Special Senses – Part I – Taste and Smell
The Senses
General senses of touch Special senses
o Temperature o Smell
o Pressure o Taste
o Pain o Sight
o Hearing
o Equilibrium
Chemical Senses: Taste and Smell
Both senses use chemoreceptors
o Stimulated by chemicals in solution
o Taste has four types of receptors
o Smell can differentiate a large range of chemicals
Both senses complement each other and respond to many of the same stimuli
Olfaction—The Sense of Smell
Olfactory receptors are in the roof of the nasal cavity
o Neurons with long cilia
o Chemicals must be dissolved in mucus for detection
Impulses are transmitted via the olfactory nerve
Interpretation of smells is made in the cortex
The Sense of Taste
Taste buds house the receptor organs
Location of taste buds
o Most are on the tongue
o Soft palate
o Cheeks
The tongue is covered with projections called papillae
Taste buds are found on the sides of papillae
Gustatory cells are the receptors
o Have gustatory hairs (long microvilli)
o Hairs are stimulated by chemicals dissolved in saliva
Taste Sensations
Sweet receptors (sugars)
o Saccharine
o Some amino acids
Sour receptors
o Acids
Bitter receptors
o Alkaloids
Salty receptors
o Metal ions
Special Senses – Part II
The Eye and Vision
The Eye and Vision
70% of all sensory receptors are in the eyes
Each eye has over a million nerve
fibers
Protection for the eye
o Most of the eye is enclosed
in a bony orbit
o A cushion of fat surrounds
most of the eye
Accessory Structures of the Eye
Eyelids and eyelashes
Conjunctiva
Lacrimal apparatus
Extrinsic eye muscles
Accessory Structures of the Eye
Eyelids and eyelashes
o Tarsal glands lubricate the eye
o Ciliary glands are located between the
eyelashes
Conjunctiva
o Membrane that lines the eyelids
o Connects to the surface of the eye
o Secretes mucus to lubricate the eye
Function of the lacrimal apparatus
o Protects, moistens, and lubricates the eye
o Empties into the nasal cavity
Properties of lacrimal fluid
o Dilute salt solution (tears)
o Contains antibodies and lysozyme
Extrinsic eye muscles
o Six muscles attach to the outer surface of the eye
o Produce eye movements
Structure of the Eye
Layers forming the wall of the eyeball
o Fibrous layer
Outside layer
o Vascular layer
Middle layer
o Sensory layer
Inside layer
Structure of the Eye: The Fibrous Layer
Sclera
o White connective tissue layer
o Seen anteriorly as the “white of
the eye”
Cornea
o Transparent, central anterior portion
o Allows for light to pass through
o Repairs itself easily
o The only human tissue that can be
transplanted without fear of
rejection
Structure of the Eye: Vascular Layer
Choroid is a blood‐rich nutritive layer in the
posterior of the eye
o Pigment prevents light from scattering
Modified anteriorly into two structures
o Ciliary body—smooth muscle attached
to lens
o Iris—regulates amount of light
entering eye
Pigmented layer that gives eye
color
Pupil—rounded opening in the
iris
Structure of the Eye: Sensory Layer
Retina contains two layers
o Outer pigmented layer
o Inner neural layer
Contains receptor cells (photoreceptors)
Rods
Cones
Structure of the Eye: Sensory Layer
Signals pass from photoreceptors via a two‐neuron chain
Signals leave the retina toward the brain through the optic
nerve
Optic disc (blind spot) is where the optic nerve leaves the
eyeball
o Cannot see images focused on the optic disc
Structure of the Eye: Sensory Layer
Neurons of the retina and vision
o Rods
Most are found towards the edges of the
retina
Allow dim light vision and peripheral vision
All perception is in gray tones
o Cones
Allow for detailed color vision
Densest in the center of the retina
Fovea centralis—area of the retina with only cones
o Cone sensitivity
Three types of cones
Different cones are sensitive to different wavelengths
Color blindness is the result of the lack of one cone type
o No photoreceptor cells are at the optic disc, or blind spot
Lens
Biconvex crystal‐like structure
Held in place by a suspensory ligament attached to the ciliary body
Cataracts result when the lens becomes hard and opaque with age
Vision becomes hazy and distorted
Eventually causes blindness in affected eye
Two Segments, or Chambers, of the Eye
Anterior (aqueous) segment
o Anterior to the lens
o Contains aqueous humor
Posterior (vitreous) segment
o Posterior to the lens
o Contains vitreous humor
Aqueous humor
o Watery fluid found between lens and cornea
o Similar to blood plasma
o Helps maintain intraocular pressure
o Provides nutrients for the lens and cornea
o Reabsorbed into venous blood
Vitreous humor
o Gel‐like substance posterior to the lens
o Prevents the eye from collapsing
o Helps maintain intraocular pressure
Pathway of Light Through the Eye
Light must be focused to a point on the retina for optimal vision
The eye is set for distance vision
(over 20 feet away)
Accommodation—the lens must change shape to focus on closer
objects (less than 20 feet away)
Pathway of Light Through the Eye
Image formed on the retina is a real image
Real images are
o Reversed from left to right
o Upside down
o Smaller than the object
A Closer Look
Emmetropia—eye focuses images correctly on the retina
Myopia (nearsighted)
o Distant objects appear blurry
o Light from those objects fails to reach the retina and are focused in front of it
o Results from an eyeball that is too long
Hyperopia (farsighted)
o Near objects are blurry while distant objects are clear
o Distant objects are focused behind the retina
o Results from an eyeball that is too short or from a “lazy lens”
Astigmatism
o Images are blurry
o Results from light focusing as lines, not points, on the retina due to unequal curvatures of the cornea or lens
Homeostatic Imbalances of the Eyes
Night blindness—inhibited rod function that hinders the ability to see at night
Color blindness—genetic conditions that result in the inability to see certain colors
o Due to the lack of one type of cone (partial color blindness)
Cataracts—when lens becomes hard and opaque, our vision becomes hazy and distorted
Glaucoma—can cause blindness due to increasing pressure within the eye
Special Senses – Part III – Hearing and Balance
The Ear
Houses two senses
o Hearing
o Equilibrium (balance)
Receptors are mechanoreceptors
Different organs house receptors
for each sense
Anatomy of the Ear
The ear is divided into three areas
o External (outer) ear
o Middle ear (tympanic
cavity)
o Inner ear (bony labyrinth)
The External Ear
Involved in hearing only
Structures of the external ear
o Auricle (pinna)
o External acoustic meatus
(auditory canal)
Narrow chamber in the temporal bone
o Lined with skin and ceruminous (wax) glands
o Ends at the tympanic membrane
The Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity)
Air‐filled cavity within the temporal bone
Only involved in the sense of hearing
Two tubes are associated with the inner ear
o The opening from the auditory canal is covered by the tympanic membrane
o The auditory tube connecting the middle ear with the throat
Allows for equalizing pressure during yawning or swallowing
This tube is otherwise collapsed
Bones of the Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity)
Three bones (ossicles) span the cavity
o Malleus (hammer)
o Incus (anvil)
o Stapes (stirrip)
Function
o Vibrations from eardrum move the malleus anvil stirrup inner ear
Inner Ear or Bony Labyrinth
Includes sense organs for hearing and balance
Filled with perilymph
A maze of bony chambers within the temporal bone
o Cochlea
o Vestibule
o Semicircular canals
Organs of Equilibrium
Equilibrium receptors of the inner ear are called the
vestibular apparatus
Vestibular apparatus has two functional parts
o Static equilibrium
o Dynamic equilibrium
Static Equilibrium
Maculae—receptors in the vestibule
o Report on the position of the head
o Hair cells are embedded in the otolithic membrane
o Otoliths (tiny stones) float in a gel around the hair cells
o Movements cause otoliths to bend the hair cells
Structure and Function of Maculae
Dynamic Equilibrium
Crista ampullaris—receptors in the semicircular canals
o Tuft of hair cells
o Cupula (gelatinous cap) covers the hair cells
Action of angular head movements
o The cupula stimulates the hair cells
o An impulse is sent via the vestibular nerve to the
cerebellum
Action of angular head movements
o The cupula stimulates the hair cells
o An impulse is sent via the vestibular nerve to the cerebellum
Organs of Hearing
Organ of Corti
o Located within the cochlea
o Receptors = hair cells on the basilar membrane
o Gel‐like tectorial membrane is capable of bending hair cells
o Cochlear nerve attached to hair cells transmits nerve impulses to auditory cortex on temporal lobe
Mechanism of Hearing
Vibrations from sound waves move tectorial membrane
Hair cells are bent by the membrane
An action potential starts in the cochlear nerve
Continued stimulation can lead to adaptation