Hyaline Cartilage, H&E

Stained
Hyaline cartilage consists of small cells with blue staining nuclei
embedded in an amorphous matrix. Note how the cells are sepa-
rated from each other. The matrix does not stain very well, and in
this case appears mostly a pale blue colour.

Lymph Node H&E

Stained
This image shows part of a lymph node. Most of the cells are
small immature lymphocytes. Their nuclei stain dark blue but
their cytoplasm is very small and can not be rersolved in this pho-
tograph.

Skeletal Muscle, H&E

Stained
This image shows skeletal muscle fibres cut in longitudinal sec-
tion. The contractile proteins stain pink whereas the nuclei (oval
in shape) stain blue and lie alongside the fibres. The cells are long
and thin (fusiform) in shape.

Spinal Cord - Silver

Stained
Spinal cord stained with a silver stain showing a large motor neu-
rone with a pale nucleus and 3 long processes. Parts of other cells
and processes can be seen surrounding it.
Cilia
This series of pictures are of cilia. They illustrate the arrangement
of the micro-tubules into 9 peripheral doublets and a pair of cen-
tral mictotubules. These microtubules are composed mainly of
tubulin links together with dynein. These two proteins interact to
cause bending of the cilia.

Columnar Epithelium of
the Intestine
This micrograph shows a row of enterocyte from the lining of the
small intestine. These cells are columar in shape and thier uper
surface (apical surface) shows a regular arrangement of finger-
like processes called microvilli. These increase the surface area of
the cell, which is important for the process of absorbtion.

Endothelial Cell
High magnification view of a capillary. Its wall is formed by a
flattened (squamous) endothelial cell. This cells can be seen to
contain many small pinocytotic vesicles. These transport fluid
from one side of the cell to the other.

Thyroid Gland, H&E

Stained
This slide shows part of the thyroid gland. The cells are arranged
as hollow spheres (follicles) in the centre of which is some amor-
phous pink-staining colloid. This colloid contains inert (storage)
forms of the hormones (e.g. throxine) that are eventually secreted
by the gland. Note the cells of the folliclesare cuboidal in shape .
Intestinal Cell Showing
Microvilli
This micrograph shows part of an gut enterocyte. The finger-like
processes are microvilli on the apical surface of the cell. These
greatly increase the surface area of the cells and facilitate the ab-
sorbtion of food-stuffs. Each of these microvilli contains a core of
contractile filaments. The rest of the cells can be seen to contain
many mitochondria..

Liver cell
This micrograph shows part of a liver cell. The rough endoplas-
mic reticulum is studdied with small dark-staining ribosomes. The
smooth endoplasmic reticulum appears as small circular vesicles
in the bottom right-hand corner. Some mitochondria can be sen in
the top left hand corner

Mesenteric Nerve
This image shows fine unmyelinated nerves from the gut (there
are no gut epithelial cells present). The nerves contain very many
small membrane vesicles that transport neuro-tranmitter sub-
stances to the nerve endings (not evident). In between the axons
are some fibres of collagen that can be seen to be finely banded.

Myelinate Nerve
This image shows a transverse section through a myelinated nerve
with some skeletel muscle below. It is part of a nerve that supplies
the muscle. Within the nerve can be seen a number of dark-
staining rings. These dark rings are myelin sheaths that surround
the pale-staining nerve axons. The nuceli are those of Schwann
cells that manufacture the myelin sheath. No nerve cell nuclei can
be seen in this micrograph. At the bottom of the picture is some
skeletal muscle
Nerve in Transverse Sec-
tion
This image shows several myelinated axons and unmyelinated
axons cut in transverse section. The nuclei visible in the section
are Schwann cell nuclei. Note how each spiral of myelin has a
single axon at its core. In the case of the unmyelinated nerves
however, several (2 to 6) axons can be seen embedded within the
cytoplasm of the Schwann cells. Note that both myelinated and
unmyelinated nerves have Schwann cells associated with them.

Nerve in Transverse Sec-

tion
This image shows several myelinated axons and unmyelinated
axons cut in transverse section. The nuclei visible in the section
are Schwann cell nuclei. Note how each spiral of myelin has a
single axon at its core. In the case of the unmyelinated nerves
however, several (2 to 6) axons can be seen embedded within the
cytoplasm of the Schwann cells. Note that both myelinated and
unmyelinated nerves have Schwann cells associated with them.

Secretory Cell
This high magnification image shows part of a secretory cell. In
the middle is a Golgi apparatus. This organelle is always well
developed in secretory cells. There are also a number of dark
staining secretory granules. The pale staining granule-like struc-
ture next to the Golgi apparatus is a condensing vacuole. This
appears damaged but would normally mature into a fully formed
secretion granule. Some rough endoplasmic reticulum and some
small mitochnodria can also be seen in this picture. The surface of
the cell (top right hand corner) is elaborately folded.

Skeletal Muscle in Longi-

tudinal Section
This microgrpah show skeletal (voluntary) muscle cut in longitu-
dinal section. It shows alternating dark (A) and light (I) bands in
register. In the middle of the I band is a dark Z line.
Skeletal Muscle in Trans-
verse Section
This microgrpah shows skeletal muscle myofibrils cut in trans-
verse section. The polygonal shapes are myofibrils and within
each it is possible to see thick and/or thin filaments. In a few
places it is possible to see thick filaments surrounded by six thin
filaments. The membrane vesicles between the myofibrils are part
of the sacroplamsic reticulum

Tubules and sarcoplasmic

reticulum
This micrograph of skeletal muscle shows 3 sarcomeres. The ones
on either side are sectioned thruogh the myofibrils whereas the
one sandwiched in the middle has been slices to reveal the t tu-
bules and sacroplasmic reticulum that surrounds each myofibril.

Bladder H&E stained

The image shows a fold of the lining of the bladder. The epithe-
lium lining the bladder is a specialised (urine-proof) epithelium. It
appears to composed of many layers of cells but as the bladder
fills with urine the epithelium is stretched and becomes thinner.
However, the surface is always covered by a surface layer of
multi-nucleate cells sometimes referred to as umbrella cells that
are abel to resist the toxic deleterious effects of urine.

Bronchus H&E stained

This image shows a pseudo-stratifide epithelium lining the bron-
chus of the lung. In places the epithelium appears to be composed
of more than one layer of cells but when the brochus expands the
surface streches out to form a single layer of cells.
Gall Bladder Epithelium,
H&E stained
This image shows a thin finger-like fold of the lining of the gall
bladder. On the surface is a simple columnar epithelium consisit-
ing of a single row of identical cells with oval shaped nuceli and
pink cytoplasm..

Intestinal Villi, H&E

stained
This picture shows parts of 5 intestinal villi. The surfaces of each
of these is covered by a simple columnar epithelium. This epithe-
lium appears to have 2 main cell types, dark staining enterocytes
(the majority) and pale staining goblet cells. Inside the villi (villus
core) is a mixture of blood vessels, lymphatics and connective
tissues.

Nasal Septum stained

with Alcian Blue and
H&E
This picture show a bony septum from the nose. On each side
(surface) is a simple cilated epithelium. The blue sataining cells
are gobelt cells that are interspersed with the cilated cells. The cila
are very fine and can only be seen in places.

Non-hairy Skin, H&E

stained
This image shows a purple staining stratified squamous epithlium
with layers of pink-staining keratinised squames on top. The cells
of the deeper purple staining layers are living cells whereas the
surface squames that are full of keratin are dead. No nuclei are
present in the surface squames.
Oesophagus, H&E
stained
This image shows a fold in the lining of the oresophagus. On each
surafe is a statified squamous epithelium. The deeper layers of
cells of this compound epithlium are round and purple staining
but the surface layers are flattened and palely stained. All the cells
of this epithelium are living and contain nuclei.

PAS Stained Intestinal

Villi
This image shows parts of 2 inmtestinal villi. The tissue has been
stained by the PAS procedure (periodic acid Schiff)and with
haematoxylin. The PAS procedure demonstrates the distribution
of carbohydrates containing hexose sugars. Here the mucin con-
taining goblet cells, the brush border of the enterocytes
(absorbitive gut cells)and the basement membranes of all the tis-
sues stain dark pink (magenta). The tissue has been counter
stained with haematoxylin so the cell nuclei all stain blue.

Small Intesine H&E

stained
This image shows mainly smooth muscle from the wall of the
small intestine. The outside surface of the intestine is covered in
many places by a simple squamous epithelium (serosa). This se-
rosa pervents the intestinses from sticking to one another and al-
lows them to slide smoothly over each other. The serosal layer is
composed of flattened cells with oval nuclei and here forms the
uppermost layer of cells.

Sublingual Salivary
Gland , H&E stained
This image shows a duct inside the sublingual salivary gland. The
duct lies in the middle of the picture and is lined by a cuboidal
epithelium. The duct is branched and the cells have a clear pink-
staining cytoplasm and a round blue-staining nucleus. Surround-
ing the duct are many pale-staining mucus producing cells
Aorta stained with elastic
stain
This picture shows mainly the medial layer of the aorta. The dark
brown lines are concentric sheets of elastic tissue that occupy the
medial layer.

Aorta stained with H&E

This picture shows mainly the medial layer of the aorta. The aorta
is an elastic artery and the medial layer consists mainly of concen-
tric sheets of elastic tissue. These sheets are perforated to permit
the diffusion of oxygen and nutrients and the migration of cells
though them.

Fatty connective tissue

stained with H&E
This picture shows of white fat permeated by capillary blood ve-
sels. The triglyceride contained in the fat cells as a single large
droplet is extracted duringg tissue processing, leaving only a hol-
low shell. The fat cells appear as large open circles with the occa-
sional blue staining nucleus. The small capillaries can be seen to
contain brightly stained red blood cells.

Liver stained with a silver

stain
This picture shows part of the liver. The black strands are fibres of
reticulin (type III collagen) that form a delicate framework be-
tween the liver cells (poorly stained) to which the liver cells are
loosely attached. Similar reticular meshworks are present in many
parenchymatous organs including liver, lung, spleen and lymph
nodes
Oesophagus stained with
H&E
This picture shows the lamina propria of the oesophagus. This
layer is composed of loose connective tissue. Small blood vessels
and fine strands of collagen or elastic tissue can beseen. The clear
spaces between the fibres isoccupied by a highly hydrated jelly-
like substance rich in glycosaminoglycans (GAGS). The epithe-
lium at the top and left hand side of the picture is a stratified
squamous, non-keratinising epithelium.

Penis stained with H&E

This picture shows part of a transverse section through the penis.
The broad dark pink staining band in the centre of the picture is
part of the capsule that surrounds one of the erectile compart-
ments of the shaft of the penis. It is a good example of dense regu-
larr connective tissue and is composed mainly of collagen. The
inelastic properties of collagen means that when the blood vessels
become engorged with blood the penis becomes erect.

Skin stained with H&E

The slide shows the dermis of the skin of the scalp. This is a good
example of dense irregular connective tissue. Braod strands of
dark pink staining collagen fibres are clearly evident.

Tendon
Plastic section stained with H&E showing part of a tendon. This is
an example of dense regular connective tissue. Extracellular fibres
of type I collagen are aligned parallel with one another to form a
strong inelastic tendon. The fibroblasts that synthesis the tropocol-
lagen subunits from which the tendon is constructed are sand-
wiched between the fibres. Their elongated nuclei can be clearly
seen
Heart stained with H&E
This picture shows cardiac muscle cells with some pale staining
connective tissue is between. The cells appear rectangular in
shape and have a prominent nucleus at their centre. The cells are
joined end to end by intercalated discs (pale staining) to form fi-
bres. Note how the fibres branch.

Intestine stained with

H&E
Picture showing parts of the two layers of smooth muscle that
make up the muscularis externa of the intestine. The inner
(circular) layer appears in the bottom right hand corner. The
smooth muscle cells are cut longitudinally and can be seen to have
cigar-shaped nuclei. The outer (longitudinal) layer runs diagonally
across the picture and can be seen to contain a small arteriole and
venule. The muscle cells of this layer are cut transversely and
appear circular in outline. Those cells sectioned through their
equator show round nuclear profiles.

Teased skeletal muscle fi-

bres stained with iron
haematoxylin
This picture shows a number of whole skeletal muscle fibres
stained with iron haematoxylin. The banding (striations)of the
fibres can be clearly seen

Tongue stained with

H&E
This picture shows bundles of skeletal (voluntary) muscle cut in
transverse section. The polygonal shaped pink blocks are muscle
fibres with blue staining nuclei located at their periphery. These
fibres are grouped together into fasciculi.
Tongue stained with
H&E (2)
This picture shows skeletal (voluntary) muscle fibres sectioned
longitudinally. The muscle appears as separate fibres each of
which is composed of numerous microfibrils. The nuclei lie at the
periphery of the fibres. Each fibre is a syncitium derived from
many fused myoblasts.

Dorsal root ganglion

stained with H&E
Dorsal root ganglion showing numerous mauve staining nerve cell
bodies. The small cells surrounding the nerve cell bodies are satel-
lite cells. A tract of pink staining nerve axons pass obliquely
across the centre of the picture.

Dorsal root ganglion

stained with H&E (2)
Dorsal root gandglion showing large pseudo-unipolar nerve cell
bodies and small dark blue staining satellite cells. At the bottom
of the picture is a tract of pink staining axons.

Myelinated and unmyeli-

nated axons
An electron microscope image showing several myelinated and
unmyelinated axons. The dark staining myelin sheaths each sur-
round a single large axon. Many smaller unmelinated axons can
be seen partially embedded in Schwann cell cytoplasm. A large
Schwann cell nucleus is present lower right (A)
Nerve stained with H&E
Large peripheral nerve bundle showing obliquely sectioned axons
contained surrounded by perineurium (connective tissue).

Neuromuscular junction
Electron microscope image of a neuro-muscular junction. A nerve
ending containing several dark staining mitochondria and numer-
ous small neurosecretory vesicles lies mid left. To the right is the
muscle fibril with which it synapses.

Peripheral nerve stained

with osmium tetroxide
Part of a nerve bundle surrounded by pink staining perineurium.
Numerous brown staining myelinated axons can be seen inside the
nerve bundle, together with fine strands of connective tissue
(endoneurium).

Peripheral nerve stained

with osmium textroxide
Peripheral nerve stained with osmium tetroxide. Axons cut longi-
tudinally can be seen passing from side to side. Several of these
axons show constrictions known as nodes of Ranvier.
Small nerve stained with
H&E
Small nerve surrounded by connective tissue. Individual myeli-
nated axons can be seen within the nerve bundle. The blue stain-
ing nuclei within the nerve bundle are those of fibroblasts
(flattened, endoneurium) or of Schwann cells (rounded). The bun-
dle is enclosed by a connective tissue sheath of perineurium.

Small nerve stained with

H&E
Small nerve surrounded by connective tissue. Individual myeli-
nated axons can be seen within the nerve bundle. The blue stain-
ing nuclei within the nerve bundle are those of fibroblasts
(flattened, endoneurium) or of Schwann cells (rounded). The bun-
dle is enclosed by a connective tissue sheath of perineurium. .

Respiratory Epithelium
This type of epithelium lines the nose, nasopharynx, larynx. tra-
chea, bonchi and bronchioles.

It consists of a simple or pseudo-stratified columnar ciliated epi-

thelium punctuated by goblet cells.

The underlying connective tissue often contains a rich plexus of

thin-walled blood vessels and additional sero-mucous (mixed)
glands that secrete via ducts adding to the protective mucous layer
that covers the surface.

This mucous prevents dehydration of the epithelium and traps

particulate matter that is eventually expelled from the system by
the beating of the cilia.

Cilia beat towards the throat and contaminated mucous is swal-

lowed or expectorated.
Nose

Except at its opening (hairy skin), the nose is lined by a simple

ciliated respiratory epithelium.

Three bony projections extend from the lateral walls of nose

(concha) and these too are covered by a respiratory epithelium.

A similar epithelium lines the nasal sinuses that connect with the
nasal cavity.

A rich plexus of thin-walled arterioles and venules lie deep to

the epithelium (swell bodies). These are the source of many nose
bleeds. They help to warm and humidify the inspired air.

Olfactory Epithelium

A small area of epithelium in the roof of the nose, below the

cribiform plate, is adapted for the detection of smells.

Unmyelinated olfactory nerves pass through holes in the cribi-

form plate to connect to the olfactory bulb of the brian.

The columnar pseudo-stratified epithelium of the olfactory mu-

cosa consists of basal and sustentacular(supporting) cells. em-
bedded in this are bipolar neurones whose dendritic processes
reach as far as the apical surface.

Deep to the epithelium are serous glands whose ducts open on to

the epithelial surface. The watery secretion they produce acts as
a solvent for odorous substances. They also irrigate the surface
and help to refresh the epithelium.

Larynx

The larynx is lined by a respiratory epithelium except over the

vocal folds.

The vocal folds are covered by a stratified squamous epithelium

that can withstand the vibrations of the folds.

The folds contain the free upper margin of a cone of elastic tis-
sue (conus elasticus). This cone is tensioned by the voluntary
(skeletal) muscle fibres of the vocalis muscle.

Further manipulation of the folds is undertaken by the extrinsic

muscles of the larynx including the crico-thyroid muscle illus-
trated here.
 Trachea

The trachea is lined by a pseudo-stratified cilated epithelium

(respiratory epithelium).

It is held open 12-15 incomplete ('C' shaped) rings of hyaline

cartilage.

The ends of the 'C' lie posteriorly, towards the oesophagus and
are joined by smooth muscle (trachealis muscle).

Deep to the epithelium are numerous sero-mucous (mixed)

glands and lymph nodules.

Bronchus

Bronchi are lined by a pseudo-stratified cilated epithelium

(respiratory epithelium).

They are held open by an external framework of hyaline carti-

lage. This often appears as isolated islands of cartilage in thin
section.

Smooth muscle underlies the epithelium

Lymph nodules lie in the underlying connective tissue.

Branches of the vascular tree - pulmonary arteries and veins -

Part of the wall of a bronchus stained with H&E. To the left is usually lie close by.
part of the supporting plate of hyaline cartilage and the lumen is
to the right. The bronchus is lined by a pseudo-stratified ciliated
epithelium (respiratory epithelium).

Pulmonary Vessels

Large pulmonary blood vessels accompany the bronchi. These

have longitudinally running elastic fibres in their walls.

Large pulmonary veins often have a clearly defined medial layer

consisting of muscle and elastic fibres and a well marked inter-
nal elastic lamina.

Smaller pulmonary veins that accompany the brochioles are dif-

ficult to distinguish from their equivalent arteries since they of-
ten have similar amounts of smooth muscle in their walls.

Lung tissue stained with H&E. This picture shows part of the
wall of a large pulmonary vein. The wall contains a large num-
ber of pink staining elastic fibres.
 Bronchiole

Bronchioles divide repeatedly and are typically less than 1

mm in diameter.

They are lined by a simple ciliated epithelium (respiratory

epithelium).

They are not supported by hyaline cartilage but display a

prominent band of smooth muscle.

Lymph nodules lie in the underlying connective tissue.

Branches of the vascular tree - pulmonary veins and arteries -

usually lie close by.
Picture of lung tissue stained with H&E showing a large bron-
chiole. Unlike bronchi, bronchioles have no cartilage in their
walls and can be constricted by the smooth muscle in their
walls.

Terminal and Respiratory Bronchioles

The conducting system of the lungs (bronchial tree) ends with

small diameter terminal bronchioles.

In these bronchioles the lining is a simple cuboidal epithelium

that is only sparsely ciliated but includes Clara cells whose
precise role remains unresolved.

A prominent sphincter-like ring of smooth muscle surrounds

the airway at this point.

Next come respiratory bronchioles. These are lined by a

similar epithelium, but are usually larger in diameter than
terminal bronchioles. They mark the beginning of the respira-
Picture of lung tissue showing a terminal bronchiole opening tory portion of the lung.
into an alveolar duct. The terminal bronchiole is the last part of
the bronchial tree. Beyond this point gasseous exchange takes
place.

Alveolus

Alveoli occupy most of the volume of the lung.

These thin walled sacs have capillaries embedded in their

walls.

The walls also contain fibroblasts that produce a framework

of reticulin (collagen III) and large amounts of elastic tissue.

Adjoining alveoli that arise from the same terminal bronchi-

ole are interconnected by pores that ensure equal inflation.

High magnification picture of lung alveoli stained with H&E. The walls of the alveolar sacs
are composed of flattened capillary endothelial cells and Type I pneumocytes sandwiched
together to form a thin air-blood barrier normally no more than 0.6 microns thick.
Air-Blood Barrier

Air that is drawn into the alveoli comes in close contact with blood circulating in the capillaries.

The two are separated by the air-blood barrier that is only 0.2 and 0.6 micrometres thick.

The barrier consists of flattened Type I pneumocyte on the alveolar side and flattened capillary endothelial cell on the capillary
side.

The two cells are fused to an intervening basement membrane.

The surface of the Type I pneumocytes is covered by a thin layer of lipid-rich surfactant.

Type II Pneumocytes

Type II pneumocytes are globular cells that are interspersed with

the flattened Type I pneumocytes of the alveolar wall.

They are normally less numerous than the Type I cells.

Evidence suggests that they are stem cells from which Type I
pneumocytes arise.

They synthesise, store and secrete surfactant, a phospholipid-

based secretion that spreads out over the whole lining of the al-
veolus. It reduces surface tension within the alveolus, facilitating
expansion and collapse of the air sacs during respiration. It also
helps to prevent desiccation of the air sacs.

Alveolar Macrophages

Macrophages roam freely within the alveoli phagocytosing

particulate material and cell debris.

These differentiate from monocytes that migrate from the blood

stream.

Other resident macrophages remain within the substance of the

lung and engulf material that penetrates the alveolar wall.

High magnification picture of lung alveoli. Alveolar macrophages containing black injested dust particles can be clearly seen.
Blood Vessels

The walls of arteries and veins have 3 histological layers, an in-

tima, media and adventitia.

The innermost layer is the intima; a layer of endothelial cells rest-

ing on loose connective tissue.

The medial layer contains smooth muscle, elastic and collagen

fibres in variable proportions.

The outermost layer of adventitia contains densely packed colla-

gen and elastic fibres.

Usually the wall of an artery is much thicker than that of the ac-
companying vein.

Lymph Vessels

Small lymphatics are similar in structure to capillaries.

Larger ones have valves and a wall composed mainly of connec-

tive tissue.

The lumen is devoid of blood but contains plasma and some white
blood cells, mainly lymphocytes.

It must be appreciated however that most lymphocytes migrate

around the body via blood vessels and not via lymphatics.

Elastic Arteries

Slide M76 is of an aorta. The aorta and great vessels close to the
heart are elastic arteries.

The medial layer of these vessels is thick and consists of alternat-

ing layers of smooth muscle cells and perforated sheets of elastic
tissue.

Elastic recoil of these vessels helps to smooth out the surge in

blood coming from the heart and to drive blood around the coro-
nary circulation.

The walls of these vessels may have a blood supply (small ves-
sels) of their own, the so-called vasa vasorum.
 Muscular Arteries

Slide M17 contains good examples of arteries and veins. In mus-

cular arteries the medial layer is well defined and composed
mainly of smooth muscle interspersed with fine strands of elastic
tissue.

The media is separated from the intima by a "wavy" internal

elastic lamina - a perforated sheet of elastic tissue.

The profile (outline) of muscular arteries is more regular and the

lumen smaller than that of the accompanying vein.

The adventitia consists of thick strands of collagen and elastic

fibres and is separated from the media by an external elastic
Wall of a large muscular artery with its lumen to the lamina.
right. Note the internal and external elastic laminae (blue)
either side of the medial layer. A small nerve lies mid-left.

Arterioles

Arterioles are found within the substance of organs and tissues.

They are arbitrarily defined as small diameter arterial vessels

with fewer than 3 layers of smooth muscle in their medial layer.

They often lack an internal elastic lamina. This allows them to

be completely closed off.

They are highly responsive to vasoactive stimuli allowing sig-

nificant regulation of peripheral resistance.

The adventitial layer is often poorly developed.

Capillaries

Capillaries are small diameter vessels formed from endothelial

cells together with thier underlying basement membrane.

Contractile pericytes often lie alongside but do not form a com-

plete layer.

Most capillaries are continuous (closed) so that solutes must be

transported across them.

However, capillaries of the gut, kidney glomerulus and endo-

crine glands are fenestrated (open). This allows solutes to pass
freely though macroscopic pores.

Sinusoids are thin walled, large diameter vessels with a fenes-

trated endothelium. These have a poorly developed basement
membrane but are supported by surrounding tissue. They com-
monly occur in the liver and spleen.
Endothelial Cells

Endothelial cells are highly specialized cells that release a variety of vasoactive agents.

They actively transport molecules across their cytoplasm.

They influence the tone of the surrounding layers of muscle.

They modulate blood coagulation.

When activated they produce adhesion molecules that can influence lymphocyte and
neutrophil migration.

Venules

Small diameter post capillary vessels have an almost complete

layer of pericytes or 1 or 2 layers of smooth muscle (muscular
venules).

Larger venules have a surrounding adventitial layer.

Veins

Examine slide M17. The medial layer of a vein is thinner than that
of the accompanying artery.

The medial layer is composed of a mixture of smooth muscle and

collagen fibres. Its boundaries with the intima and adventitia are
often poorly defined.

The profile (outline) of veins is irregular and the lumen is larger

than that of the accompanying artery.

Veins

Many veins contain flap-like valves composed of collagen fibres

covered by a layer of endothelium.

Valves are absent from the largest veins such as the jugular veins
and the vena cavae.

Large veins have a thick wall with a distinct intima separated from
the media by an internal elastic lamina.

In large veins the medial layer is composed of longitudinally run-

ning bundles of smooth muscle surrounded by collagen fibres.
 Myocardium

Slide M95. This is composed of branching chains of discrete

cardiac myocytes joined end to end by complex junctions
called intercalated discs.

Like voluntary (skeletal muscle) these cells contain

myofibrils with repeat sarcomeres that give rise to visible
striations.

Unlike voluntary muscle,the cells remain separate and contain

a single centrally place nucleus.

Unlike voluntary muscle the fibres branch giving a

Cardiac muscle fibres showing striations and dark staining characteristic appearance.
intercalated discs.

Myocytes

The myocytes of the atria are normally smaller than those of

the ventricles due to differences in resistance and workload.

Atrial myocytes, especially those of the right atrium contain

small secretion granules close to their nucleus. These contain
atrial natruretic hormone that is released when the cells are
stretched excessively.

This hormone increases the excretion of water and sodium

and potassium ions by the kidney. It also inhibits renin secre-
tion causing a lowering of blood pressure.

Cardiac myocytes showing branched fibres and pale staining

intercalated discs. Note the centrally placed nuclei.

Intercalated Discs.

Individual myocytes are joined together by intercalated discs.

These complex junctions contain desmosomes and adherent

junctions that bind the cells together.

They also contain gap junctions that allow the cells to become
electrically coupled.

Diagram of an intercalated disc. These join cardiac myocytes

together and include desmosomes, gap junctions and adherent
junctions. These provide physical linkage and electrical
coupling between the myocytes

Diagram of the conducting system of the heart. The SA node
is located in the wall of the right atrium, adjacent to the supe-
rior vena cava. This is linked by poorly defined pathways to
the AV node from which fast impulses are relayed to the apex
of the heart via the right and left bundle branches.
Photograph showing the atrial surface of the tricuspid valve. The pin marks the posterior cusp.
Sino-atrial and Atrio-ventricular nodes
These nodes are composed of very small, irregularly ar-
ranged myocytes adapted for impusle conduction rather
than contraction. They are surrounded by numerous blood
vessels and nerve plexuses.
The SA node is located on the medial side of the superior
vena cava at its junction with the right atrium.
The AV node is located at the base of the inter-atrial sep-
tum, anterior to the opening of the cardiac sinus.
There are no clearly defined anatomical fibres linking the
SA and AV nodes although large conducting fibres
(Purkinje fibres) arise from the right and left bundle
branches.
Purkinje Fibres
These are large modified muscle fibres lying mostly just
beneath the endocardium in the interventricular septum.
The cells have large vacuoles but have few myofibrils.
Thus appear pale in H&E stained sections. They contain
stores of glycogen that allows them to be easily visual-
ised with the PAS staining procedure.
Myocardium showing large pale-staining Purkinje Fibres.
Valves
All 4 valves have a similar histological structure.
They consist of thick collagen fibres with occasional
strands of elastic tissue. Both surfaces are covered by a
layer of endothelial cells.
The free margins of the atrio-ventricular and mitral valves
are connected to papillary muscles by fibrous chordae
tendinae.
Damage frequently take the form of excessive collagen
(scar) deposition or calcification. This results in reduced
flexibility and can lead to stenosis or incompetence.
 Gut Tube

The gastro-intestinal tract has 4 layers

• an innermost mucosa
• an underlying submucosa
• an external muscle coat (muscularis externa)
• a serosa
The mucosa has 3 components, a lining epithelium, a layer of connec-
tive tissue (lamina propria) and a ring of smooth muscle (muscularis
mucosa).

The submucosa is composed of loose connective tissue. Glands and lymphoid tissue are often contained within it. Many of the blood
vessels and nerves that supply the gut run it this layer.

The muscularis externa usually consists of 2 layers of smooth muscle whose peristaltic contractions help to propel foodstuffs through
the alimentary tract.

A serosal layer consisting of a simple squamous epithelium separates the gut tube from the peritoneal cavity.

Oesophagus

This is lined by a thick stratified squamous non-keratinized epi-

thelium.

The submucosa contains many sero-mucous glands that help to

lubricate the oesophagus.

At the distal end of the oesophagus the submucosal layer contains

many large, thin-walled veins. These may become the site of oe-
sophageal varicosities.

At the proximal end of the oesophagus the outermost layer of

muscle (muscularis externa) is composed mainly of skeletal mus-
cle but at the distal end it is composed of smooth muscle.

Stomach

The stomach can be divided into 3 regions

1. cardiac region
2. body
3. pyloric region
Each of these regions has a distinct histological appearance to its
mucosal layer.

The mucosa is thrown into macroscopic longitudinal folds known

as rugae.

The muscular coat (muscularis externa) which is 3 layers thick

has an extra oblique layer of fibres closest to the mucosa that
helps to churn up the food within the stomach.
 Gastric Mucosa

The stomach is lined by a simple columnar epithelium. The tall

columnar cells produce a special acid-resistant mucin that pro-
tects the lining of the stomach.

The surface epithelium also has deep invaginations (gastric pits)

at the bottoms of which are the openings of the gastic glands.
These glands occupy the lamina propria.

Several tall straight or branched glands open into each gastric

pit. The glands contain different types of secretory cell.

Low magnification picture of the stomach. The mucosa (top of

picture) is thrown into folds (rugae). Below this are closely
packed gastric glands.

Acid Producing Parietal (Oxyntic) Cells

These cells are found in the gastric glands in the body of the
stomach. They occur mostly in the upper parts of the glands,
close to the surface epithelium.

The cells are globular in shape and stain bright pink with H&E.

The surface of these cells is deeply invaginated to form intracel-

lular canaliculi and the cells contain many mitochondria.

The cells are rich in the enzyme carbonic anhydrase. They se-
crete hydrochloric acid. They are also believed to be the source
of intrinsic factor essential for the absorption of vitamin B12

High magnifaction picture of gastric glands from the body of the

stomach. This slide has been specially stained and the parietal
cells appear rounded and dark pink. The chief cells appear pale.

Regional Variations and Endocrine Cells

The glands of the cardiac region and pylorus do not normally have acid-producing nor chief cells. Instead their cells produce
mainly mucus (mucous neck cells).

The glands of the pylorus do, however, contain cells that produce gastrin and a bombesin-like peptide.

The glands of the stomach also contain cells that produce serotonin, somatostatin and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP). These
pale staining cells are scattered throughout all of the glands of the stomach.
hief (Zymogenic) Cells

The cells are pyramidal in shape and normally occupy the

deeper parts of the glands.

Part of their cytoplasm stains blue with H&E and the cells can
be seen to contain secretion granules.

They synthesise and secrete pepsinogen (pepsin) and lipases.

Like the acid producing cells, these enzyme-secreting cells are

found mostly in the glands in the body of the stomach and not
in the glands of the cardiac or pyloric regions.

Villi

The small intestine is thrown into macroscopic circular folds

known as plicae circulares. These increase the surface area
available for absorption.

The surface area is further augmented by finger-like projec-

tions of the mucosa known as villi.

Villi are covered by a simple columnar epithelium with 2 main

cell types, enterocytes and goblet cells.

Cells of the villi are short lived and are replaced by cells from
tubular glands (crypts of Lieberkuhn) that lie between the villi.

Each villus contains a small arteriole, a thin walled venule and

a blind-ended lymphatic (lacteal).

The venules and lacteals carry absorbed nutrients to the liver.

 Duodenum

The duodenum has a relatively smooth lining with few plicae circulares.

The villi are broad leaf-like structures and the epithelium has relatively few goblet
cells.

The crypts contain stem cells for the replacement of villus cells and Paneth cells
that secrete lysozyme, an enzyme important for the breakdown of bacterial cell
walls.

The submucosa of the duodenum is filled by a mucous secreting Brunner's gland.

Its alkaline secretion helps to neutralise the chyme emerging from the stomach.

Jejunum

The jejunum has close packed plicae circulares and the villi are
long and narrow.

Many goblet cells are present within the epithelium.

The submucosa is normally broad and composed of loose con-

nective tissue.

Lymph nodules are present in the lamina propria but not nor-
mally in the submucosa.

Jejunal villi stained with H&E. The villi are narrower Finger-
like) than those of the duodenum and there are more pale-
staining goblet cells in the epithelium.

Ileum

Here the plicae circularis are not as closely packed as in the

jejunum and the villi are not as tall.

Goblet cell numbers increase towards the distal end.

Large patches of lymphoid tissue (Peyer's patches) are pre-

sent.

These occupy not only the lamina propria but also penetrate
the muscularis mucosa to occupy the submucosa.

Low magnification view of the ileum. Note the large, round, blue-staining lymph nodules within the submucosa.
 Vermiform Appendix

The vermiform appendix is lined by a simple columnar epi-

thelium with goblet cells but with no villi and only a few ru-
dimentary crypts.

The lamina propria and submucosa are filled with lymphoid

tissue.

The amount of lymphoid tissue present is large in children but

declines with age.

Low magnification picture of the appendix. Note that the surface epithelium is smooth and has no villi and that there are very few
crypts. The lamina propria and submucosa are filled with lymphoid material.

Colon and Rectum

There is very little macroscopic folding of the lining of the

large bowl.

Furthermore, there are no villi.

The epithelium consists of close packed intestinal crypts oc-

cupied mainly by goblet cells.

The muscularis external consists of a thickened inner circular

layer of smooth muscle and an outer layer that is drawn up
into 3 longitudinal bands known as taeniae coli.

Low magnification picture of the colon. The mucosa has numerous crypts but no villi. The crypts have large numbers of pale-
staining goblet cells.

Anus

The anal canal in lined mainly by a stratified squamous

keratinizing epithelium that arises abruptly from the simple
columnar epithelium of the rectum.

The submucosa contains fat and a prominent (internal) plexus

of veins that may give rise to anal varicosities.

The smooth muscle of the mucularis externa is thickened to

form the internal anal sphincter and is surrounded by striated
muscle of the external anal sphincter.

Low magification view of the anal canal. The epithelium is a stratfied squamous one. Deep to this is pale staining fatty tissue and
muscle of the anal sphincter.
 Overall Organisation

The liver is divided into 4 macroscopic lobes (left, right,

caudate, quadrate). Within these, the cells are organised into
polygonal lobules separated from each other by delicate
connective tissue septa.

Each lobule consists of cords of tightly joined hepatocytes

that radiate from the centre.

Between the cords are thin walled sinusoidal blood vessels

that bathe the hepatocytes in mixture of arterial and venous
blood.

Low magnification picture of a liver lobule showing cords of The sinusoids are fed with blood by the terminal branches of
hepatocytes (liver cells) converging on a central vein. the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein that are distributed
around the periphery of each lobule.

Blood drains from each lobule via the central vein that coa-
lesces with others to form the hepatic veins.

Biliary Canaliculi and Ducts

A network of bile canaliculi (singular. canaliculus) run be-

tween the hepatocytes, in the plane of the cords.

These are sealed channels between adjacent hepatocytes

created by the presence of occluding junctions on either
side.

The hepatocytes secrete bile (bilirbubin and bile acids) into

these channels (canaliculi).

Picture of liver showing a portal triad. These are located
around the periphery of each lobule and contain three small
vessels, an arteriole (branch of hepatic artery), a venule, here
containing red blood cells (branch of the hepatic portal vein)
and a intrahepatic bile duct lined by a cuboidal epithelium
The canaliculi coalesce and on leaving the lobule (at its pe-
riphery) drain into small intra-hepatic bile ducts that are
lined by a simple cuboidal epithelium.
These can be seen at the 'corners' of the lobules along with
terminal branches of the hepatic artery and hepatic portal
vein where the form a "portal triad".

Liver Sinusoids

The sinusoids of the liver are thin walled fenestrated vessels.

These vessels sit on a delicate meshwork of reticulin (collagen

III fibres) and are separated from the cords of hepatocytes by the
space of Disse, from which blood cells, but not plasma are nor-
mally excluded.

Included within the lining endothelium are specialised macro-

phages known as Kupffer cells.

One of their functions is the production of bilirubin that is taken

up and excreted by the hepatocytes.
 Gall Bladder and Biliary Tree

The biliary tree is lined throughout by a cuboidal epithelium. In

the smaller vessels it is a single layered (simple) epithelium but
towards the duodenal papilla it often becomes stratified.

The gall bladder is lined by a simple columnar epithelium cells

of which are all of the same type.

These cells have a poorly developed brush border (microvilli).

They are adapted for the re-absorption of water and salts and
thereby serve to concentrate the bile.

The epithelium, which sits on a submucosa of connective tis-

Low magnification picture of the gall bladder. The lining is a
sue, is thrown into folds. Outside of this is a smooth muscle
simple columnar epithelium that is thrown into folds (not villi).
coat.

This contracts, particularly in response to CCK and causes bile

to be expelled into the common bile duct. Concentrated and
compacted bile products (gall stones) may be present in the
lumen of the gall bladder.

Exocrine Pancreas

The exocrine pancreas constitutes over 90% of the whole gland

and is responsible for the synthesis and secretion of a wide
range of digestive enzymes.

These are discharged into the 2nd part of the duodenum. The
endocrine pancreas that produces insulin, glucagon and other
hormones is examined elsewhere.

The exocrine gland is a wholly serous gland whose cells each

Low magnification picture of the pancreas. The exocrine cells
produce a mixture of enzymes that are packaged and released
are arranged into circular (spherical) clumps known as acini. The
together.
nuclei and cell cytoplasm at the periphery of each acinus stains
dark blue but the secretion granules at the centre of each acinus
stain bright pink. Blue staining nuclei can also be seen at the The fluid component of the secretion is mainly produced by the
centres of the acini to the left of the picture. These are the nuclei duct cells, including the proximal cells of the duct that arise at
of the bicarbonate-producing centro-acinar cells. Note also the the centre of each acinus (centro-acinar cells).
small duct at the top of the picture.

Secretory Acinus

The pyramidal cells are arranged into spherical clumps each with
their apex pointing to the centre of the acinus.

The cells have a large centrally placed nucleus and the cytoplasm
is strongly polarised.

The base of the cells (periphery of the acinus) is occupied by

rough endoplasmic reticulum whereas the apex of the cells (centre
of acinus) contains large strongly staining zymogen granules.

Stimulation with CCK promotes the fusion of the granules with the
apical membrane and the release of their contents by exocytosis.

Stimulation with secretin, on the other hand, promotes the flow of

abundant fluid, released mainly by the ducts.
 Mouth

This is lined mostly by a stratified squamous non-keratinizing

epithelium but keratinized areas are common at sites of abrasion.

It sits on a connective tissue layer (submucosa) containing colla-

gen and elastic fibres. The deeper layers often contain skeletal
muscle fibres that help to change the shape of the oral cavity.

Many small blood vessels lie in the submucosa and fluid from
these helps to keep the epithelium moist.

There is an abrupt transition to stratified squamous keratinising

epithelium at the margin of the lips.
Low magnification picture of the lip showing the junction be-
tween skin - stratified squamous keratinizing epithelium to the
left (outside of lip) and the lining of the mouth - stratified
squamous non-keratizing epithelium to the right. Deep to the
epithelia are connective tissue, blood vessels and bundles of Tongue
muscle fibres.
The tongue is covered by a stratified squamous epithelium that
remains non-keratinized on its ventral surface but is heavily
keratinized on its dorsal surface.

Inside, it is composed of coarse bundles of skeletal muscle fibres

that run in many different directions. Some of these insert onto
the jaw but others attach to the fibrous connective tissue under-
lying the mucosa (intrinsic fibres).

Many mixed sero-mucous salivary glands are embedded within

the substance of the tongue. So too are lymph nodules, particu-
larly in the posterior 1/3rd of the tongue (e.g. lingual tonsils).

Picture of the lower surface of the tongue showing a sgtratified

squamous epithelium. Below this is connective tissue and glan-
dular tissue from the sublingual salivary glands.

Papillae

The dorsum of the tongue is thrown into complex folds known as

papillae.

Tall, pointed filiform papillae are the most common and cover the
whole of the anterior 2/3rd of the tongue, producing a rasp-like
surface.

Less numerous mushroom shaped fungiform papillae are found at

the tip and sides of the tongue.

Pale-staining taste buds are embedded in the epithelium on their

undersides of these papillae. Here they are protected from the oral
cavity.

A V-shaped row of dome-shaped circumvallate papillae separate

High magnification picture of part of the surface of the tongue the anterior 2/3rd and the posterior 1/3rd on the tongue's surface.
showing small pale-staining taste buds embedded in the surface These too bear taste buds.
epithelium.
 Parotid Salivary Glands

These wholly serous glands lie anterior to the ear on the side of
the face and enter the mouth via ducts adjacent to the 1st upper
molar teeth.

They are penetrated but not innervated by branches of the facial

nerve and have a large lymph node contained within their cap-
sule.

The secretory cells produce mainly digestive enzymes and flu-

ids.

The secretory cells are organised into spherical clumps called

acini (singular, acinus) that show all the characteristics of pro-
tein secreting cells.
Part of the parotid salivary gland. This is a wholly serous
gland. The secretory acini are all of the same kind. This picture
The cells are pyramidal in shape with a spherical nucleus. The
shows a number of circular clumps of secretory cells. The se-
basal cytoplasm is filled with rough endoplasmic reticulum and
cretion granules stored in the cells stain dark pink.
prominent secretion granules lie at the apex of the cell.

The acini drain into ducts lined by a simple cuboidal epithelium

that may become stratified at its distal end.

Sublingual Salivary Glands

These lie in the floor of the mouth, beneath the tongue and dis-
charge by a series of separate ducts either side of the frenulum of
the tongue.

These branched tubular-acinar glands are almost wholly mucous

secreting. The swollen cells are filled with pale staining mucus
granules and the oval nucleus is squashed to the base of the cell.

Secretion from these glands drain into ducts lined by a simple or

Part of sublingual salivary gland. This is a wholly mucous se-
stratified cuboidal epithelium.
creting gland and the picture shows pale staining secretory
cells and a pinker staining duct with a simple cuboidal epithe-
lium to the right. Note that the secretory cells have characteris-
tic flattened nuclei that are pushed to the base of the cells. Submandibular Glands

These well-defined globular glands lie subcutaneously, below

the mandible, either side of the tongue.

They discharge by a pair of ducts on to the frenulum of the

tongue.

This branched tubulo-acinar gland is often infiltrated by fat cells.

The enzyme secreting serous cells form acini or lie at the closed
ends of the tubules where they form characteristic crescent-
shaped "demilunes".

The pale-staining mucous secreting cells line the tubular por-

tions of the glands and drain into a prominent system of ducts
lined by a simple or stratified cuboidal epithelium.

Picture of the submandibular salivary gland. This is a mixed, sero- Like the parotid, this gland is a major source of epidermal
mucous gland. The lower half of the picture shows mostly serous growth factor that promotes the growth of the epithelium of the
acini but at the top of the picture some pale-staining tubular mu- tract.
cous glands (middle and right) and a duct (left) can be seen.