Lsw 2011/04/16 rev

Contact: lsw@9.cn

Notes for Physics AL

I) Dynamics

1. Extrapolation to determine absolute Zero

By Pressure Law/Charles’s Law, PV T . Plot P or V against oC and extrapolate it
Pressure Law, P T : Keep Volume constant by a fixed mass flask
1
Boyle’s Law, P : Keep temperature constant by slow motion
V
Charles’ Law, V T : Keep pressure constant by mercury piston
Note that to reduce volumetric error, use as short tube as possible
Linear temperature scale: linear interpolation
Corrected Law:
a
( P  2 )(V  nb)  nRT ;
V
a
: attractive Intermolecular forces
V2
nb : total volume of molecules
Helmholtz free energy : A  U  TS  kT ln Q
 dA  dU  SdT  TdS
First Law : dU   U   WBy system  TdS  pdV
dA   pdV  SdT
Aper molecule NkT N 2a '
P  ( )T     2
v V  Nb ' V
2. Internal energy = PE+KE
3 R 3
KE per molecule= T  kT . Rotational, translational, vibrational
2 NA 2
PE negligible in ideal gas (no bonding, Van der Waals force, no attraction)
3. Ideal gas: High temp, Low pressure
Low pressure=> low density=> volume of container dominates
High temp=> Kinetic energy dominates
4. Kinetic theory assumptions
Elastic collision, negligible size, no interaction between molecules, short duration, random
1
5. PV  NMc 2
3
mu
Average change in momentum= (Considering x-axis for one molecule - intermolecular
t
mu 2
force negligible) ; Newton’s 2nd law yields: Force on molecule by wall =
l
N’ 3 law yields: Force on wall = Force on molecules. Large population gives ux  u y  uz
rd

1 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

6. Pressure definition: Force exerted by molecules rebounding from surface and calculated in
average rate of change of momentum of molecules per unit area.
Saturated vapour pressure: pressure exerted by vapour in equilibrium with liquid

7. First Law of Thermodynamics ΔU=Q+W

As conservation of energy
3
Internal energy U = RT neglecting rotational, vibrational, etc
2
Heat is non-mechanical exchange of energy between system that are of different temp.
Q = ml or mcΔT (Steam hurts more as they carry latern heat)
Work done (transfer of energy in and out) by gas= PdV (  Fds )
V2
nR nR
Isothermal: nR / T is constant  WD   TV
dV 
T
ln V
V1

CP

Adiabatic (no heat exchange, rapid motion)  U  W  PV  const.

CV

CV , CP being molar heat capacity at constant volume/pressure

Isobaric (Pressure constant) : WD  P  V

8. Second law of Thermodynamics

No perfect heat engines for entirely doing work
Q R
S   k  ln W , for reversible process, W as " ways ", k 
T NA
W1 N  q

W q 1
Entropy always increases. See that transferring quanta has greater effect (entropy change)
on the object with less energy

9. Conduction rate
Q A(Thot  Tcold )

t d

U as conductance ~ Capcitance   A
d d
1
U all layers 
1 1 1
   ....
U1 U 2 U 3

2 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

10. Lattice model (Left)

 dU slope of f  r graphbetween atoms k Max. f
F= , E  , UTS 
dr r r r2
For certain temperature (>oK) , they vibrate in between A and B with mean r1. For higher
temperatures, KE and thus total energy increases and they vibrate shifting to larger mean
separation.
Asymmetry with displacement larger on extension side.
Lattice modelling: Short range repulsive and large range attractive force ; Restore upon
extension /compression, No net force at eq.
Note that molecules in systems above 0K vibrate about their mean position.

11. Stress-Strain model (Right)

A: proportional limit
B: elastic limit
C: UTS (ultimate tensile stress)
D: breaking stress
AD: Elastic deformation; >B: Plastic deformation
Find Y by two parallel steel wire connected as to eliminate effects of change in support and
temperature.
YA A Force extension Stress
k ~C Stress  ; Strain  E
l d Area natural length Strain

12. Adhesive force and cohesive force

Adhesive: attraction between unlike bodies(eg, electrostatic) => tend to spread
Cohesive: Intermolecular force inside the liquid
13. Viscosity
u
Tangential force between layers of liquid of relative motion: F   A , tends to reduce P
y
Zero velocity on sides, maximum at centre
Viscosity falls as temperature increases (liquid)
14. Steady flow
Liquid elements at points follow the same path and velocity and do not vary with time

3 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

15. Bernoulli’s principle

Work done on fluid = work gain by fluid (no energy lost)
1 1  Av
Incompressible yields Av i i

Work done  ( P1 A1v1  P2 A2v2 )t

Vv2 2  Vv12
Energy gained   Vg h (no E lost )
2
1
Cancel V (Contiunity ), P   gh   v 2  Const
2
Siphon : PA  Po   gd
v2
PB    ghB  Po
2
v2
PC  Po   ghC 
2
Since PC  Po (opened end ), v  2 ghC
Max. velocity when PB  0
2( Patm   ghB )
vmax 

16. Electric vehicles
Environmental friendly: no CO2 emerged, O2 intake
Efficiency: Do not consume energy when idling
Source: Electricity could be generated by multi-sources
Short range, heating effect
All energy finally degrades into “internal energy”, which is low-graded
And hardly turns into other forms

17. Gas discharge tube

Mean free path comparable to tube length and avalanche effect

18. Hydroelectric power

mgh V
Power     gh
t t

19. Stefan’s law

Total energy
Emissive power    T 4  spherical : L   T 4  4 R 2
A  unit time

4 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

20. Black body radiation

A black body abosrbs all wavelengths and thus emit all wavelengths (continous spectrum)

21. Surface tension

Molecules in the surface area escape and are more spaced. Molecular concentration
decreases, while the attractive force between molecules produce the surface layer under
tension.
WD to separate further the molecules against molecular attraction force and increases PE of
the liquid.
Capillary effect: fluid flows against gravity in narrow tubes that intermolecular attractive and
surface tension acts on it.
2 cos 
h
 gr
1 1
P   (  )
Rx Ry
for spheres : Rx  Ry
4
for real bubble, two sides  P  
R
ALT : from free energy : dF   PdV   dA
PdV   dA, dF  0 at eq.
22. Weaks
Deep water:   gk , def . of , k by wave theory
c
Shallow water:   ck  gh  k ; Apex angle = arcsin( ) for v  c only
v
23. Upthrust/ Buoyancy
Pressure difference =  fluid  gVdisplaced
Archimedes’ principle: Any floating object displaces its own weight of fluid.

5 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

II) Theoretical Mechanics

24. CG expt
A rigid body consists of infinite point masses and all of them are subjected to G-Field forces.
Resultant of these forces forms single weight of a rigid body and acts through the position
Centre of Gravity. (CG equals CM if the gravitational field intensity equals, at all points)

<- Join the intersection of two drawing.

25. Centre of Mass

Every particles are acted by Fint  Fext

d 2r
Then,  mi 2i   ( Fint  Fext ) ;  Fint  0
all i dt all i all i

Set Fext  MR 


 all i
mi ri


rdm
R 
M M
   
(CG :) M g  OG   mi gi  ri
all i
   
MR  a   mi ri  a
all i

For the sector , with uniform density , by symmetry, y  0

 2 1 2
  3 r cos 

r d 

x  

x  dm  2  
M M
For non  uniform density ,

x
  ( x, y, z )  x dV
M

By Newton’s second law, The CM accelerates at F/M no matter where does the force act at.
An body’s linear motion could be treated as if it is concentrated at CM

6 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

26. Tension
lx
Ti 
l
m g
T Tl
v 
 M

27. Momentum conservation

Elastic situations that A hits stationary B
ma=mb: va=0, vb=ua. Largest KE of B
ma>>mb: va≈ua , vb≈2ua. Largest speed of B
ma<<mb: va≈ua, vb≈0. Largest momentum of B
   
Recall that m1v1  m2v2  m1u1  m2u2 , u, v are initial / final velocities

if elastic and m1  m2 and u2  0
v12  v2 2  u12  u2 2
 
v1  v2  0
Ie, collision of equal masses with initial stationary objects gives perpendicular final velocities.
T
Impulse   Fdt  mv2  mv1
0

By Newton’s 3rd (reaction law), the force acting on each object during impact equals:
T T
 0
F1dt    F2 dt m2 v2  m2 v1  m1v2  m1v1 , T is short enough
0

Non-elastic collision: Total Kinetic energy is not conserved giving some energy in other form
Momentum is conserved, in all systems.
Newton’s coefficient law: v1  v2  e(u1  u2 ) , e  1 when elastic
Say initially the upper sphere is static,
Coeff law :  w cos   v  e(u cos  )
Cons. of momentum : u cos   v  w cos 
no change in momentum at : u sin   w sin 
28. Energy derivation
 Fds   mgdx  mgh
dv mv 2
 Fds   m ds   mvdv 
dt 2
kx 2
 Fds   kxdx  2

7 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

29. Equilibrium and pseudo force

Equilibrium if and only if Net force=Net moment=0

A pseudo force of magnitude ma and reversed direction is ‘acted on CM (dynamic eq.)

In the figure:
f  ma;
R  mg ;
ma  L  R  s  mg  x

Equilibrium breaks at A first (slipping) if

FA FB

RA RB

v2
30. Centripetal acceleration =
r
v  v for small 
v v v2
lim  lim  v   r 2
 t 0  t  t 0  t r
The acceleration is given and perpendicular to vA and towards the center
d 2
T1  mg cos   ma( 2 ) (a is radius )
dt
d
mg sin   ma( ) 2
dt
2
d x
mg  T2  m( 2 )
dt
d
T2  T1  I ( ) 2
dt
Tangential acceleration : 2r  r ( Polar coordinates )
d 2 1
 (r  ) 
dt r
r  conserved if Tangential force  0  I  conserved if no net torque
2 

8 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

31. Application of Circular motion

In vertical closed tubes:
1 2 1 2
mu  mv  mgr (1  cos  ),  is angle with vertical , u as velocity at lowest pt
2 2
put    , umin  4 gr
When u is at minimum, the particle just reaches the top. For u  4 gr it completes the circle
In strings:
at the toppest point , for lowest velocity , centripetal force is provided entirely by mg
mv 2
mg 
r
umin  5 gr
mv 2
and for all  , T   mg cos  ,
r
for u  2 gr , it oscillates about the bottom
u 2  2 gr
for 2 gr  u  5 gr , it follows free projectile at T  0,   cos 1 ( )
3gr
u 2  2 gr u 2  2 gr 5 g 2 r 2  u 4  4 gru 2
Further, it reaches r (1  )  above the ground
3gr 3 18 g 3r 2

32. Centrifuge

Consider the part of liquid between A and B, Pb>Pa as to provide centripetal force inwards
required.
For that part of liquid, force due to pressure differences exactly equals cf. (centripetal force)
needed.
If the part is replaced by smaller density (i.e. mass), force is too large to move inwards
(towards centre of rotation) much effective than leaving suspension* as r  g
2

Practical uses:
Milk cream separation, solid from suspension, laundry driers spin to remove water
(The drum of a drier has many holes in it which reaction from the circumference provides
adequate cf. acting inwards. However, no such reaction in the holes and water rippled out)

*The denser portion will sink to the bottom due to the pressure difference (Weight>Upthrust)
which is given by: PA   gV . Now the force by centrifuge is PA  Vr 2 .

9 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

33. Oscillators and energies

Pressure restoring force: Upthrust: Assume Repulsive force only:

mx    gA  2 x mx    water  Agx Ze 2 Ze 2
mx  
V h 4 (ro  x) 2 4 (ro  x) 2
V Period  2  2
Period  2 Ag g Ze 2 2  Ze 2
2 gA  (ro  2 xro 3  ro 2  2 xro 3 )  x
h is height of the column 4  ro3
m ro 3
Period  2
Ze 2
( provided that x  ro )

SHM energy of a vertical spring: Taking GPE into account and

total energy is given by (Taking eq. pt as GPE=0) :
1 2 1 1 1 1
mv  k ( x  e)2  mgx  mv 2  kx 2  ke2
2 2 2 2 2

34. Resistance related SHM

Period is larger when compared to non-dump
Amplitude is exponentially decreasing
35. SHM kinematics
SHM: acceleration acts in proportional to x but in oppose direction with it, i.e.
x    x (See app5.1)

x  A cos(t   )
x   A sin(t   )
x   A 2 cos(t   )

x2 x 2
 2 2  1  v   A2  x 2 (ellipse)
A 2
A
x   x ( st. line)

SHM could be visualized as
1 1
KE  mv 2  m 2 ( A2  x 2 ) (quadratic) projection of a circular motion’s
Vertical AB (or horizontal )
2 2 
component: x  r cos 
x  k ( x  const ) as general form of SHM
We call  
a   r 2 cos 
 
a x

10 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

36. Forced oscillations

dx
setting f (t )  a sin pt , resistive force  mk ,  as natural freq
dt
kp
 kt a 2 sin( pt  tan 1 ( ))
1 1   p2
2
xtotal  e { A1 cos  2  k 2t  A2 sin  2  k 2t } 
2
4 4 ( 2  p 2 ) 2  k 2 p
 kt
2
Transient solution: dependent on natural frequencies, the e part
Steady solution: dependent on driving force, the part depends on “p” on right
Maximum amplitude as
1
p  2  k 2  
2 (For sake of convenience, we say “resonance” when p=ω)
kp 
At resonance, F leads displacement by lim tan 1 ( )
 p  p
2 2
2
Power input=output, maximum power transferred.
Amplitude remains finite when there’s resistive force
Vsource 2 R2
Analogy to LCR circuit, max. power at resonance: avg. Power  
R 1 2
R 2  ( L  )
C
37. Rolling

Pure rolling, no friction/ slipping:

v  r
Spin faster and slows linearly: v  r
Spin slower and accelerates: v  r
d 2
Fr   I
dt 2
F  mx
F   mg as slipping
As it is rolling , deformation occured , reaction points to oppose motion : rolling friction

An rigid body’s general motion is comprised of motion ofCM and its own rotation about CM.
1 2 1 2
Energy  mv  I 
2 2

11 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

38. Vector force treatment (see app 4.2)

     
Forces f1 , f 2 , , f n acting on r1 , r2 , , rn is equivalent to
 
R   fi acts through the Line Of Action.

Line Of Action : Let r be a point on LOA, then
   
r  R   ri  fi
  
Notice that ri on LOA, ri  R  constant
Couple is indp. of the Point of Moment taken
  
Qto any point on LOA  R  M  0
*For equilibrium, add a force –R acting at Q and a moment M
That equals couple by R and –R
39. Polar coordinates
er  cos  i  sin  j; e   sin  i  cos  j
der de
 e ;   er
dt dt
Displacement  r er
dr d
Velocity   er  r  e
dt dt
d 2r d dr d d 2
Acceleration  ( 2  r )er  (2   r 2 )e
dt dt dt dt dt
dmv 2
d r d dr d d 2
Recall F   m[( 2  r )er  (2   r 2 )e ] (const mass )
dt dt dt dt dt dt
d
Angular momentum conserved if no ext. torque / force in e  mr 2
dt
1 2 1
KE  mv  m(r 2  (r) 2 )
2 2
1 b b
Area   r 2 d ; Arc length   (rd ) 2  (dr ) 2
2 a a

40. Relative motion

Relative velocity: vel of A relative to B : VAB  VA  VB
Effect of common acceleration (eg, gravity) could be cancelled
in dealing with their relative motion

  
Apparent velocity: Vapparent  vwind  vmy motion

Closest approach to the object when the relative velocity

does not lie on the path is : d sinθ

12 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

41. General projectile treatment:

x, y indpendence :
x  u cos   t
gt 2
y  u sin   t 
2
General form :
gx 2
y  x tan   2
sec 2 
2u

u 2 sin 2 
H
2g
2u sin 
T
g
u 2 sin 2
R
g
4u 4  4( g 2 x 2  2u 2 gy )

g 2 x2
 0 for reaching a point
See that the collection of points , which give   0, under fixed u , will be the envelop of safety
(The points above, no matter what  be, cannot be striked )
g 2 u2
y x 
2u 2 2g

For wall problems, put wall ' s top point coordinate (a, b)
when there ' s no real root of u , then the particle cannot pass it Showing +ve x side only,
envelope of safety models the
Also, u  g (b  a  b ) for any 
2 2 2
enclosed region with fixed initial
velocities
Inclined motion :
1
x  u cos   t  g sin   t 2
2
1
y  u sin   t  g cos   t 2
2
2u sin 
time of flight between one collision 
g cos 
u 2 sin(2   )  sin 
Range  { }
g cos 2 
90o  
max when  
2

13 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

42. Power Fv
dW
P
dt
d  Fds

dt
ds
 F  Fv
dt
43. Conservative force:
Path independent: Energy used= U final  U initial
 

Closed
F ds  0

 F  0
dU
F 
dr
44. Gravity
GMmg
Classical Newtonian G-Force=
r2
1 GMm
Total energy in an circular orbit=  mv 2  
2 2r
Weak equivalence principle: Gravitational field strength does not depend rest mass
G-Force point to the instant position, but not the “retarded” position
r
GMm GMm GM R 2 go R 2

45. U  Fext dr   

r2
dr  
r
; g  
R2 r 2
 2
r

46. Reduced mass algorithm

Fmutual  m1a1  m2 a2
Let F   a, where a is relative acceleration  a1  a2
F F 1 mm
F  (  )   1 2
m1 m2 1

1 m1  m2
m1 m2
1 1 m1m2
KE  (m1  m2 )  vcentre of mass 2   vrelative 2
2 2 m1  m2
vCM should not change unless net external force

14 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

47. Moment of Inertia

I  def  mr 2

/ / axis thm :
Any rigid body : I x  m(GX ) 2  I G , G is centre of gravity
 axis thm :
Lamina : I z  I x  I y
r2
For sphere :  I about G   m( x 2  ) , x2  r 2  a2
4
 m   r 2 x
a a2  x2 2Ma 2
I   x2  dm   
a 4 5

48. Rotation
Every particle in a rigid body experiences:
d 2
FC ,i  mi ri ( ) ;
dt
1 d (ri 2)
FT ,i  mi   could be comprised of Internal forces
ri dt
F
all i
T ,i  ri  Total external torque about Axis

d (ri to Axis 2) d 2

  mi   I Axis
all i dt dt 2

: (1) and (2) have different total external torque. (2)

and (3) have different distribution of masses and
thus different Moment of inertia.
d 2
 Mg sin   I 2 as a SHM
dt
I
T  2
Mg

15 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

III) Wave Theory

49. y  A cos(t  kx   ) . Propagating to right: t


Phase velocity=
k

Group velocity: vg  (envelope velocity, different from Phase velocity when speeds of
k
different frequencies are not equal) =v for particles
C
Speed of sound: c  (Elasticity/Inertial properties)

50. Superposition
Resultant displacement=sum of corresponding displacements
51. Polarization
Selection of direction of disturbance from two or more choices
Only transverse waves could be polarized
n2
Brewster’s angle = arctan(1n2)  arctan( )
n1
Sunglasses aligned to block the s-polarized glaze reflected ray
Scattering: re-radiation in all directions of EM Waves=> reduction in initial axis
Save bandwidth by polarization in antenna Fresnel equation ' s solutions (  same) :
LCD: Twist angle to control amount of light n cos t  nt cos i
Wire grid: E field induces motion of e- or reflected E/ /0 r  i  E0i
ni cos t  nt cos i
2ni cosi
E//0t   E//0i
ni cost  nt cosi
n cosi  nt cost
E0 r  i  E0i
ni cosi  nt cost
2ni cosi
E0t   E0i
ni cosi  nt cost

Phase Shift of reflecting ray Phase Shift of reflecting ray

(air to glass, ni  nt ): (glass to air, ni  nt ):

2
n cos t Et E 2
Transmittance T  [ t ] ; Reflectance R= ( r ) . R+T=1 (consv. of energy)
n2 cos i Ei Ei

16 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

52. Reflection and transmission

Followed by Fresnel equations, at normal incidence:
ni  nt
Reflected : A  A0
ni  nt
2ni
Transmitted : A  A0
ni  nt
53. Classical Huygen’s principle
Every point on AB is regarded as source of secondary wavelet. Common
tangent CD of the spherical wavelets of radius ct. Constructed wavefront
CD is parallel to AB.

54. Wavefront diagram, Snell’s Law

Different in speed, AB not parallel to A’B’

55. Simple refraction

Refractive index increases with frequencies. (group velocities varies)
Due to differences in speed: EM wave photons are being forced into
“modes/phonon” with lattice.
If the photon matches the phonon mode, the photon is absorbed=> heat
If not, re-emitted with delay and slowed phase velocity of the propagation. Freq. stays const.
1h 2h 3h
Phonon: Quantum of vibrational energy taking levels ,  ,  , 
2 2 2
56. Double silt expt
Requirements: Monochromic light, narrow vertical slits, close together, parallel to source,
coherent sources, D>>d, strong enough source
Coherent time: Constant phase relationship within
emitted photons
Compose of diffraction and interference pattern.
More slits give sharper effects.
Core: In phase arrival gives maximum.

17 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

57. Diffraction of narrow gaps or aperture

Effect due to superposition that on unrestricted part of a wavefront that have been
obstructed by an obstacle or aperture.
Sounds of lower frequencies could be diffraction more effectively by Large speaker cones

58. Intensity, dB
P
I (consequence of energy conservation)
4 r 2
I
Intensity level (dB)  10 log10 ( )
I o , threshold
59. Sound wave as Pressure wave
Reflection from air to solid: Compression-> Compression (High P->High P)
Kundt tubes: Reflect and superimpose and standing waves.
Powders swirls away from antinodes and heaps are formed at nodes.

Count the powder’s number and thus separation= and
2
use v  f  . Use dry tube and thin layers. L1+c=λ/4 ; l2+c=3λ/4
60. Standing wave first position that a loud sound
is heard: fundamental freq.
Superposition of two trains of waves in opposite direction with near A and f. l2-l1=λ/2
-Nodes points are always destructive.
-Energy is confined in st. wave
-In phase for all particles in adjacent nodes, but are of different amplitudes
Acoustic devices emerge sound waves with Superposition of its natural frequencies.
Always form st. wave when there’s one side of reflection only

String and open tube: f0 , 2 f0 ,3 f0 , 4 f0 ,.....

Closed tube: f0 ,3 f0 ,5 f0 ,7 f0 ,....
f0 is fundamental note; Harmonics are multiple of f0 and overtones are the resonant
frequencies. Below: Drum mode 0 ,2

18 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

1 1 1
61. Lens Law with Real is Positive:  
u v f
Convex Lens Concave Lens Convex mirror Concave mirror
f + - - +

v Real: >f, inverted Virtual for all, Virtual for all, Real: >f, inverted
Virtual: <f, upright upright upright Virtual: <f, upright

62. Diffraction grating

Hold a diffraction grating against one end. View
through the grating’s vertical filament of the ray-
box lamp placed about 1m from meter rules.
Move the pencil until it is in line with the middle
of red color in first order spectrum.
Measure x and thus  and sin  . Apply
d sin   n (constructive) ,n=1 and
d=diffraction slit separation.
Make sure the filament of lamp is vertical.
Error: uncertainty of determining location of max. red line.
Diffraction grating outweighs prism as they offer boarder spectrum and sharper images.
63. Interference theory
Cancellation/Reinforcement due to the phase
difference.
Slinky springs to demonstrate interference:

Observable interference pattern for Light:

-phase difference constant (pd <coherent length)
-use a single source (as light is emitted in quanta
of energy and two sources could not offer a stable
phase difference)
-pd comparable to wavelength
Observable interference pattern for Sound:
-phase difference constant
-could be dual-source
*Pd: path difference

19 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

64. Interference applications

->Oil film: As viewing angle varies,
constructive interference’s satisfied
for different colors=> Shows different
Color as head turns or strips of color when viewing from top.
Not valid for thick film: pd >coherent length/
multitude of colors CI at the same time.
Air wedge:

Newton’s ring (Concentric circles):

Interference occurred from reflected lower surface and upper ray. Separation decreases as
gradient of thickness of air film increases; Central black as phase shift between media
Newton’s ring is best observed as normal incident of light since pd is smallest and intensities
between the two reflected ray are most comparable

Air wedge:
At normal incidence, optical pd= 2t  n . n is refractive index for material between
Reflected rays (red and blue) superimpose together
Due to phase shift:
CI : 2nt  0.5 ,1.5 , 2.5 ,...
DI : 2nt   , 2 ,3 ,...
 
Fringe separation s : tan   s
2  ns 2n tan 
At oblique incidence,
Pd= 2nt cos(r   )
65. Beats
Interference between two sounds of slightly different frequencies, perceived as periodic
variation of volume whose rate is the difference of frequencies: fbeat  f1  f 2
Used in tuning folks, speed detectors

20 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

66. Medium dependent Doppler’s Effect

cv
Apparent wavelength 
fs
c c
fo   fs
 cv

Re lative velocity  c  v
cv
by v  f  , f o  fs
c

Only the red component arises Doppler’s effect as it is approaching.

Radar send microwave of frequency fo to a travelling car and reflected
waves (f1) are superimpose with fo to form beats. f  f1  f 0 Beat
.
frequency depends on car speed.

21 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

IV) Classical Electrodynamics

67. Electrostatics (See app 3.5)

FE
E-field as .
q
0V reference: infinite far. Potential: potential difference from inf.
work done in taking Q for  x :
F  x  Q V
dV
E (conservative field )
dx
r  
U   F ext  d r


 Q(V )
Maxwell eqt :   E 

; Guass Law :  S E  dA  
Q r
By symmetry, Esphere : ; Eoutside , cyclinder 
4 r 2
2 R 2
Q
Einside , parallel plate 
A
Qi qi 1 Qi Q j 1
Potential energy of system  
all pairs
 
4 ri 2 i  j 4 rij 2 2 
 V  dv
Not repeating

-When any charged particle is accelerated, it emits EM wave

-Earnshaw’s theorem: A charge acted on by electrostatic forces cannot rest in stable
equilibrium in an electric field
68. Potential for common objects: See app 1
69. Electric shield (Faraday’s cage)
Conducting metal’s inside E-field =0
Charges in the conducting material will
redistribute themselves as to cancel fields’
effect in cage interior.
Coating WIFI-antenna blocks its signal

70. Flame Probe

Earth the electroscope. Flame probe as to investigate
potential, whose calibrated electroscope is of the same
potential and rise of golden leaf indicates potential.
Conducting sphere is charged to 1kV by EHT and gains
positive charges. The flame ionize surrendering area as to
provide ions for neutralizing the needle (charges on the
1
probe). Potential is unaltered. Verify V  and its
r
equiopotential(r constant).

22 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

71. Electrical breakdown

Electrostatic discharge: Spark. Ionized conductive channel in air above limits of voltage
72. Capacitor (Condenser)
Q
For ONE plane, E 
2 A
Q
Parallel planes : Ein between  ;E 0
 A outside
Qd A
V  ;C 
A d
q
dc connections : Vemf  ir 
C
t

i  I o (1  e RC
)
t ~ 5 RC as fully charged up
Parallel LC circult :
Q di 1
 ir   L , fo 
C dt 2 LC
CV 2
Energy   QdV 
2
73. Applications of capacitor
-Smoothing circuit
-Blocking dc. (AC coupling)
t 1 1
-Integrator in analogs (integrating voltage: Vc  V
0 in dt 
RC
for  
RC
)

-Storing energy (Snubber condenser)

-Flash units

Reed switch experiment: during half cycle the capacitor is charged and discharge through
protective resistor. Light beam galvanometer measures average current=Qf
Use low enough freq. and high enough resistor but further reduce it will not increase current
reading
Constant rate charge up: Q=It
Use voltmeter as shown: (high impedance)

74. Energy transformation in electric circuits

E: Force/columb acting on free electrons
Emf: Energy imparted by source/columb
Pd: Energy converted to other forms/columb

23 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

75. Electric signals in circuits, drift velocity

I l
I  nAve J  R
A A
v~ 104 ~ 105 m/s;
n as charge density;
J as current density
signal speed: c
Drift velocity: electrons are accelerated in E-field by experience collisions and thus have net
small displacement only.
2 EF eE d 1 ne2 d
velectron  , vd   ,  .
m m vF  mvF
vF is Fermi velocity; EF is material dp. property, 7.00eV for Cu
76. Joule Heating
Lattice ions gain vibrational energy as they are collided with moving and accelerating
electrons. Internal energy rises as temperature rises.
77. Kichhoff’s laws:

at Junction
Ik  0

V
Loop
k 0

5  L
di1
 i1 R2 
 i2 dt  i R  e t   0
2 1
dt C1

 i dt  i R
2
 i2 R1  0
3 3
C1
78. Superposition of currents

79. Temperature dependence of resistivity

Metal: temp increases with resistances
Semiconductor: resistance decreases as temp increases. (Commonly)
80. Energy conversion
1kWh=3600000J;
1eV= 1.6 1019 J

24 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

81. Magnetic flux links

Magnetic field lines are always closed :  B  dA  0 ;   B  0
S

Magnetic field is NOT a force field.

But WD by magnetic field on charges in always 0

  E
Maxwell correction: changing E-field generates magnetic field   B   J  
t
Which gives EM wave equations:
 2 
( 2   2 ) E  0
t
 2 
( 2   2 ) B  0
t
1
and phase velocity c 



 I dl  rˆ
82. General magnetic field laws - Biot Savart law: B 
4  r2
which can be shown equivalent to F  BIL
Consider an object m and current I , r apart ,
m  l sin  I
Fm  Hm   Fm 
4 r 2
m
Hi 
4 r 2 
By 3rd Law, Fm  Fi
mIl sin 
F   HIl sin   BIl  qvB(right angles)
4 r 2
 
 B  dl   Ienclosed
Ampere ' s Law : 
C

4  nI
Helmholtz coil: B= ( )3/2
5 R
 IR 2
Single wire loop: B=
2( R 2  x 2 )3/2
Ni N N2A
Solenoid: B=  L def 
l I l
I
Straight infinite wire: B=
2 r
Earth field: Magnetic South = Geographical North

25 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

76. Ammeter structures with eddy currents

Couple by current coil, turns and stops by restoring
hair torque. Current being proportional to deflection.
Radial field for linear scale. NABI  k
Eddy current to provide critical damping (eddy
current always oppose motion)

77. CRO and Root mean square(see Appendix 2.1,4.2)

I rms 
 a period
I (t )2 dt
T
78. Mutual force between current carriers
 I1I 2 N V
F=  Length BI  Hl L  
2 r , , I di
dt
7 1
79. 1A  2 10 Nm
Mutual force of current in vaccum

80. Magnetic force

Hold equilibrium by riders and adjust current by rheostat. Add magnet/ Increase current.
Restore equilibrium by adding riders
Shield it, align East-West (magnet), avoid overheating, stray magnetic fields
NI  mmf
m1m2
FMutual between magnets  ; B  H
4 r 2 
Ferromagnet: Remains permanent magnets
Hysteresis effect
Paramagnet: Occurred only at external magnetic field
81. Hall’s effect and Hall probe
Force will act at right angles to charges carries when a current-carrying conductor is placed
perpendicularly to uniform B-field. Concentration across one end will be higher and an
BI
Electric field is set up in between. Vh 
nqt
Hall probe is thin slice of semiconductor with low charge density. Steady current, B-field
perpendicular, accumulation of charges and deflection ceases whenever balance. CRO used.
Search coils for ACs.

26 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

82. Dc motor, generators fine structure

dc motor/gen; ac motor/gen
Back emf induced against increase in current, Start
rotation at   BANI sin t  resistive torque
Magnetic flux linkage changes over time and back emf
to oppose the rotation. VI=useful power by motor.
  BANI sin t
  BA cos t
dN
back emf    BAN  sin t
dt
83. Simple transformers
Induced emf: Vrms=4.44 N f Φ
Magnetizing current I mag : current used to keep B/H flux in core
Core loss: Work-done in core as resistors/Hysteresis loss
Flux leakage: Self-inducing effects, air linked
Coil loss: Resistance in coils
Real Transformer equivalent:

Core loss : RC
Flux leakage : X P , X S
Coil resistance : RP , RS
As useful flux in core is kept constant (little variation about 2%) Neglecting Xs, Rs, Xp, Rp
MMF conserved and primary current rises with secondary current
Back emf varies about 0.05% to 1% only, but could contribute a fluctuation of current
Laminated cores to prohibit formation of eddy current, toroidal core to reduce reluctance/air
gaps (Not easy to distort at ends) , coolants:

27 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

84. Induction theory (Oppose changes)

Faraday’s law: Induced emf generated is proportional to rate of change of magnetic flux
dN
linkage ( )
dt
Lenz’s law: Induced current flows as to oppose motion of change causing it (negative)
F  q( E  v  B)
Lorentz force:
F  BI  L  BI sin  for magnitude
which could be shown equivalent to Faraday’s law
85. Induction applications
Changing ac with magnetic flux, induces emf and float a conductor when gravity = magnetic
force.
Force on coil to force vibrating the paper cone. Set up sound waves in surrounding air
Sound wave: compressed surrounding air collides with other molecules and passes its
momentum. When diaphragm is pulled back, extra spaces in air molecules formed. Expansion
is created and molecules fill in. Repeated process of pressure wave is formed, which is the
combination of rarefaction and compression
Electromagnet provides current through sea water. Sea water experience backward force
and 3rd law yields forward force on boat.
Cyclotron : accelerate electrons through a gap.
mv 2
force  qvB; qvB 
r
m
time t to complete semi  circular orbit  (indp v )
qB
1 qB
Alternating voltage  
2t 2 m
mv
r . as v increases, r increased .
qB
mE '
Mass spectrometer: Different ions give different r: r 
qBB '
86. Inductor
When dc is closed, current tried increase and being opposed by Lenz’s law and a back emf is
developed. Current could only increase steady from zero to E/R (exponentially). As current
breaks, the drop in current is large and rate of change of flux is large. Large induced emf of
magnitude ~100V which causes sparking due to electrostatic discharge (occurred at 4kv/cm).
dI
Back emf  L
dt
X L  L
1
Parallel :
1
L
i

Series :  Li
1 2
Energy stored  LI
2

28 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

87. Eddy current

Current induced in conductor as to induce magnetic fields that oppose the one created it
-Induction heating
-Break
-levitation
Minimized using laminations: charges accumulates on the boundaries, producing E-field to
oppose further accumulation
88. Ac phasor
series :
XL  Xc
  arctan( )
R
Vtotal  ( X L  X C ) 2  R 2
parallel :
1 1

X Xc
  arctan( L )
1
R
1 1 1 2
Vtotal  ( ) 2  (  )
R X L XC

89. AC resonance
series : X L  X C
Largest current flows if XL=XC

Parallel: LC in parallel, exchange between

electric and magnetic energy
damped oscillations (used in radios)

Emfs of various frequencies are induced

from the aerial, current flows in aerial. By
mutual induction, current of same
frequencies will be induced in LCR circuit.
By adjusting C, resonant frequency of LCR is changed. Large pd of that
frequency will develop across C.
(Analogy to forced oscillation: If the source is
superimposed with multitude of freq. ,
the one closed to natural frequency dominates)
Practical I-t curve:

29 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

90. Ripple discharge

Storing capacitor acts to release charges and energy when input voltage decrease. Time
constant is large compared and the voltage cannot follow and a more or less dc is developed.

91. Electron deflects in E-field and B-field

Thermionic emission: heating a metal to supply enough energy for electrons escaping
attractive force of metallic bond. E   ,  as work function
Ee m v2
E  field : ae  ; B  field : FB  evB  e
me r
E
if e is subjected to E  B field , for no deflection : FB  FE  v 
B
eE l
D  L
m v2

30 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

V) Modern Physics

92. Rutherford scattering

The atom is highly positive with charge Ze and electrons surround
2Ze2
Spaces around the atom. Direct closest approach: r0 
1
4  m vinitial 2
2
ZQq GMm
The imaginary cone up-slide model:    mgh
4 r r
Alpha particles lost their KE as being repelled by E-force, acquiring initial KE when returned
93. Line spectrum
Absorption/Sun spectrum: Cooler gas around the sun, lines with exact wavelengths in
emission spectrum. The atoms absorbs light they can emit, re-radiate photon in all directions,
and reduce in original direction. Called Fraunhofer lines
All lines are distinct and compare lines with those of hydrogen, helium in laboratories
Emission spectrum: luminous gas at low pressure. Electrons are excited from low to high level
and drop from higher level.
Compared: Continuous spectrum by hot solids, high pressure tube, filament lamp
Atoms are closed and interact with each other forming all  , f
As known as “atomic scattering” or “atomic resonance”

94. Photoelectric
E  hf    Vstopping  e  
One to one: immediate emission Cathode ray
E=hf: no dependence on intensity .With E<hf no absorption
Work function: minimum energy supplied to enable an electron escape from surface
Max KE depends on hf and work function solely. No faster electron for more intense wave
Sound track: varying sound tracks varies light intensity and thus photoelectric current

95. Thermionic emission and cathode ray tube

Thermionic emission: External work against the metal’s attractive force and free electrons by
1 2
exceeding the work function. Accelerating electrons by voltage: eV  mv
2

31 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

96. X-ray Theory: ionizing, high penetrating power

Bombardment of energetic electrons. Gradual energy lost by collisions. EM wave emitted by
classical theory.
c
Max. energy of X ray= All energy lost in one atom : h  eV

Line characteristic: High energy e knocking out inner shell e.
c
Vacancies are then being filled by outer electrons: E  h

97. Bohr’s Model:
Angular momentum:
nh
mvr 
2
nh
v
2 mr
mv 2 ZQq
Bohr ' s assumption : 
r 4 r 2
m n2h2 ZQq

r 4 m r
2 2
4 r 2
 n2h2 1 ZQq Z 2Q 2 q 2 m
r , energy   
mZQq 2 4 r 8 2 n 2 h 2
e 4 me 1 1
For Hydrogen, E    2  13.6  2 eV
8 h n
2 2
n

98. Frank-Hertz expt

Discrete E-Level:
V<1: electron has not enough KE to overcome retarding
voltage
V<5: more and more electron gains enough energy to reach
anode
V=5: some electrons gain enough energy (>EP)and undergo
inelastic collision with Hg. Remaining energy could not
overcome retarding
V>5: remaining energy>retarding
Energy level assumption: Electrons with energy greater than the gap E  E1  E2 could
be absorbed by probability. Only Photons with discrete energy hf  E could be absorbed.

32 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

99. Electron diffraction

Electrons are accelerated by:
mv 2
eV 
2
2eV
v
m
1 h h
  
eV 2mo eV 2mo eV
1 2
2mo c
relate a sin   m for dark fringes
y
sin   tan   , y is spread of first min .
D
2 D 2hD
Bright region width  2 y  
a a  2mo eV
Can be used as electron microscope->

100. Energy equivalent in Special relativity

E  (mo c 2 )2  ( pc)2
Rest mass: Closed and relatively rest system’s Newtonian mass
Relativistic mass: Total energy/c2
Relativistic momentum is conserved in 4-dimensional fields
E pc

c v
mo c 2
E
v2
1 2
c
Photon: Put mo=0, E=pc=hf
mo v
p
v2
1
c2

101. Wave-Particle duality

h
de Brogile wavelength :  
p
All matter exhibits wave-properties

33 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

102. Statistical and numerical treatment of radioactive spontaneous decay

Cannot tell which and when the nuclide decays.
Statistical reference: large N (see app 2.1)
define probability of decay in unit time  k
(aka. fraction of total number which decay in unit time)
dN
 kN
dt
N  N o e  kt
ln 2
t1/2 
k
ln 3
t1/3 
k
Mass
Activity  kN  knN A  k   NA
molarmass
103. Radioactive hazard:
Direct consumption into/exposure to human bodies, cancers
Destroy body cells, Mutations

104. Unit Sv, dose equivalent: a function of energy

HT , R  wR  DT , R
105. Solar fusion:
4 p  2e  2  2  He  4


106. Mass defects and binding energy curve

E  mc 2
Binding energy is energy required to split the nucleus completely.
Fe-56 carries maximum BE/nucleon and is most stable.
Eg, U  235  n  Ba 144  Kr  89  3n  177MeV
When nucleus of large mass is split into two daughter nuclei, energy is released

107.Nuclear Plants
Fission is often accompanied by Chain reaction.
Slow neutrons are favorable for reactions. U-235 captures slow neutrons
Fuel rod: enriched U-235
Moderator: water/graphite as to slow down neutron
Control rod: boron-coated steel as to absorb neutrons and control fission rate
Coolant: Pressurized water under critical temperature, boil water in secondary circuit

108. Solar cell as photoelectric cell

Array of solar cells converts EM-wave to currents
Photovoltaic effect: Generated electrons are transferred in material and set up a voltage

34 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

109. Brief Radioactivity

C-14 dating: N  14  n  C  14  p 
By cosmic ray imparted (neutrons)
C-14 remains throughout constant (Carbon intake=output)
Check activity -> time after death, assuming living samples’ activities equals the testing
sample’s initial activity

Ionization power:
Radioactive particles attract nearby particles and ionize them by giving up energy.

Cloud chamber reveals their path

Ionization chamber: ion pairs produced are accelerated towards anode and cathode.
GM tube: Electrons emitted and accelerated and undergo avalanche

Neutron ionization: though neutron are neutral, But they can:

-Be absorbed and emit gamma or electron
-Recoil proton

Common reactions:
 2 : U  238  Th  234   2
  : Cs  137  Ba  137      e
  : C  11  B  11     e
e capture : Al  26  e   Mg  26  e
Annihilation : e  e    
High freq photon strike [ Pair production] :   e  e (hf  2  me c 2 )
h
Mid freq photon strike [Compton scattering ] :  '   (1  cos  )
me c
c
Low freq photon strike [ Photoelectric] : h    eVstopping potential


35 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

VI) Modern technologies

110. Astronomy: Kepler’s 3 laws

110.1 Sun as in focus
110.2 Equal areas swept(conservation of AM)
110.3 3rd Law:
mv 2 GMm
 2
r r
GMm T GM
r3   ( )2 
m 2
2 1
4 a
2 3
T2 
GM

111. Telescopes
Objectives are used to collect large
amount of light and form a
intermediate image at its focus.
Eyepiece acts as to magnify image
and produce a virtual image.
Eyes ring: position to collect most
light

112. Light Microscopes

h  h' h v D
 , M    1  m1m2  (  1)(  1)
D  h1 h fo fe

36 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

113. Apparent weightlessness

Normal reaction=o
When all of the weight is used for centripetal acceleration, reaction ceases
114. Relativistic Doppler’s Effect and applications
Light requires no medium to travel in and we are considering their relative speeds only.


Time measured in source frame that two wavefronts reach observer 
cv
Time measured in observer
Time measured in source 
v2
1
c2
v2  1
 1  
c c  v fo
2

c 1 cv cv
fo    fs
 v2 c cv
1
c2
cv cv  cv c2  v2  c  v
f  (1  )f  f  f
cv cv c2  v2
v2 v v
1 2
1  1 1 
 c c f  c f v f
v 2 1 c
1 2
c

37 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

115. Red shift

Red shift is the feature that distant stars/galaxies emitting light which is similar to that of
stars in our galaxy but with wavelength of spectrum shifted to the Red end (higher
wavelength). By relativistic Doppler’s effect, they are moving away from us and it possibly
suggests that universe is expanding.
116. Microscope resolving power

sin   1.220
D
Images are up to : Aberrations (refraction); Diffractions
Airy disk:  as first minimum, diffraction pattern

117. Lasers and fluorescent

Laser:
Stimulated emission from population inversion. A meta-stable
state is required. When a photon incident with correct energy
gap, inducing electrons of higher energy fall and form
coherent (same frequency) , intense waves(constructive
interference, same direction).
Mirrors could be employed for further interference.

Fluorescent:
Fluorescent material absorbs energy and decay in steps. The
excited molecule firstly give up energy by collision with other
molecules. When it is returned to ground states, a photon of
lower energy and frequency is emitted.
Radiation energy<absorbed energy
Mercury lamps: mercury gives UV and being absorbed by
fluorescent materials on the coating, visible light turns out.

118. X-ray: Application

X-ray intensity drops as they interact with matter.
I  I o e Ax A   = absorption coefficient,  =mass absorption coefficient
Attenuation length/ mean free path: depth into a material that intensity decreased to 37%
1 1
x 
A 
119. CT image
As a map of attenuation coefficients of body parts. Beer’s Law:
I  I o exp{  Ai xi }
parts i

Grey level: attenuation

38 - AL PHY
Lsw 2011/04/16 rev
Contact: lsw@9.cn

APPENDIX

Appendix 1: Voltage for common objects

By HyperPhysics

39 - AL PHY