penetrations that pass through compartment boundaries have to be adequately fire
protected to maintain their integrity. A number of specialist preformed collars and
seals are available, which fix around the services to form an intumescent seal when
subjected to fire. The fire stops enable expansion and contraction of the pipes during
normal use of the premises, without damaging the seal. (See Figures 5 and 6.)

FIGURE 5 Typical fire stop seals

Quelfire fire stop seals can be used in timber floor constructions where the ceiling lining has a fire
rated resistance of at least one hour.

Typical tested construction

One hour: fire resistance to BS 476: Part 20: 1987

T & G boarding: minimum 16mm thick or 16mm flooring grade chipboard.

Timber joists: minimum 47mm thick at maximum 610mm centres
3
Mineral wool: minimum 25mm thick (33kg/m ) between joists
Proprietary one hour fire rated board: fixed with 60mm x no. 8 woodscrews at
300mm centres

Courtesy: Quelfire Ltd

FIGURE 6 Intumescent fire seal bags

Courtesy: Quelfire Ltd

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5.2 Fire dampers

Where ductwork or air passage grilles penetrate fire boundaries it is necessary to
provide fire dampers that only operate automatically on detection of smoke or by
reaction to fire. The heat or smoke from the fire (depending on the system or method
of operation) will seal the damper and prevent the ingress of the products of the fire
into adjoining areas for a predetermined period of time.

FIGURE 7 Typical fire block for doors

FIGURE 8 Typical damper for ducts

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6 Ventilation of escape routes and zones

6.1 Smoke clearance
Smoke is the main hazard in fire, both for occupants and firefighters. In apartment
buildings the escape routes are protected by separating them from the accommodation
with fire-resistant construction and limiting the travel distance. However, in
recognition that smoke could affect the escape route accessibility, corridors are also
provided with 1.5m2 of automatically opening vents (AOVs), to provide smoke
clearance. Stairs are also provided with an automatically opening smoke vent at the
top. A typical stairwell smoke ventilator is shown in Figure 9.

FIGURE 9 Stairwell smoke ventilator

Performance
The unit is designed to operate on a fail-safe open system with self-acting spring actuators arranged
to apply constant opening pressure on the ventilator lid. The electromagnetic pad catch assembly
holds the lid closed until the electric current is switched off by the fire alarm or smoke detection
system (as required).

A remote control panel, placed in an accessible position, with fireman’s break glass switch and
voltage free contacts can be connected to the fire alarm or smoke detection system. Accessories
include cord, ring and pole reset system for reclosing the ventilation lid following testing or an alarm
condition.

Courtesy: H H Robertson (UK) Ltd

Basement fires can present particular difficulties for firefighters, as the smoke will
tend to rise up through the stairwells that are being used to gain access to the fire.
Consequently all but the smallest basements in non-residential premises (<200m2,
<3m deep) require smoke clearance to assist them.

Smoke clearance can be natural ventilation equivalent to 2.5% of the basement plan
area, with the openings arranged at high level and with at least half of the openings
arranged on opposite faces. Mechanical ventilation can be used sized to provide 10 air
changes per hour (ACH), but when this is used the basement should also be sprinkler
protected.
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Car parking levels are the exception to the sprinkler rule and when a basement storey
is only used for the parking of vehicles, mechanical extract can be used without
providing sprinklers. This is because a car fire represents a relatively low fire load in
proportion to the basement. Mechanical extract can be achieved conventionally via
ducted extract systems. However, increasingly the use of ducts is being replaced with
impulse fans, as shown in Figure 10, which transport smoke to central extract points.
These systems have found favour because they save significant space by removing
the need for ductwork.

FIGURE 10 Basement impulse fan

Courtesy: Colt International

Car park levels can also be naturally vented, in which case the same requirement
applies of 2.5% of the plan area with at least 50% of the openings arranged on
opposite faces.

BS 5588: Fire Precautions in the Design, Construction and Use of Buildings: Part 11
– Code of Practice for Shop, Office, Industrial, Storage and Other Similar Buildings,
1997 also recommends smoke clearance for the upper storeys of buildings, but the
2.5% natural ventilation requirement can usually be provided via opening windows.

6.2 Smoke control

Smoke control systems were originally developed in the 1970s as a method of
reducing property damage. They achieved this by venting the products of combustion
and smoke to maintain a clear layer, thus reducing smoke spread and enabling the fire
brigade to fight a fire more effectively by being able to see it. Smoke control systems
have now been developed to protect shopping centres, buildings with atria in them,
large sports arenas, etc, as well as industrial buildings.

A smoke control system is a steady state system where the amount of smoke entering
the layer for a design fire size, which is based either on a credible worst case or
statistical basis, and a clear layer, typically 3m, is calculated. The amount of
ventilation required to exhaust this quantity of smoke is then provided. It is also
necessary to provide a source of inlet air to replace the air that is exhausted. To
prevent the smoke layer from cooling excessively it is necessary to limit the size of
the smoke reservoir to less than 60m in length and 2 000–3 000m2 in area.

Figure 11 shows a smoke control system applied in a single-storey mall where

sufficient natural ventilation has been provided to maintain a 3m clear layer.
Mechanical ventilations can always be used and should be when the roof can be
subjected to adverse wind effects by being surrounded by higher structures. The fan
units must be rated to operate to at least 300ºC for an hour, be supplied by fire
protected wiring and have an emergency secondary power supply.
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FIGURE 11

6.3 Pressurisation of escape routes

Pressurisation is a positive form of smoke control where air is forced into the
staircase via fans to raise the pressure above the ambient level to prevent smoke
ingress into the escape route. A pressurisation system comprises a duty and a standby
fan, protected wiring, distribution ductwork and a pressure relief damper, as shown in
Figure 12.

Pressurisation systems are used to protect staircases in tall buildings and firefighting
shafts.

FIGURE 12 Components of pressurisation system

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7 Fire safety during the construction

of buildings
Buildings can be at their most vulnerable to damage by fire whilst they are under
construction.

The reasons are fairly obvious:

z The fire protection to the structure may not be in place.

z The fire suppression systems may not yet be completed.
z There may be flammable materials or waste stored in or close to the building.
z Hot processes such as welding may be taking place.
z Machinery and electrical equipment may be working in or alongside the
building.

The danger of construction fires was highlighted in the Broadgate fire in 1990, when
a serious construction fire occurred in a 90% complete building. The fire caused
millions of pounds of damage and delayed its opening. Following the fire the Fire
Prevention Association (FPA) published the joint insurance and construction
publication, ‘Fire Safety and Security on Construction Sites’.

The FPA guidance makes it clear that it is essential to ensure that all reasonable steps
are taken to reduce the risk of fire. It is important to ensure that adequate means of
escape, methods of giving warning and fighting fire are provided, as well as
identifying the risks to personnel working on site and the general public.

Although each site will have to be considered individually bearing in mind the nature
and extent of the work being carried out, there are a number of general fire protection
principles that are applicable to all sites.

Site cleanliness
A major source of fires on construction sites is the accumulation of flammable waste
material. Particular care should be taken in respect of waste paper and packaging. The
routine clearance of waste material and a standardised procedure for disposing of
waste packaging etc will considerably reduce this type of hazard. Personnel on site
should be made aware of the procedures and instructed in the consequences of
allowing excessive waste to build up.

Bonfires
Bonfires are often considered to be a necessary method of disposing of certain
unwanted material. The fires are usually started with a great deal of attention to the
location of the fire, wind direction, amount of material on the fire, etc, but as the day
wears on the elementary precautions may be forgotten, the fire may be stacked much
higher than is safe, and changes in wind direction go unnoticed. There is also the
possibility that the fire will be allowed to smoulder when work has finished for the
day and the site vacated. A few stray sparks later, and a major fire has developed.

The precautions to be taken in respect of bonfires include:

z Do not have a bonfire unless it is absolutely necessary!

z Ensure that the fire is under control at all times.
z Ensure that someone is made responsible for the fire.
z Limit the amount and type of material that is placed on the fire.
z Ensure that the fire is extinguished fully at the end of the working day.
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Hot work
‘Hot work’ is a process that involves a risk of combustion, such as welding or the use
of flame torches for roofing. It should be controlled work, with any combustibles that
can be, removed from the area. Adequate firefighting equipment should be to hand
and the operatives should be trained in its use. At the end of the hot work the area
should be checked to ensure that no heat sources remain.

Smoking
The fire hazards associated with smoking are well known but may be difficult to
control on a construction site. There are varying opinions as to whether it is better to
restrict smoking to clearly defined areas, or to identify areas where smoking is strictly
forbidden.

Where there are particular hazards such as fuel storage areas, it is better to fence or
otherwise isolate these area and clearly indicate that smoking and naked flames are
forbidden.

Electrical faults
The distribution of electricity about a construction site is often a matter of concern.
The use of multiple extensions, poorly made or maintained connections, equipment
placed in damp or wet conditions, equipment handled carelessly, overloading, etc,
means that the likelihood of a fault giving rise to a fire can be unacceptably high.

On a well managed site, the electrical installations will be under the supervision of a
competent electrician, and all equipment will be isolated when not in use.

Fire detection
Fire detection devices may be difficult to install in partially completed buildings, but
whenever it is possible, smoke or heat detectors should be employed. Strategically
placed fire alarms, either manual or fully automatic, will be required.

Firefighting equipment
The Construction (Health, Safety & Welfare) Regulations require that adequate
equipment is made available for dealing with fire. Bearing in mind the nature of
construction sites, this will usually mean the provision of strategically placed fire
extinguishers and possibly hose reels, fire blankets, and sand buckets. Care should be
taken to ensure that the equipment is properly maintained and supplemented or
adjusted to suit the needs of the developing site. Equally important is the provision of
signs indicating the location of the equipment.

As early as possible during the construction phase, the permanent firefighting

equipment should be installed. Particularly in the case of tall buildings, wet or dry
risers should be installed to keep pace with the construction.

Training and instruction of personnel

The provisions outlined above will only be effective if personnel on site are properly
trained or suitably instructed in the proper use of the equipment, and made aware of
the escape routes and the procedures to be adopted in the event of a fire or other
emergency.