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CHAPTER-2

Communication Signal and Systems


2.1 Signal Transmission in Linear systems

For a continuous time LTI system, the input output relationship is given by:

y (t ) = x (t ) * h(t ) ……(A)
x(t) h(t) y(t)

Where: x(t) is the input signal, h(t) is the impulse response of the system and y(t) is the
output of the system. Let X(f) & Y(f) be the Fourier transform of x(t) and y(t)
respectively. Now from the property- convolution in time domain of Fourier transform,
equation A can be written as:

Y ( f ) = X ( f ). H ( f ) ….…(B)

[The term h(t) and H(f) forms a Fourier transform pair.]

So the transfer function H(f) of the system is defined as:

X(f )
H( f ) = ……….(C)
Y( f )

The transfer function H(f) is a characteristic property of a linear time invariant system. It
is, in general, a complex quantity, so that we may express it in the form |H(f)|exp[jθ(f)]

H ( f ) =| H ( f ) | exp[ jθ( f )] ……(D)

Where |H(f)| is called the amplitude response and θ(f) the phase angle. Similarly, the
input signal X(f) and X(f) can be written as:

X ( f ) =| X ( f ) | exp[ jθi ( f )] ……(E)

Y ( f ) =| Y ( f ) | exp[ jθo ( f )] ……(F)

Now substituting the value of equation D,E in equation B,

Y ( f ) =| H ( f ) | exp[ jθ ( f )] | X ( f ) | exp[ jθi ( f )]


………..(G)
=| H ( f ) || X ( f ) | exp[ j{θi ( f ) +θ ( f )}]

Comparing equation G with equation F,


| Y ( f ) |=| X ( f ) || H ( f ) | ……(H)
θo ( f ) = θi ( f ) +θ ( f ) ……(I)

Equation (H) and (I) shows that the output phase spectrum of a linear system is the
summation of input phase angle and the phase angle of the transfer function and the
output amplitude spectrum is the multiplication of input amplitude spectrum with the
amplitude response of the system.

2.2 Ideal Low-Pass filter:

A filter is a frequency selective device that is used to limit the spectrum of a signal to
some specified band of frequencies. Its frequency response is characterized by pass band
and stop band. The frequency inside a pass band is transmitted with little or no
attenuation, whereas those frequencies inside stop band are rejected.

The ideal low pass filter is the one, which transmits without any distortion all frequencies
inside the pass band and completely rejects frequencies inside the stop band.

(For detail please refer the notes of Signals and Systems.)

2.3 Distortionless transmission line:

By Distortionless transmission line we mean that the output of a communication channel


is the replica of the input signal, except for the possible change of amplitude and constant
time delay. So we may therefore say:
y (t ) = Kx (t − t d )

where td is the time delay and K is any multiplicative constant.

Therefore,
Y ( f ) = KX ( f ) exp[ − j 2πft d ]
Y( f )
H( f ) = = K exp[ −2πft d ] ………….(i)
X(f )

Equation (i) implies that if the magnitude of H(f) is not constant for all frequencies then
amplitude distortion will arise. And if the phase is not the linear function of frequency(f),
phase distortion will arise.

2.4 Importance of channel bandwidth:

The fundamental parameters that control the rate of quality information transmission are
the channel bandwidth and signal power.
The bandwidth of the channel is the range of frequency that it can transmit with
reasonable fidelity. For e.g. if a channel can transmit with reasonable fidelity a signal
whose frequency components occupy a range from 0 to a maximum of 5KHz , the
channel bandwidth B is 5 KHz.

If a signal is compressed in time by a factor of 2 , it can be transmitted in half the time


and the speed of the transmission is doubled. This causes the frequency components of
the signal to be doubled, so the channel bandwidth must also be doubled. Thus the rate of
information transmission is directly proportional to the channel bandwidth B. More
generally if a channel of bandwidth can transmit ‘N’ pulses per second , then to transmit
KN pulses the bandwidth should be KB.

A larger signal to noise ratio allows transmission over a long distance. The signal power
and channel bandwidth are exchangeable to maintain a given rate of transmission. Thus
one may increase the signal power if one is willing to decrease channel bandwidth and
vice versa. Since increase in Signal power is costly and may damage the equipments So
generally B is increased o reduce the transmitted power. The above statements are
derived from Hartley-Shannon law:

C = B log 2 (1 + SNR )

2.5 Hilbert Transform and its properties:

The Fourier Transform provides a means of analyzing and designing frequency selective
filters for the separation of signals on the basis of their frequency contents. Another basis
of separating the signals is based on the phase selectivity, which uses the phase shift
between the pertinent signals to achieve the separation. The simplest phase shift is that of
180o. Now shifting the phase of all the frequency components by 180o requires the use of
ideal transformer.

The other phase shift of interest is of ± 90o. In particular, when phase angle of all
components of a given signal are shifted by ± 90o, the resulting function of time is known
as Hilbert Transform of the signal.(In conjunction with this topic, lets give a glance on
quadrature filter, which is an all pass network that shifts the phase of positive frequency
components by –90o and negative frequency components by +90o. This acts as a Hilbert
transform network). So the transfer function of a Hilbert transform network can be
written as:

H ( f ) = − jSgn ( f ) = -j for f>0


= 0 for f=0
= j for f<0

H(f)
f

Fig: Transfer Function of a quadrature filter.

Now from the duality property & inverse Fourier Transform the corresponding impulse
response is:
1
h(t ) =
πt
Let any signal x(t) be the input to the quadrature filter, The output signal y(t) is the
convolution of x(t) with h(t).The output y(t) is the Hilbert transform of x(t) denoted as
x^(t), mathematically:
1
x ^ (t ) = x(t ) * ……(ii)
πt
In the case of Fourier transform the time domain signal is changed to frequency domain
spectrum. But in the case of Hilbert transform no domain is changed. x(t) and x^(t) are
both in time domain. The spectral representation of x^(t) can be written as:

F [ x ^ (t )] = − jSgn ( f ) X ( f ) ………(iii)

The equation (iii) is obtained by using Fourier transform in equation (ii),


[convolution in time]

Properties:

i) A signal g(t) and its Hilbert transform g^(t) will have the same spectral density.

Proof:
F [ g ^ (t )] = − jSgn ( f )G ( f ) ……….(iv)
2
Now the energy spectral density is given by |G(f)| according to Rayleigh’s Energy
Theorem. So the spectral density of g^(t) will be equal to the spectral density of g(t).
Because:

| − jSgn ( f ) |=1 for all f

Therefore, spectral density of g(t) = Spectral density of g^(t).

ii) A signal g(t) and its Hilbert transform g^(t) will have the same A.C.F.

Proof:
As, Rg (τ ) ⇔ψg ( f )

Since ψ g(f) for g(t) and g^(t) is same so the ACF for g(t) and g^(t) will have the same
value.{Take reference from property i}

iii) If g^(t) is the Hilbert transform of g(t) then the Hilbert transform of g^(t) will be –
g(t).

Proof:

As [− jSgn ( f )] 2 = −1 for all ‘f’

Thus, Hilbert transform of g^(t)= -g(t)

g^(t) HT-1 HT-2 -g(t)


2.6 Bandpass Signal:

We say that a signal g(t) is a bandpass signal if the Fourier transform of the signal is non
negligible only in a band of frequencies of total extent 2W, say centered at some
frequency ± fc as shown in the figure:

|G(f)|

-fc fc-w fc fc+w f

Figure: Bandpass signal, amplitude spectrum

We refer to fc as the carrier frequency. In the majority of communication signals, we find


that the bandwidth 2w is small compared with fc, and so we refer to such a signal as
narrow-band signal.

Before going to the depth of bandpass signals lets take a look at what is Pre-envelope
and Complex Envelope.

2.6.1 Pre-envelope:

Consider a real valued signal g(t).We define the Pre-envelope of the signal g(t) as the
complex valued function:
g+(t)= g(t) + jg^(t) ….(v)

where g^(t) is the Hilbert transform of g(t). We note that the signal g(t) is the real part of
g+(t).

Let g+(t) ⇔G+(f) then, calculating the Fourier transform of equation (v):

G+(f) = G(f) + j[- j Sgn(f)] G(f)


i.e. G+(f) = 2G(f) for f>0, G(0) for f=0, 0 for f<0
]
This means, that the pre-envelope of a signal has no frequency components for all
negative frequencies. It should be emphasized that the pre-envelope can be defined for
any signal which possess spectrum.
2G(0)
G(0)

[I] [II]

-W 0 W 0 W

Figure a: Amplitude spectrum Figure b: Amplitude spectrum of pre-


of low pass signal. envelope g+(t).

Let the pre-envelope of a narrowband signal g(t), with its Fourier transform G(f) centered
about some frequency ± fc, be expressed in the form

g+(t)= ~g(t) exp[j2πfct]

where ~g(t) is the complex envelope of the signal. The above equation may be viewed as
the basis of a definition for complex envelope in terms of Pre-envelope. As the spectrum
of g+(t) is limited to the frequency band fc-w ≤ f ≤ fc+w, as shown in the figure(a) of
article2.6. Now applying the shifting property of Fourier transform we will find that the
spectrum of ~g(t) is limited to the band -w≤ f ≤w and centered at the origin, as shown in
the figure below. This means that the complex envelope is a low-pass signal.

By definition, the given signal g(t) si the real part of the signal g+(t).Thus we may express
g(t) in terms of complex envelope g+(t) as:

g(t)= Re[~g(t) exp[j2πfct]]

In general, ~g(t) is a complex valued quantity, and so we may express in the form:

~g(t)=gc(t) + j gs(t)

where gc(t) and gs(t) are both real valued low-pass functions. Thus we may express the
bandpass signal in the form:

g(t)=gc(t) Cos(2πfct) + gs(t) Sin(2πfct)

We refer to gc(t) as the in-phase component of the bandpass signal and to gs(t) as the
quadrature component of the bandpass signal g(t), both wrt the carrier Cos(2πfct). Both
gc(t) and gs(t) are band limited to –w ≤ f ≤w. Hence except for the scaling factor they can
be derived from the bandpass signal g(t), by using the scheme shown in the figure below.
Again we can reconstruct g(t) from the inphase and quadrature components which are
both a low pass signals.

Now we can express the complex envelope ~g(t) as:


~g(t)= a(t) exp[jФ(t)]
Where a(t) and Ф(t) are both real valued low-pass function.. Based on this
representation, the bandpass signal can be defined as follows:
g(t)=a(t) Cos[2πfct+ Ф(t)]

where a(t) is referred as the natural envelope or the envelope of the band pass signal and
Ф(t) is referred as the phase of the signal. It is therefore apparent that the information
content of the signal g(t) is completely represented by the complex envelope.

****End of Chpater-2****

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