Challenges of global environmental issues on ecosystem

management in Malaysia
Mohd Nasir Hassan, Muhamad Awang, and Abu Bakar Jaafar
Centre for Environmental Technology and Natural Resource Management (CETNaRM), Department of Environmental
Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM-Serdang, Selangor

Environmental problems and their management, particularly when related to urban ecosystems, are becoming
increasingly challenging. The end-of-pipe method which has been practiced in the past, and is manifested in our
laws and regulations, has gradually changed towards a more pro-active approach. Industries now recognize that
environmental management and pollution control are no longer liabilities, but rather opportunities to increase
their competitiveness. The general public is increasingly aware of the fact that they have to pay more for
management of the environment that is based on the end-of-pipe approach. International agencies and industries
world-wide are responding positively with a new paradigm shift towards proactive environmental management
through voluntary initiatives. The most challenging task in Malaysia however, is to convince the small and
medium scale enterprises to shift from the old to the new management system. While local government agencies
remain the key players in the management of urban ecosystems, they still lack human resources and the capacity
to handle new challenges. This paper discusses new initiatives towards achieving sustainable urban ecosystem
management. It highlights the tools and approaches that are being used as alternatives to the existing end-of-pipe
approaches. These tools include, eco-management, wastes minimization, ISO 14000 standardization, design for
environment, eco-labeling, life cycle assessment and industrial ecology.

Keywords: environmental management, end-of-pipe, paradigm shift, pollution control, green consumerism

Introduction depletion and global warming have emerged as ma-

Global environmental impacts have been viewed
to occur in two waves. The first occurred in the late
1960s and early 1970s, and was evident mainly in na-
tional and regional problems associated with indus-
trial pollution in advanced economies. Following the
lull brought on by economic disorders between 1973
and 1982 such as double digit inflation, recession in
industrial countries and two world oil price shocks,
there was a second wave of global impacts. This new
wave was much more intense and widespread; ozone
jor pollution issues, and issues in which personal val-
ues play an important role, such as species diversity,
are also increasingly becoming the subject of interna-
tional debate and a source of friction between coun-
tries. This internationalization results from the fact that
many of the new issues have transborder features; in-
volving either the physical spillover of pollutants or
what might be called psychological spillovers, as in the
case of concern over species extinction (Anderson and
Blackhurst, 1992). Today, concerns about the environ-
ment have given rise to new realities. Environmental

269
Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 9(2):269–283, 2006. Copyright

C 2006 AEHMS. ISSN: 1463-4988 print / 1539-4077 online

DOI: 10.1080/14634980600728800
270 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283
Figure 1. Human impacts on natural systems: a conceptual model.
issues have been increasingly integrated into interna-
tional trade, and markets and consumers worldwide
are increasingly demanding environmentally friendly
products. This new reality requires businesses to place
equal footing both on the environment, and on their
business objectives. There is increasing evidence that
environmental improvement is good business (Porter
and Van der Linde, 1995). Thus, most business enter-
prises worldwide are undergoing rapid rearrangement
for the better. Lovins reports, in The Harvard Busi-
ness Review on Business and Environment (2000), that
businesses are embarking on a journey toward “natural
capitalism” i.e., economic reforms that would embrace
environmentalism, and sustainability. Truly a journey
that would comprise major shifts in business practices.
Are we in Malaysia prepared to take on the chal-
lenges posed by these developments? Perhaps the great-
est challenge that we face is to understand what “sus-
tainable practices” are and how they can be actualized
into all socio-economic sectors in Malaysia. It is no
longer acceptable to argue that the more goods and ser-
vices produced, the higher the quality of life will be. It
is not so much the amount of goods and services per se
that produce quality of life, but the right type. The chal-
lenge for the new millennium is to develop an indus-
trial system that has minimal socio-ecological impacts,
without compromising quality of life (Hutchinson and
Hutchinson, 1997).
Causes for concern
Very few environmental problems (Figure 1) can
be accounted for on a simple cause-and-effect basis.
Problems usually stem from a multitude of causes, with
a single course of action having multiple effects. A
multitude of living, interdependent organisms can be
affected in a chain reaction by a single human activity.
Some damage may be irreversible, but some potentially
reversible. Some consequences may be remedial, others
not. Further, major environmental problems are related
to resource depletion as well as to depletion of natural
assets. This approach, only one of many schools of
thought, is summarized in Figure 1.
The major environmental problems facing
Malaysia, and having global consequences are descri-
bed below.
Atmospheric pollution
Atmospheric pollution has long been associated
with the burning of fossil fuels, the resulting sulphur
dioxide being a major atmospheric pollutant. Combus-
tion of motor fuels causes an added influx of volatile or-
ganic compounds, coupled with carbon dioxide (CO2 )
and Nox, nitrous oxides. In Malaysia, local and trans-
boundary emissions play very important roles in de-
termining the status of the atmospheric environment
 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283 271

(Awang et al., 2000). The major pollutants observed
are sulphur dioxide (SO2 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), car-
bon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3 ) and total suspended
particulate matter, in particular PM10 . Air pollution in
Malaysia can be divided into two periods; the non-haze,
and haze episodes.
During the non-haze episodes, vehicular emissions
contribute more than seventy percent of the total air
emissions in the urban areas. Air quality studies con-
ducted in the Klang Valley between 1986 and 1989,
December 1991 to November 1992 and January 1995
to December 1997 demonstrated two distinct daily air
pollution peaks. The morning “rush-hour” peak was
mainly due to vehicle emissions, while the late evening
peak was mainly attributed to meteorological condi-
tions. Total suspended particulate matter was the main
pollutant; their concentrations at a few sites often ex-
ceeding recommended Malaysian air quality guide-
lines. The levels of other pollutants were generally be-
low the guidelines. Daily average emissions of those
pollutants in rural areas were found to be much lower
than those in the Klang Valley and never exceeded the
critical levels for damage to sensitive crops or nat-
ural forest species as a result of direct atmospheric
exposure.
During the haze episode in the months of September
to October 1991, October 1994 and July to Novem-
ber 1997, it was clearly indicated that in general,
East Malaysia experienced higher suspended particu-
late matter (PM10 ) levels than other parts of Malaysia.
Based on the Air Pollution Index established by the
Department of Environment, in September 1997, out
of a total of 10 days, 8 days were deemed as extremely
unhealthy. In Peninsular Malaysia, the Klang Valley
had more than 2/3 of the month of September expe-
riencing unhealthy levels. Large forest fires in parts
of Sumatra and Kalimantan during the haze period, as
clearly evident in satellite images, were identified as
the probable key sources of the wide spread heavy haze
that extended across South East Asia from Indonesia,
through Singapore, Malaysia and Brunei. The results of
several studies have also provided strong evidence for
the assessment of biomass burning as the dominating
source of particulate matter during the haze episodes.
The analysis indicated that reductions of local non-
biomass emissions such as those from traffic did not
have any effect during haze episodes. Even in the Klang
Valley, a reduction of half of the local non-biomass re-
lated pollution will only result in an approximately 25
µg m−3 reduction of the total suspended particulate.
In 1996, the percentage of the load by air emission
types was as follows: motor vehicles, 82 percent; power
stations, 9 percent; industrial fuel burning, 5 percent;
industrial production process, 3 percent; domestic and
commercial furnaces, 0.2 percent; and open burning at
solid waste disposal sites, 0.8 percent (DOE, 1996).
Water pollution
The production and use of a multitude of prod-
ucts, from agrochemicals to cleaning agents, paints and
dyes, lead to environmental damage and the creation
of wastes. In Malaysia, pollution of watercourses is
attributed to discharges of effluents from agro-based
manufacturing and heavy industries, and primarily, the
locations of factories are too close to water bodies. The
Department of Environment uses six parameters for
water quality indicators: biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonia ni-
trogen (NH3-N), suspended solids (SS), pH, and heavy
metals (Mg and Na). On the basis of these parameters,
255 river basins were monitored. In 1998, 163 rivers
(63 percent) were found to be very polluted, 59 rivers
(23 percent) slightly polluted and 33 (14 percent) clean
(Table 1).
Coastal pollution
Coastal wastes are known to have been caused not
only from oil spills due to accidents at sea, but also

Table 1. Quality of inland water (rivers) in Malaysia.

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Category No Percent No Percent No percent No percent No percent No percent No percent

Very Polluted 7 8.1 11 9.5 14 12.1 13 11.2 13 11.2 24 21.4 163 63
Slightly Polluted 55 63.2 73 62.9 64 55.2 61 46.1 61 52.6 71 58.1 59 23
Clean 25 28.7 32 27.6 38 32.7 42 41.7 42 36.2 25 20.5 33 33
Total 87 100 116 100 116 100 116 100 116 100 120 100 255 100
Source: Department of Environment (1998).
272 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283

Table 2. Malaysian beaches affected by tar ball. Source: Department of Environment.

State Station Sampling Date Tar Ball (g m−1 trip)

Johor Desaru Beach (15429140) 09.02.98 365
Desaru Beach (1542914) 13.04.98 86
Sri Pantai Beach (2339960) 27.02.98 187
Sri Pantai Beach (2339960) 14.04.98 135
Telok Gorek Beach (2538958) 24.02.98 316
Telok Gorek Beach (2538958) 14.02.98 117
Air Papan Beach (2538959) 24.02.98 608
Air Papan Beach (2538959) 14.04.98 210
Tanjung Sepata Beach (1341961) 16.03.98 185
Langkawi Chenang Beach 9 (P.Langkawi) 22.07.98 35
Perak Puteri Dewi Beach (P. Pangkor) 17.07.98 5
Pulau Pangkor Laut Beach 17.07.98 250
Pulau Sembilan Beach 17.07.98 175
Melaka Pulau Besar Beach 15.07.98 20

from effluents discharged inland and carried by rivers
to the sea. In 1998 a total of 836 samples were collected
from 231 marine monitoring stations, compared to 794
samples from 226 monitoring stations in 1997. As in
previous years, the main contaminants of coastal water
in all states were oil and grease (OG), total suspended
solids (TSS), Escherichia coli (E. coli) and heavy met-
als. From these samples 94.5 percent of samples ex-
ceeded the proposed Marine Interim Standards for oil
and grease, 73.7 percent for total suspended solids and
29.7 percent for E. coli. The results show that marine
water quality in 1998 had deteriorated slightly com-
pared to the previous year (Jamaluddin, 2000). Almost
all Malaysian beaches monitored in 1998 were found
to be free from oil pollution in the forms of tar balls,
except for some beaches in Johore (Table 2) where tar
balls were spotted on those beaches between the months
of February and April, 1998. The island marine wa-
ter quality monitoring activities in July 1998 showed
that tar balls were also spotted on the beach of Pulau
Besar (Malacca), Pulau Pagar Laut and Pulau Sembi-
lan (Perak) and Pulau Langkawi (Kedah). The oil spill
incident at the Malacca PETRONAS refinery on 19
September 1998 also caused serious pollution, leading
to a 240 g m−1 strip.
Noise pollution
Noise pollution is another environmental issue in
Malaysia. The increasing number of motor vehicles
in urban areas has contributed to this noise pollution. In
1998, the Department of Environment conducted a traf-
fic noise level test in selected urban areas and found it to
be in the range of 76.4 dB(A) to 83.3 dB(A) (Figure 2)
(Department of Environment, 1999). Compared to the
1992 values (75.4 dB (A) to 83 dB(A)), the noise lev-
els recorded in 1998 showed a significant increase in
all urban centres monitored.
Solid and hazardous wastes
The problem of solid waste management is not a new
issue. Growing affluence and increasing concentration
of population in urban areas have increased the gen-
eration and types of solid waste produced. Presently,
solid waste management is one of the most impor-
tant issues of local authorities; where much money
is spent in the collection and disposal of solid waste
(Jamaluddin, 1998). According to a survey, the esti-
mation of solid waste generation in local authorities
in Malaysia is summarized in Table 3. The amount of
solid waste collected is 70 percent (Hassan, 2000). The
remaining 30 percent not collected ends up in illegal
dumping sites, or is diverted at source or during col-
lection for recycling purposes. Toxic and hazardous
wastes are also one of the minor issues to be discussed.
According to DOE in 1983 and 1984, 52 percent
of toxic and hazardous waste were generated by elec-
tronic industries, 14 percent by metal and electroplat-
ing industries and the rest were from chemical, rubber,
plastics, printing, packaging, tannery and pharmaceu-
tical industries. A survey in 1985 showed that 22,000
m3 of toxic and hazardous wastes were generated in
 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283 273

Figure 2. Traffic level noise in selected urban areas in 1992 and 1998. Source: Seventh Malaysian Plan, 1996–2000.

Peninsular Malaysia, of which the greatest amount was
acid waste.
Other environmental concerns
Apart from the issues mentioned above, there are
also other environmental issues especially in relation to
the exploitation of forest and forest products that could
result in the loss of biological diversity. In fact, the
development process has endangered certain endemic
species of trees in the country (Abdul Latiff Mohamad,
2000).
International trade
and the environment
Environmental problems today have expanded from
local and regional ones, to global ones (Lee, 2000).

Table 3. Estimated solid waste generation in local authorities in Malaysia

Estimated Waste Generation Amount Collected

State Population (Tonnes Day−1 ) (Tonnes Day−1 )
Perlis 77650 62 43
Kedah 1581483 1265 885
P. Penang 1290924 1033 723
Perak 1618483 1295 906
Selangor 1583572 2375 1900
Negeri Sembilan 578035 162 323
Melaka 611481 489 342
Johor 1612650 1290 903
Pahang 634660 508 358
Terengganu 583907 467 327
Kelantan 1041311 833 583
Kuala Lumpur 1446803 2257 2023
Labuan 66146 46 32
Sarawak 2007528 1405 984
Sabah 2115546 1481 1037
Grand Total 16850179 15268 11369
Source: Ministry of Housing and Local Government (1999).
274 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283
It is a well-known fact that the global environmental
carrying capacity has its limit. Natural resources in-
cluding mineral ores and fossil fuels, agricultural pro-
ductivity, and the self-purification capacity of the nat-
ural environment all have their own limits. Irrational
resource consumption together with irresponsible en-
vironmental pollution resulting from the entire product
life cycle—raw material acquisition, manufacturing,
use and disposal—are the main reasons this global envi-
ronmental carrying capacity is being exceeded. This is
because our industrial structure and consumption pat-
tern are not environmentally friendly. Thus, there is a
growing concern that a sustainable society may not be
achievable. This public concern is not temporary. One
reason is that even though uncertainties remain, the sci-
entific basis for many of the concerns is more solid now
then was the case twenty years ago. Another is that the
world’s population has increased by one and a half bil-
lion since 1970 (an increase of more than 40 percent),
the annual production of goods and services has nearly
doubled, and average per capita income in the world has
increased about 40 percent (Anderson and Blackhurst,
1992). These increases, which show very few signs of
slowing down, are adding substantially to the demand
for the goods and services provided by the natural en-
vironment; these include raw materials for producing
energy and other primary products, human health ser-
vices (clean air, potable water, filtered sunlight, natural
foods and medicines), aesthetic and recreational ser-
vices (such as visiting or even just knowing of the exis-
tence of unspoiled wilderness areas), and the capacity
to absorb wastes.
The implications of trade liberalization
Most countries including Malaysia are adopting
an open economy and according to Anderson and
Blackhurst (1992), this has significant impacts on the
environment particularly for developing countries in
the following forms:
r Opening up to trade of a product whose production
is relatively pollution-intensive (mostly from small
and medium-scale industries) improves the environ-
ment and welfare of a small country if it imports the
good. This is the case of importing a “clean” good
whose production in another country causes pollu-
tion. Should the good be exported (as is the case of
industries in many developing countries), opening to
trade worsens the country’s environment.
r Conversely, if consumption rather than production
of this good is the source of pollution (for example
chemical fertilizers and insecticides), the opposite
result holds: opening to trade improves the environ-
ment if that good is exported but (in the absence of
appropriate environmental policy) worsens the envi-
ronment if it is imported.
Market failure
Many environmental problems can be traced to the
absence of markets for most of nature’s services. The
air we breathe, the ozone layer, the oceans, most lakes
and rivers and large tracts of forest are not privately
owned. Without the assignment and enforcement of pri-
vate property rights or some other form of government
intervention, such resources are vulnerable to degra-
dation in a number of ways. In the case of emissions
and waste disposal, individuals are unlikely to fully
take into account the impact of their use of nature’s
resources on the rest of the population. Other issues,
such as the protection of endangered species, raise a dif-
ferent question about property rights: how to manage
certain assets which may be owned (by a nation state)
and yet are considered by some people as belonging to
the world at large (as parts of the global commons).
Life cycle environmental loads
Industry or individual corporations are the single
most important source of all these environmental prob-
lems. This is because human society depends heavily on
industrial products to sustain its living standard. Cor-
porations consume resources and emit environmental
emissions because of the products they manufacture.
These are, however, not significant quantities compared
to what a product generates during its life cycle. A typi-
cal example would include durable goods such as home
appliances and automobiles. Environmental loads from
the use and disposal stages are much greater than that
from the manufacturing stage. For goods like paper
towels and aluminum foil, environmental loads from
the manufacturing stage are relatively high; however,
the total load is still greater than that from the man-
ufacturing stage. From this discussion, it can be con-
cluded that environmental loads occurring throughout
a product life cycle are the main cause of today’s envi-
ronmental problem.
The paradigm shift
The way that humans have mistreated the earth is
primarily due to failure to appreciate the value of the
ecosystem. Recent calculations published by the jour-
nal Nature placed the conservative value of the earth’s
 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283
ecosystem services—water storage, atmosphere regu-
lation, climate control and so on, at $33 trillion USD a
year.
Environmental management has undergone signif-
icant changes in the past 20 years. After realizing the
importance of the services provided by nature, much
progress has taken place in terms of the development
of advanced technologies and environmental manage-
ment principles. Traditionally, environmental laws and
regulations have aimed at commanding and controlling
the environmental load occurring during the manufac-
turing stage of a product. Sincere efforts have been ex-
erted in implementing the command and control prac-
tices in most of the developed nations although they are
burdensome to most corporations. However, the global
environment problems have not been mitigated: rather,
they tend to have been aggravated.
Since 1990, environmental policy makers in the
Netherlands and Germany recognized that packaging
wastes may be reduced in quantity by imposing finan-
cial burden on the producer, not on the consumer. This
is the basis of the concept of the extended producer
responsibility (OECD, 1996). It was a norm that man-
ufacturers were responsible for the product only dur-
ing its manufacturing stages (e.g., product function,
production cost and environmental pollution control,
etc.). They were not responsible for the environmental
problems caused by the waste product discarded after
use. Collection, treatment and disposal of the waste
Figure 3. The paradigm shift in environmental management.
275
products were the responsibility of the government and
local authorities. However, under EPR, the cost associ-
ated with the waste product’s collection, treatment and
disposal should be borne by the manufacturer. Typical
regulations based on the EPR concept include the pack-
aging waste order in Germany, the packaging covenant
in the Netherlands, and voluntary agreement on the cost
bearing of waste automobile treatment among German
auto-makers (Lee, 2000).
In response to the apparent failure of the command
and control policies, the emerging EPR policy and
growing pressure from the public, industries decided
to take the initiative in overcoming the environmental
problems. The initiative was the introduction of a vol-
untary program called environmental management into
the corporation’s management.
Industries and other polluters have shifted from just
the end-of-pipe control treatment of waste, to pollu-
tion prevention and ultimately proper manufacturing
designs for the benefit of the environment (Figure 3).
A holistic approach is required if total degradation of
the environment is to be avoided over the long term.
Greening of world trade—natural capitalism
There is definitely still much room for improvement
in terms of the proliferation of these new technolo-
gies and principles that will create a better global envi-
ronment in the future. Forward-looking businesses are
276 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283
embarking on a journey toward “natural capitalism,”
a journey that comprises of four major shifts in busi-
ness practices. The approach puts forth strategies not
only for protecting the biosphere but also for improving
profits and competitiveness. It rests on the idea of very
simple but profound changes in the way businesses are
run, built on advance techniques for making resources
more productive.
r The first stage involves dramatically increasing the
productivity of natural resources.
r In the second stage, companies adopt closed loop
production systems that yield no waste or toxicity.
r The third stage needs a basic change of business
model—from one of selling products to one of de-
livering services.
r The last stage involves reinvesting in natural capital
to restore, sustain, and expand the planet’s ecosys-
tem.
The greening of world trade issues has been an in-
evitable consequence of not having well-developed and
enforceable environmental property rights. The pres-
sure on the environment from increasing population,
output and incomes, the improved understanding of
the nature and extent of environmental degradation (in-
cluding the global commons) caused by mankind activ-
ities, and the ever-greater interdependence between the
world’s national economies, has also served to further
this cause.
Eco-management
By now, firms should accept responsibility for envi-
ronmental impacts which were once regarded as inci-
dental externalities. Thus, they have to move from an
environmental management paradigm that focuses on
clean up and control to one that embraces avoidance of
environmental harm. Treading this path requires pri-
marily information on how to increase efficiency in
terms of energy and materials use with the objective
of improving environmental performance. Both tech-
nical (e.g. materials substitution, zero emission tech-
nologies, clean energy) and institutional (e.g. financial,
regulatory, legal, geographical strategies) information
on how to implement and measure progress of environ-
mental management practices are also needed. Many of
the striking advancements in improving environmental
performance come from using nature as a guide.
Huang and Hunkeler (1997) pointed out that indus-
tries are more aware and responsive to consumers’ de-
mands and expectations and are developing and uti-
lizing technologies to manufacture environmentally
“friendly” products. Research and experience have
shown that industry cannot continue merely to treat
the symptoms of environmental problems. Instead, a
more comprehensive means to reduce pollution is be-
lieved by many to be through prevention, by attacking
the source of pollution at every stage of the product
life cycle that include raw material extraction, trans-
portation, manufacturing, product use, recycling and
disposal. Corporate environmental strategies have also
evolved to include decision-making tools such as the
conventional approaches such as environmental impact
assessment (EIA) and waste minimization or the more
recent initiatives such as eco-efficiency, eco-auditing,
supply chain management and green marketing, and
eco-labels. The more comprehensive approaches are
the life-cycle assessment (LCA) and design for envi-
ronment (DFE).
Environmental impact assessments (EIAs)
EIAs are undertaken when a new project, or modi-
fications of an existing project, is to be developed. The
EIA assesses all significant direct and indirect envi-
ronmental effects on the surrounding environment, as
well as any possible socio-economic impacts that may
accrue.
An EIA is a systematic gathering of all relevant
quantitative and qualitative information by experts in
consultation with informed parties in order to enable in-
formed decision-making. The process includes a wide-
ranging consultation process with statutory and non-
statutory institutions in order to understand all im-
plications of expansions or purchase, and to assess
the benefits or drawbacks of any mitigating measures
proposed.
Monitoring programmes with suitable indicators
and contingency plans are also nowadays considered
important follow-ups to EIAs, in order to assess the
effectiveness of the process.
Waste minimization or cleaner production
Waste minimization has been subject to a whole host
of international interest in terms of legislation and regu-
lations since the mid-1980s. There are two central waste
strategies that companies can adopt in their pursuit of
waste minimization.
The first is to deal with the waste after it has
been generated and to mitigate its effects on the en-
vironment. The second is to minimize the amount of
 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283
waste generated in the first place, thereby reducing the
amount of mitigation required at the end of the process.
Even when financial returns are not immediate, most
waste minimization exercises are as cost-effective as
treatment or disposal. The dividends of a prevention
strategy as opposed to an end-of-pipe approach to waste
management are summarized as follows:
Reduced:
r Production costs.
r On-site waste monitoring and treatment costs.
r Raw material costs.
r Energy and water costs consumption.
r Long-term environmental liability and insurance
costs.
r Risk of spills and accidents.
Improved:
r Operational safety.
r Income through the sale of reusable waste.
r Company image in the eyes of shareholders and other
stakeholders.
Eco-efficiency
In its report to the June 1992 Earth Summit (United
Nations Conference on Environment and Develop-
ment: UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, and in subsequent
workshops, the Business Council for Sustainable De-
velopment (BSCD, now the WBCSD) promoted the
concept of eco-efficiency. It defined eco-efficiency in
terms of the delivery of competitively priced goods and
services designed to satisfy human need and enhance
quality of life while “progressively reducing environ-
mental impacts and resource intensity throughout the
entire life cycle.” A life-cycle and system approach is
regarded as necessary to bring human economic activ-
ity in line with the earth’s estimated carrying capacity
(Awang et al., 1998). The BCSD advocated progress to-
wards eco-efficiency through seven key routes (Hassan
et al., 1999):
r Minimization of the material intensity of goods and
services.
r Minimization of energy intensity of goods and
services.
r Elimination of toxic dispersion.
r Enhancement of material recyclability.
r Maximization of sustainable use of renewable re-
sources.
r Extension of product durability.
r Increased service intensity of goods and services.
277
Eco-auditing
The environmental audit has evolved from regula-
tory and customer pressure to quantify, analyse, mea-
sure and disclose a company’s environmental perfor-
mance. It provides an in-depth procedural analysis
of performance measurements and targets, offering
a management approach to deal strategically with
environmental issues primarily as a means to meet leg-
islative requirements. Environmental auditing is the
evaluation of a site, plant, or production and process
system in relation to the laws, regulations, policies and
good practices that directly or indirectly affect the en-
vironment. It is used to compile and report all pertinent
information related to the environment, as well as oc-
cupational health and safety where appropriate.
Eco-audit attempts to consider environmental per-
formance from a holistic angle. Rather than viewing
green issues as purely a risk management issue, eco-
logical auditing measures and analyses all aspects of
company policy and operations with respect to their
environmental impact and consequences.
Supply chain management
and green marketing
During the 1980s and 1990s, the global market was
flooded by claims of differing validity. Spurious claims
and false or misleading statements have been made by
companies keen to cash in on the new green consumer
seeking to achieve mere marketing advantage. Com-
pany images were whitewashed in an attempt to de-
ceive the public about their environmental credentials.
Logos were “greened,” but practices continued, busi-
ness as usual.
Despite growing consumer suspicion of these green
marketing claims, there are important reasons for con-
sidering green marketing. If a company is to invest
significant amounts of capital and time to improve its
environmental performance, it should clearly commu-
nicate these improvements to all stakeholders, encour-
aging others to do the same and informing stakehold-
ers of the priority of ethical management in the new
millennium.
Charter (1992) considers seven aspects of green
marketing: price, product, promotions, place, people,
process and physical evidence. Full-costs accounting,
packaging, advertising and claims, eco-labelling, trans-
port, personnel, and employee commitment, awareness
and training are essential elements in progressive green
marketing.
278 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283

If a green marketing strategy is to be successful it
needs to be backed up by concrete evidence. This is
controlled through proper eco-labelling practices.
Eco-labelling
Essentially the eco-labelling program was started
as a process that would advise consumers as to which
products constituted an environmental choice. How-
ever, eco-labeling practice does influence exports and
imports in that it is being used to unfairly discrimi-
nate against certain products through the adoption of
local and regional environmental labels. These emerg-
ing environmental labels have been interpreted differ-
ently by various consumers, and the issue of lack of
uniformity has been raised among trade proponents.
Subsequently it was recommended that an ad hoc advi-
sory group encourage the International Organization of
Standard (ISO) to develop standards in the field of en-
vironmental labeling. The objectives are to ensure that
eco-labeling is accurate, verifiable and not misleading;
that it reduce marketplace confusion, restrictions, and
barriers to international trade, and most importantly,
that it increase the potential to stimulate environmental
improvement in product delivery. Such standardized la-
bels would better enable purchasers to make informed
choices when buying goods and services.
By definition (Husseini, 2006), environmental la-
beling is any environmental declaration that describes
or implies, by whatever means, the effects of the life cy-
cle of a product or service on the environment. It might
be in the form of statements, symbols or graphics on
products or packaging, literature or technical bulletins,
advertising or any form of publicity.
Three types of labeling have been established. Type
I, is a third-party certified “eco-label.” Such certifica-
tion is granted by the practitioner seal program which is
sponsored by a government or operated privately. The
seal programs require manufacturers to meet a mini-
mum standard or a “threshold” in order to receive the
seal of the program. Type II, is a self-declared environ-
mental claim, without independent third party certifi-
cation, with the condition that the manufacturers may
place the labels, provided they follow specific require-
ments set forth in the ISO 14021 standard. Type III,
conveys quantitative information of a product’s envi-
ronmental performance that is derived from life cycle
inventory data or life cycle assessment.
The concept of eco-labelling originated in the Ger-
man Blue Angel Scheme in 1978. By the early 1990s,
80 percent of households in Germany were aware of
the scheme and its implications and the idea had spread
throughout the developed world. Eventually, the eco-
labelling scheme was established to all members of
the European Union in 1991. The aim of the EU eco-
labelling scheme was to ameliorate the growing number
of corporate environmental claims and to protect con-
sumer interests. Designed to inform consumers about
the environmental excellence of a product and to amal-
gamate the increasing number of individual country
environmental labels, the EU label was intended to of-
fer consumers the ability to make valid choices between
different and competing products in the same category
of objective environmental criteria.
Today, many countries have introduced their own
eco-labeling schemes as shown in Figure 4.
Packaging
Packaging is an important element in the design and
marketing of the product, as packaging has valuable
functions to perform:

Figure 4. Example of a variety of logos for eco-labels. The Eco Mark of the Japan Environment Association marks products useful for environ-
mental protection (http://www.ecomark.jp/english/index.html). The Swan is the official Nordic eco-label, introduced by the Nordic Council
of Ministers to that a product is a good environmental choice (http://www.svanen.nu/Eng/default.asp). The Government of Canada’s EcoLogo
is a multi-attribute environmental certification mark that helps buyers find sustainable products (http://www.environmentalchoice.com). From
the U.S.A., the Green Seal is an independent, non-profit organization that strives to achieve a cleaner environment by identifying products
and services that cause less toxic pollution and waste, conserve resources and habitats, and minimize global warming and ozone depletion
(http://www.greenseal.org).
 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283
r It displays essential legal and consumer information.
r It protects the product.
r It avoids unnecessary spillage in transit.
r It presents the brand image.
The volume of single-use packaging has given rise
to problems of disposal, giving rise to legislative pres-
sures, forcing reconsideration of the amount and type
of packaging employed. Companies are therefore re-
quired to assess the environmental impact of the pack-
aging materials and to seek out more sustainable de-
signs and materials, including assessing the potential
for recycling and reuse of the packaging materials.
Design for environment
Design for Environment (DFE) integrates environ-
mental aspects or environmental considerations into the
product development. The choices designers make dur-
ing the development of a new or improved product will
have an influence on the environmental impacts during
each stage of product’s life cycle—from acquiring ma-
terials to manufacturing, use, reuse, and ultimately to
the product’s final disposal (Canadian Standard Asso-
ciation, 1995; Hassan et al., 1999). The strategies for
evolution towards sustainability is depicted in Figure 5
(Storen, 1998).
Figure 5. Business policy and strategies for evolution towards sustainability (Source: Storen, 1998).
279
DFE in practice
The most aggressive efforts on DFE is carried out
in France. The French Agency for Environment and
Energy Management (ADEME) has put words such
as “prevention is better than cure” and “avoid pollut-
ing practices rather than having to manage the conse-
quences,” into practice (French Agency for Environ-
ment and Energy Management, 1999). ADEME has
collected 90 eco-design case studies from industries
in France that have incorporated DFE into the product
development processes.
A product is “easily recyclable” when the materials
it comprises can be recycled in existing channels at rea-
sonable costs. In the design stage, this criterion could
be achieved though;
r Design mono-materially.
r Choose materials that are compatible with existing
recycling channels.
r Plan for future material separation.
r Consider the recovery and disposal at the end of the
product’s life.
Some of the positive results from DFE application in
industries are as follows (Crittenden and Kolaczkowki,
1995):
280 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283
r Replacement of chlorinated solvents in cleaning and
degreasing operations by non-chlorinated solvents,
water and alkaline solutions.
r Substitution of chemical biocides by alternatives,
such as ozone.
r Replacement of solvent-based paints, inks and adhe-
sive formulations with water-based materials.
r Substitution of a more durable coating to increase
coating life.
r Increase in the purity of purchased raw materials to
eliminate the use of trace quantities of hazardous
impurities.
r Reduction of phosphorous in waste water by reduc-
tion in use of phosphate-containing chemicals.
r Replacement of hexavalent chromium salts by triva-
lent chromium salts in plating operations.
r Replacement of solvent-based developing system by
a water-based system in the manufacturing of printed
circuit board.
r Replacement of cyanide plating baths with less toxic
alternatives.
Ecological design
Orr (1994) calls for “ecological design intelligence”
and this requires the capacity to understand the ecolog-
ical context in which human live, to recognize limits
and to get the correct scale of things. It is the ability to
calibrate human purposes and natural constraints and
do so with grace and economy. Ecological design in-
telligence is not just about things like technologies. At
its heart ecological design intelligence is motivated by
an ethical view of the world order and our obligations
to it.
Life-cycle approach
No products are totally environmentally friendly,
since all productive processes have some impact on
the environment. This leads some environmentalists to
the conclusion that the only true green business is no
business at all. However, it is possible to assess the
life cycle of any product in order to reduce its impact
on the environment. The concept of life cycle assess-
ment, which appeared in the 1950s–1970s, was refined
in the 1980s in order to solve a systematic difficulty
faced when trying to improve product ecological char-
acteristics. This is known as “contaminant transfer”;
whereby a solution to one environmental problem leads
to greater deterioration at another place or time in the
life-cycle. The following is an example of the “con-
taminant transfer” phenomenon. Imagine an owner of a
restaurant who would like to reduce the environmental
impact of his business activity. He wishes to accom-
plish this goal by reducing the disposable paper towels
that his clients use to dry their hands in the wash room.
He decides to replace the paper towels with textile ones
to reach his goal. The restaurant owner’s decision has
reduced the source of contamination, which is the waste
in the bathroom. However, he will also increase another
type of contamination by repetitive washing of the tex-
tile towels—consumption of detergents, water and en-
ergy, pollution of water, etc. Hence, he will transfer the
contamination from one process to another. From the
example, it is illustrated that analyzing the ecological
interest of a decision with respect to one product is
meaningless if the global balance, i.e. the life cycle, is
not considered. From the idea of analyzing activities
from the life cycle perspective, the methodology of life
cycle assessment emerged in order to standardize var-
ious approaches. Hence, life cycle assessment (LCA)
is a tool that can be used to systematically evaluate the
environmental effects of a product, process or activity
(Awang et al., 1999; Hassan et al., 2000; Zulina et al.,
1999). The LCA methodology stems from the idea that
industrial processes and activities are systemic in na-
ture. Industrial processes and activities do not occur in
isolation but are instead interlinked, via their suppliers
and customers, with other processes and activities. Out-
puts in the form of products and by-products transfer
from one operation to another, rendering them all inter-
dependent. Any industrial system can be represented by
a system boundary that encompasses all the operations
of interest (Figure 6) (Boguski et al., 1996). The area
surrounding the industrial system boundary is defined
as the system environment. The industrial system can
be represented by any organizational system that has
environmental aspects.
LCA analyzes the environmental burdens along the
continuum of a product’s life cycle and provides infor-
mation on a “per service basis” to the user to help iden-
tify, assess and solve the environmental concerns asso-
ciated with products, processes, and activities. An LCA
Figure 6. The industrial system (Source: Boguski et al., 1996).
 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283
framework has been developed by SETAC (1991, 1993)
to organize the development of an LCA methodology—
how to conduct LCA in a consistent and transparent
manner.
Industrial ecology
During the past few years, much research has been
conducted, for example in Austria, Canada, Denmark,
Netherlands, Japan, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland,
on how the term “industrial ecology” offers a frame-
work within which to improve knowledge and deci-
sions about materials use, waste reduction, and pollu-
tion prevention and ultimately as a way of approaching
sustainable development using nature as a guide.
The term “industrial ecology” suggests that mod-
els of non-human biological systems and their inter-
actions in nature are instructive for industrial systems.
The biological model is attractive due to the manner in
which nature developed its constituents to live off the
bodies and wastes of one another. Industrial ecology
seeks to provide technical understanding that encour-
ages systems of production and consumption that can
be sustained for very long periods of time without sig-
nificant environmental harm. It takes a systems view
of industry in developing strategies to facilitate more
efficient use of material and energy resources and to
reduce the release of hazardous as well as non-
hazardous wastes to the environment (Figure 7). The ul-
timate objective of industrial ecology is the emergence
of an economy that cycles virtually all of the materials it
uses, emitting only micro amounts of wastes and pol-
lutants, while providing high and increasing services
Figure 7. Concept of industrial ecology. Industrial ecosystems are developed on an understanding of how energy, materials, and chemicals
flow through various interlinked processes (Adapted from National Science and Technology Council, 1995).
281
to the large human population already present, and still
likely to grow.
Biotechnology and genetic
engineering: Dream or nightmare?
By the late twentieth century scientific advances of-
fered solutions to human problems through a new form
of biotechnology. Genetic engineering, the ability to
take genes for a particular characteristic and insert them
in a different plant and animal species, raised many
possibilities and unknown dangers. The bio-molecular
revolution will ultimately challenge the ability to ma-
nipulate life almost at all will. In this respect, the
utilisation of microorganisms for environmental biore-
mediation in addressing toxic wastes, might not only
minimize pollution, but become a source of energy.
Work involving gene therapy has saved lives and in-
creased food production through genetic manipulation
of certain crops, and produced reusable products such
as bioplastics from corn. Areas of research include the
development of:
r Strains of staple foods which are resistant to herbi-
cides, insects, viruses and drought.
r Strains of fruit and vegetables with improved storing
qualities.
r Animals with improved productivity, such as increas-
ing milk yield in cows.
Biotechnology and genetic engineering also
have actual applications in (Mannion and Bowlby,
1994):
282 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283
r Waste disposal technology involving treatment of in- fostering environmental awareness. It is vital to inform
dustrial or sewage effluents through bacteria (biore-
mediation technology).
r Degradation of biological materials to produce fuels
such as ethanol.
r Cultivation of fungi or algae to produce food for
animals and humans.
The harnessing of natural processes to serve human
needs has infinite and intriguing potential for practical
application. For example, domestic waste dumped in
landfill sites degrades through natural microbial pro-
cesses, resulting in the explosive and potentially haz-
ardous discharge of methane. In a similar way, organic
material from domestic waste, sewage or agriculture
wastes can be biosynthesized by bacteria, to create
methane, sometimes called “biogas” (Abdullah et al.,
1994), a valuable source of energy.
However, biotechnology and genetic engineering
have their own problems. Ho (1998) discussed an un-
precedented alliance between bad science and big busi-
ness suggesting that consumers should be critical of
scientists “tampering with nature” and “scrambling the
genetic code of species” by introducing human genes
into animals and animal genes into vegetables. She
warns of unexpected effects on agriculture and biodi-
versity, of the dangers of “genetic pollution” that cannot
be reversed; the immorality of the “patents of life”—
transgenic animals, plants and seeds taken freely by ge-
neticists of developed countries from the Third World,
as well as human genes and human cell lines from in-
digenous peoples.
Environmental education
The final requirement is for local, long-term devel-
opments for change to be pioneered through education
for sustainability. Many ecological and environmental
projects have been designed to incorporate an educa-
tional aspect. Thus, schools, colleges and universities
may provide different levels of responsibilities through
courses to industry and the public, these levels being:
r Product design.
r Waste management.
r Pollution control.
r Protection and clean-up of specific sites.
r Staff training.
r Media presentation and publicity.
Environmental education is a multidirectional pro-
cess. The partnership between educational providers
and the local community is particularly important in
local consumers on choices of goods, transportation
and leisure patterns for environmental sustainability,
and crucial in establishing a sustainable quality of life.
Education for the masses
The second aspect of human resource development,
the education of the masses, is often forgotten but nev-
ertheless equally important, as the training for specific
skills. Sham Sani (1999) suggested that values associ-
ated with environmental ethics need to be embraced by
everyone. A person who is highly skilled in environ-
mental technology, for example, may not necessarily
have the passion for the preservation of the environ-
ment. Such values need to be nurtured right from in-
fancy. It has been recognised that no legislation and
no conservation programme, however good its design,
could be successful without public support. This could
only come from well-informed citizens who are fully
committed to their right to quality environment. Edu-
cation of the masses includes all sections of the com-
munity from politicians, administrators and the private
sector right down to school children and ordinary peo-
ple in the street. This should involve the participation of
governmental institutions, the media, the private sector
and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in order
to reach all target groups.
Conclusions
Our aim in the future is to develop an economic
system that has a high quality of life with the lowest
possible resource use. The ecological development of
our cities and towns requires the establishment of sys-
tems that maximize the efficient use of resources and
minimize the export of wastes into the environment.
Cities should focus on measures that promote green
consumerism and its implementation in the environ-
mental business sector.
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