ee201-semiconductor devices

CHAPTER 2

DIODES

asalamsaad,pkt,2011
 ee201-semiconductor devices

A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction with far greater ease
than in the other. The most common kind of diode in modern circuit design is the semiconductor diode,
although other diode technologies exist.

Figure 2.1: Diode operation: (a) Current flow is permitted; the diode is forward biased. (b) Current
flow is prohibited; the diode is reversed biased.

When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the diode, the diode
is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is “backward” and the diode blocks current,
the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A diode may be thought of as like a switch: “closed” when
forward-biased and “open” when reverse-biased.

Figure 2.2: Diode representations: PN-junction model, schematic symbol, physical part.

The schematic symbol of the diode is shown in Figure 2.2 (b) such that the anode (pointing end)
corresponds to the P-type semiconductor at (a). The cathode bar, non-pointing end, at (b) corresponds
to the N-type material at (a). Also note that the cathode stripe on the physical part (c) corresponds to the
cathode on the symbol.

asalamsaad,pkt,2011
 ee201-semiconductor devices

Figure 2.3: Increasing forward bias from (a) to (b) decreases depletion region thickness.

For silicon diodes, the typical forward voltage is 0.7 volts, nominal. For germanium diodes, the forward
voltage is only 0.3 volts. The chemical constituency of the P-N junction comprising the diode accounts
for its nominal forward voltage figure, which is why silicon and germanium diodes have such different
forward voltages. Forward voltage drop remains approximately constant for a wide range of diode
currents, meaning that diode voltage drop is not like that of a resistor or even a normal (closed) switch.
For most simplified circuit analysis, the voltage drop across a conducting diode may be considered
constant at the nominal figure and not related to the amount of current.

Figure 2.4: Diode curve: showing knee at 0.7 V forward bias for Si, and reverse breakdown.

Now we come to the most popular application of the diode: rectification. Simply defined, rectification
is the conversion of alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). This involves a device that only
allows one-way flow of electrons. As we have seen, this is exactly what a semiconductor diode does.

asalamsaad,pkt,2011
 ee201-semiconductor devices

Half-Wave Rectifier

The simplest way to produce a D.C. voltage from an A.C. voltage is the half-wave rectifier.

Figure 2.5 A Half-wave rectifier Figure 2.6(a) Sinusoidal input voltage,

(b) Half-wave rectified output voltage

Vin is a sinusoidal A.C. Voltage. The diode (ideally) passes current when the voltage across it is
positive, and stops current when VD is negative, producing a chopped-off sine wave across R. Heavy
low-pass filtering is needed to produce a usable D.C. Voltage, usually with a slight ripple (Figure 2.7)

Figure 2.7 Filtering smoothed the output voltage

The size of this D.C. output voltage is simply the average value of the rectified voltage:

So the D.C. voltage is only 31% of Vm!

1 T
∫
2
V r m s = V 2
d t
T 0

1 0 dθ 
π 2π
∫ ∫
2
= V s i 2 θn d θ +
2 π  
p
0 π

2 2
VP VP π 1 
 ( 1 − c o 2 θ s) d θ 
π
= ∫ = ∫
2
s i nθ d θ
2 π 0 2 π 0
2 
2
VP  1  π
=  θ − s i 2 nθ 
4 π  2  0
2
V
= P
4

asalamsaad,pkt,2011
 ee201-semiconductor devices

Now the maximum available power from the source is the power that would be drawn without any
rectifier in the middle – just the A.C. source and the load. Its value is

So the power delivered to the load through the half-wave rectifier is only

So the half-wave rectifier can pass only 20% of the source’s available power
to the load – not very effective!

Full-Wave Rectifier

asalamsaad,pkt,2011
 ee201-semiconductor devices

1 T
V = ∫ V d t 1 T
∫
2
D C
T 0 V r m s = V 2
d t
1 π T 0
=
π ∫ V p s i nθ d θ
1 π
∫
0 2
V π
= V p s i 2 nθ d θ
= P
[− c o θ s] π 0
π 0
2
V π 1 
 ( 1 − c o 2 θs ) d θ 
2 V
= ∫
P
= P

π π 0
2 
2
VP  1  π
=  θ − s i 2n θ 
2 π  2  0
2
V
= P

Bridge Rectifier

The full wave rectifier produces a positive output voltage for both positive and
negative input voltages.

asalamsaad,pkt,2011
 ee201-semiconductor devices

Here’s how it works:

asalamsaad,pkt,2011
 ee201-semiconductor devices

V i( t )

V p

π t
0 2π

-V P

V o( t )

V p - V D

t
0 π 2π

This is 64% of Vm -- twice the average output voltage for the half-wave case.
The power drawn is

asalamsaad,pkt,2011
 ee201-semiconductor devices

Diode Limiters

Figure 2-13(a) shows a diode limiter (also called clipper) that limits or clips the positive part of the
input voltage. As the input voltage goes positive, the diode becomes forward-biased and conducts
current. Because the cathode is at ground potential (0 V), the anode cannot exceed 0.7V (assuming
silicon). So point A is limited to +0.7V when the input voltage exceeds this value. When the input
voltage goes back below 0.7 V, the diode is reverse- biased and appears as an open. The output voltage
looks like the negative part of the input voltage, but with a magnitude determined by the voltage
divider formed by R1 and the load resistor, RL as follows:

If R1 is small compared to RL then Vout= Vin. If the diode is turned around, as in Figure 2- 13(b), the
negative part of the input voltage is clipped off. When the diode is forward-biased during the negative
part of the input voltage, point A is held at -0.7 V by the diode drop. When the input voltage goes above
-0.7 V, the diode is no longer forward-biased; and a voltage appears across RL proportional to the input
voltage.

2-13(a) Limiting of the positive alternation. The diode is forward-biased during the positive alternation
(above 0.7 V) and reverse-biased during the negative alternation

asalamsaad,pkt,2011
 ee201-semiconductor devices

2.13(b) Limiting of the negative alternation. The diode is forward-biased during the negative
alternation (below -0.7 V) and reverse-biased during the positive alternation.

There are two types of clipper circuits, the series and parallel diode clipping circuits.

Series Diode Clipping Circuit

In the first type, the voltage source of Em ( positive or negative) is connected through output terminals
as in Fig. 2.14. Depending on the diode connection (normal or reverse), the values smaller (Fig.2.14.a)
or greater (Fig.2.14.b) than Em is clipped and assigned as Em.

Figure 2.14.

In the second type of thresholded series clipping, the voltage source is applied between the input and

asalamsaad,pkt,2011
 ee201-semiconductor devices

output terminals, series with the diode. This time, the clipped values are assigned to zero and the net
output voltage equals to the difference between the input and threshold values.(If Em is negative, then
E0 = E – Em = E + |Em|)

Parallel Diode Clipping Circuit

In this type of clippers, the diode is connected between output terminals. The on/off state of diode
directly affects the output voltage. These type of clippers may also have a non-zero threshold voltage
by addition of a voltage series with diode. Following figures illustrate the clipping process.

asalamsaad,pkt,2011
 ee201-semiconductor devices

Clamper Circuits
Clamper Circuits, or briefly clampers are used to change the D.C. level of a
signal to a desired value.

asalamsaad,pkt,2011
 ee201-semiconductor devices

Being different from clippers, clamping circuits uses a capacitor and a diode connection. When diode is
in its on state, the output voltage equals to diode drop voltage (ideally zero) plus the voltage source, if
any.

The circuit for a positive clamper is shown in the figure. During the negative half cycle of the input
signal, the diode conducts and acts like a short circuit. The output voltage Vo=0 volts. The capacitor is
charged to the peak value of input voltage Vm. and it behaves like a battery. During the positive half of
the input signal, the diode does not conduct and acts as an open circuit. Hence the output voltage
Vo=Vm+Vm. This gives a positively clamped voltage.

There exist again modified versions of this circuit in which a threshold value is inserted for clamping.
Following figures illustrate these modifications and resulting outputs.

asalamsaad,pkt,2011
 ee201-semiconductor devices

Zener diode
A zener diode is a silicon p-n junction device that is designed for operation in the reverse-breakdown
region. If a zener diode is forward-biased, it operates the same a power diode. Zener diodes are
designed to operate in reverse breakdown. Two types of reverse break-down in a zener diode are
avalanche and zener. The avalanche breakdown, occurs in both power diode and zener diodes at a

asalamsaad,pkt,2011
 ee201-semiconductor devices

sufficiently high reverse voltage. Zener breakdown occurs in a zener diode at low reverse voltages.

Figure 2.15(a) Figure 2.15(b)

Figure 2.15(b) shows the reverse portion of a zener diode's characteristic curve, Notice that as the
reverse voltage (V R ) is increased, the reverse current (IR) remains extremely small up to the "knee" of
the curve. The reverse current is also called the zener current, lz. At this point, the breakdown effect
begins: the internal zener resistance, also called zener impedance (Zz), begins to decrease as the reverse
current increases rapidly. From the bottom of the knee. the zener breakdown voltage (V z ) remains
essentially constant although it increases slightly as the zener current, lz, increased.

Zener Regulation The ability to keep the reverse voltage across its terminals essentially constant is the
key feature of the zener diode. A zener diode operating in breakdown acts as a voltage regulator
because it maintains a nearly constant voltage across its terminals over a specified range of reverse-
current values.

A minimum value of reverse current, IZK must he maintained in order to keep the diode in breakdown
for voltage regulation. You can see on the curve in Figure 2.15(b) that when the reverse current is
reduced below the knee of the curve, the voltage decreases drastically and regulation is lost. Also, there
is a maximum current, IZM above which the diode may be damaged due to excessive power dissipation.
So, basically. the zener diode maintains a nearly constant voltage across its terminals for values of
reverse current ranging from IZK to IZM.

asalamsaad,pkt,2011
 ee201-semiconductor devices

Other type of diodes

The light-Emitting Diode (LED)

When the device is forward-biased, electrons cross the p-n junction from the n-type material and
recombine with holes in the p-type material. these free electrons are in the conduction band and at a
higher energy than the holes in the valence band. When recombination takes place, the recombining
electrons release energy in the form of heat and light. A large exposed surface area on one layer of the
semi conductive material permits the photons to be emitted as visible light. This process, called
electroluminescence, Various impurities are added during the doping process to establish the
wavelength of the emitted light. The wavelength determines the color of the light and if it is visible or
infrared (IR).

Photodiode
Figure 2.16

asalamsaad,pkt,2011
 ee201-semiconductor devices

The photo diode is a device that operates in reverse bias. as shown in Figure 3-33(a), where Iλ is the
reverse current. The photo diode has a small transparent window that allows light to strike the pn
junction. A photo diode differs from a rectifier diode in that when its p-n junction is exposed to light,
the reverse current increases with the light intensity. When there is no incident light. the reverse
current, Iλ is almost negligible and is called the dark current. An increase in the amount of light
intensity, expressed as irradiance (mW/cm 2 ), produces an increase in the reverse current,

Laser diode

Figure 2.17
The term laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. Laser light is
monochromatic. which means that it consists of a single color and not a mixture of colors. Laser light
is also called coherent light, a single wavelength, as compared to incoherent light, which consists of a
wide band of wavelengths. The laser diode normally emits coherent light, whereas the LED emits
incoherent light. The symbols are the same as shown in Figure 2.17(a). The basic operation is as
follows. The laser diode is forward-biased by an external voltage source. As electrons move through

asalamsaad,pkt,2011
 ee201-semiconductor devices

the junction. recombination occurs just as in an ordinary diode. As electrons fall into holes to
recombine, photons are released.

asalamsaad,pkt,2011