Fundamentals of Maxwell Equations of

Electrodynamics

Egon P. Hassel

Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Dipl.-Phys.

Institute of Technical Thermodynamics

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Shipbuilding
University of Rostock, Germany
Tel: +49 381 498 9400
email: egon.hassel (et) uni-rostock.de
http://www.LTT-Rostock.de
http:/ www.egonsthermosite.eu

August 14, 2010

Contents

1 Maxwell Equations 3
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Maxwell Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Light and radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Some useful formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1
2 CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Maxwell Equations

1.1 Introduction
Why should mechanical engineers learn something about the Maxwell Equa-
tions (ME) from Electro-Dynamics (ED)? ME have to do with electronics and
therefore with mechatroncs etc, sure. However the cause here is, that from
the ME we get electro-magnetic waves, that is e.g. light and microwaves,
which is radiation and that and gives radiative heat transfer. Therefore we
will explain some fundamentels about ME. Another interesting application of
ME is spectroscopy, as e.g. in laser diagnostics for combustion studies. Spec-
troscopy can be understood only with ED and Quantum-Mechanics (QM).

1.2 Maxwell Equations

The complete and general Maxwell Equations are as follows:
∂ ∂
xE (r, t) = B (r, t) (1.1)
∂r ∂t
∂ ∂
xH (r, t) = D (r, t) + j (r, t) (1.2)
∂t ∂t
∂
D (r, t) = ρ (r, t) (1.3)
∂r
∂
B (r, t) = 0 (1.4)
∂r

3
4 CHAPTER 1. MAXWELL EQUATIONS

These eqns were written down by Maxwell, see below, 1864. I like this form
because it can be seen easily whether we have a vector or a scalar and for
which quantity we make the derivation, or you could write also in a less
favorite and less transparent writing format:

∂
rot (E (r, t)) = B (r, t) (1.5)
∂t
∂
rot (H (r, t)) = D (r, t) + j (r, t) (1.6)
∂t
div (D (r, t)) = ρ (r, t) (1.7)

div (B (r, t)) = 0 (1.8)

with the additional material equations:

D (r, t) = ε0 E (r, t) + P (r, t) = ε0 εE (r, t) (1.9)

B (r, t) = µ0 H (r, t) + µ0 M (r, t) = µ0 µH (r, t) (1.10)

with the terms and symbols as: Eqn 1.1 is the Faraday’s law, eqn 1.2 is
the Ampere’s law, eqn 1.3 says that the source of an elctrical field E is an
electrical charge or charge density ρ and eqn 1.4 tells us, that the magnetic
field has no source. (Some people still look for magnitic monopoles as source
for the magnetic field.) Symbols: t is the time, r is the spatial vector (x, y, z),
∂
∂t
is the derivation with respect to time,

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
=∇= ex + ey + ez (1.11)
∂r ∂x ∂y ∂z

is the Nabla operator as a vector, and is the derivation with respect to the
spatial coordinate r = (x, y, z), as in e.g.
and
∂ ∂
xE (r, t) = xE = rot (E (r, t)) = (1.12)
∂r ∂r
1.2. MAXWELL EQUATIONS 5

− ∂E
 
∂Ez y

∂ ∂y ∂z 
∂Ex
− ∂E

xE =  ∂z
z 
∂x 
(1.13)
∂r 
∂Ey
∂x
− ∂E
∂y
x

E = electric f ield [V /m] (1.14)

B = magnetic induction [V s/m2 ] (1.15)
H = magnetic f ield [A/m] (1.16)
D = electric displacement f ield [Cb/m2 ] (1.17)
j = electrical charge density [A/m2 ] (1.18)
ρ = electric charge density [Cb/m3 ] (1.19)
0 = permittivity of f ree space (1.20)
µ0 = permeability of f ree space (1.21)
P = electric polarization [Cb/m2 ] (1.22)
M = magnetizing f ield [A/m] (1.23)
 = relative dielectric material constant[−] (1.24)
µ = relative magnetic material constant[−] (1.25)
(1.26)
2
with 1V olt = 1 kgm
As3
, 1Ampere = 1 Cbs
, 0 = 8.854E −12(Cb2 s2 /(kgm3 )), µ0 =
1.26E − 6V s/Am],  and µ are in generell tensors. The Maxwell equations
are three dimensional coupled partial differential equations in time and space
which deal with electrical and magnetic three dimensional fields. What is a
field? It is quantity which exists and can be measured although there is no
material present, e.g. in vacuum space. Humankind did not accept the idea
of a field for a long time. Temperature fields or velocity fields are totally
different, because these just describe substance properties which may vary in
space. Electrical and magnetic fields need no material or substance. The ME
are valid for the smallest known distances in atoms or even beyond that and
also for the largest known distances in the universe. These eqns describe all
electrical and magnetic behavior in nature, there are no more eqns. The ME
are also not changed by quantum mechanics (QM), which is astonishing, they
survive the coupling with QM in the form of QED. The ME eqns are also
compatible to the theory of relativity. They are one of the finest examples
of a valid and complete theory. We see also that the elctric field and the
6 CHAPTER 1. MAXWELL EQUATIONS

magnetic field are coupled. When we have a time changing magnetif field we
get also an electric field and vice versa.

Figure 1.1: James Clerk Maxwell, 1831-1879, for author etc see footnote

In this figure 1 1.1 we see James Clerk Maxwell. Text from wikipedia, en-
glish version: James Clerk Maxwell (1831 1879) was a Scottish theoretical
physicist and mathematician. His most important achievement was classical
electromagnetic theory, synthesizing all previously unrelated observations,
experiments and equations of electricity, magnetism and even optics into a
consistent theory. His set of equationsMaxwell’s equationsdemonstrated that
electricity, magnetism and even light are all manifestations of the same phe-
nomenon: the electromagnetic field. From that moment on, all other classic
laws or equations of these disciplines became simplified cases of Maxwell’s
equations. Maxwell’s work in electromagnetism has been called the ”second
great unification in physics”, after the first one carried out by Isaac Newton.

1
The picture is from wikipedia english version, this image (or other media file) is in
the public domain because its copyright has expired. This applies to the United States,
Australia, the European Union and those countries with a copyright term of life of the
author plus 70 years.
1.3. LIGHT AND RADIATION 7

1.3 Light and radiation

With a few assumptions, like that we are in vacuum, and a few rearrange-
ments of the ME we can easily derive a wave eqn:
1 ∂2 ∂2
E − E=0 (1.27)
ε0 µ0 ∂r2 ∂t2
This can also be done for the magnetic field B. One solution for this eqn is,
for simplicity in one dimension z:

E = A cos (kz − ωt) (1.28)

And from that we see

Frequency:
ω
ν= (1.29)
2π
wavelength:
2π
λ= (1.30)
k
wave velocity in vacuum:
ω 1 m
c= =q ≈ 3E8 (1.31)
k (ε0 µ0 ) s

A similar derivation can be done for the magnetic field B. The analysis gives
the following results:

• From the ME we get electro magnetic waves that spread in vacuum.

This is called radiation, and light is part of the radiation spectrum.
• The waves are transversional, that means that the E-field and the B-
field are perpendicular to the propagation direction.
• E-field and B-field are perpendicular to each other and to the propa-
gation direction.
• The velocity of the waves is c, which can be derived from two funda-
mental natural constants as 0 and µ0 . (Remember the difficulty which
humankind had to measure the speed of light).)
8 CHAPTER 1. MAXWELL EQUATIONS

Here we derived the properties of light from the ME. We got waves. Light
and electro magnetic radiation is a wave. All experiments show this. On
the other hand, from quantum mechanics (QM) we learn, that light is also
particles. All experiments also show this. This seems to be no contradition.
But light is far from understood. Feynman and others developed quantum
electro dynamics (QED) form the properties of light and still until today
many aspects, like simple reflection experiments, are not fully understood.
Thus, light is fun.

Figure 1.2: Electric field-, magnetic field - and propagation vecor of radiation,
for author etc see footnote

In the figure 2 1.2 we see the electric field vector, the magnetic field vector and
the propagation direction of light. E-field and B-field are perpendicular to
the propagation direction k and to each other, although there is no substance
which could carry a wave.
In the figure 3 1.3 we see an electro magnetic spectrum, schematically. We
see that the visible light is a very very small portion of all the spectrum.

2
The picture is from wikipedia, Permission is granted to copy, distribute
and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documen-
tation License, title of picture: Onda electromagntica, 14 May 2007, Source
Self, based on Image:Onde electromagnetique.png, Author SuperManu, see:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Onde electromagnetique.svg
3
The picture is from the Wikimedia Commons. Permission is granted to copy, distribute
and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License,
This image comes from the English Wikipedia (Original author : Philip Ronan), (see also:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EM spectrum.svg)
1.4. SOME USEFUL FORMULAS 9

Figure 1.3: Electro magnetic spectrum, for author etc see footnote

1.4 Some useful formulas

These formulas come from ED and QM. The velocity of light is the frequency
times the wavelength:

c = νλ = cvac (1.32)

This is always correct, in vacuum and within a material. The wavelength

within a material with a refraction index nmat is:
cvac
λmat = (1.33)
nmat
Thus the velocity of light within a material gets slower. The frequency in con-
stant in a tansition from vacuum to material, only the wavelength changes.
A single photon has the energy:

hc
Eph = hν = h̄k = (1.34)
λ
h
with h as Plancks action quantum, and h̄ = 2π . From this we see, that the
higher the frequency of radiation or the lower the wavelength, the higher is
the energy of a single photon. Therefore Roentgen radiation is more intense
and thus more dangerous than visible light.
10 CHAPTER 1. MAXWELL EQUATIONS

1.5 Conclusion
From the Maxwell equations we get transversal electromagnetic waves, which
carry enery and do all that what we expect waves to do, like making refraction
and absorption etc. However, we do get spectra or the famous Plancks’s
radiation law. To derive these things we need electro dynamics, that is the
Maxwell equations, and additionally the Quantum Mechanics. From that we
learn that most thermal radiation is in the infrared spectrum. Therefore we
will write a new report about Planck’s radiation law and the radiative heat
transfer for mechanical engineering students.
- the end -.