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Journal of Civil Engineering
and Architecture
Volume 3, Number 5, May 2009 (Serial Number 18)

Contents
Model Simulation and Calculation
Seismic analysis of a long-span continuous steel truss-arch bridge across the Yangtze River 1
XIA Chao-yi, LEI Jun-qing, XIA He, PI Yong-lin
3D building modeling: A critical investigation practice to learning, analyzing and
deconstruting architecture 9
Andrea Cammarata

Experimental Study
Underground water biological field’s variation and geoenvironmental safety in city 16
YI Nian-ping, ZHANG Xin-gui, WANG Yang, Huang Jun-peng
A statistically refined Bouc-Wen model for the identification of structures under tri-directional
seismic excitations 22
LIN Jeng-wen
Tall building configuration effects on their response to earthquake loading 30
Mohammed S. Al-Ansari
Experimental analysis of Tuned Liquid Damper (TLD) for high raised structures 40
S. Arash Sohrabi, Samad Dehghan
The influence of Fe extracting as a filler of fiber concrete performance 46
Nawir Rasidi

Architecture Environment
The leasing operation of research of the office building market in China 53
QIU Guo-lin
Design and construction of high and large span cast-in-place reinforced concrete cantilever
flowering frame beam 58
WANG Rui, ZHEN Liang, WAN Chao, WU Jing, SHEN Yan-jun
May 2009, Volume 3, No.5 (Serial No.18) Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture, ISSN 1934-7359, USA

Seismic analysis of a long-span continuous steel truss-arch

bridge across the Yangtze River*

XIA Chao-yi1, LEI Jun-qing1, XIA He1, PI Yong-lin2

(1. School of Civil Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing 100044, China;
2. School of Civil & Environmental Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia)

Abstract: In this paper, an FEM (Finite Element Method) +192+336+336+192+108 m six-span continuous
model is established for the main span of the bridge, with the
truss-arch structures, and side spans of 2×84 m
main box arch and suspender members modeled by beam
elements, truss members by truss elements, and the orthotropic continuous trusses at each side of the major part of the
steel deck by plate elements. The natural frequencies and mode bridge. The structure has a feature of long span, long
shapes are acquired by the eigen-parameter analysis. By input of suspender low damping[1]. The dynamic behavior of
a typical earthquake excitation to the bridge system, the dynamic
this bridge under earthquake excitations is one of the
responses of the bridge, including the displacement and
accelerations of the main joints of the structure, and the seismic main problems to be solved in the design of the
forces and stresses of the key members, are calculated by the structure.
structural analysis program, based on which the main laws of the
seismic responses of the bridge are summarized, and the safety
of the structure is evaluated.
Key words: FEM; main span of the bridge; natural frequencies;
the dynamic responses

1. Introduction
(a)
Arch bridges, owing to its high stiffness and nice
appearance, are used as one of the important types of
railway bridge. The Nanjing Dashengguan Bridge is an
important part and one of the key engineering works of
the Beijing-Shanghai high-speed railway. The
construction of bridge was started in the beginning of
2006. The view of the bridge is shown in Fig. 1.
It is a long span railway bridge across the Yangtze (b)
River, designed with many new materials, structures Fig. 1 The Nanjing Dashengguan Yangtze River Bridge
and construction technologies, using 80,000 t steel in
Earthquake is one of the most serious natural
total. The major part of the bridge is composed of 108
disasters in the world. The dynamic behaviours of
* bridges under earthquakes have been studied by
Acknowledgments: This study is sponsored by the Natural
Science Foundation of China (No. 90715008) and the Flander researches in China and abroad[2]. Tseng and Penzien
T

(Belgium)-China Bilateral Project (No. BIL07/07).
XIA Chao-yi, Ph.D.; research field: bridge engineering.
Corresponding author: XIA He, professor; research fields:
bridge vibration and structure driving force reliability reason
with application. E-mail: hxia88@163.com.
established mathematical models Ton Tlong, curved
(or straight), multiple-span, reinforced concrete
highway bridges and performed three-dimensional

1
 Seismic analysis of a long-span continuous steel truss-arch bridge across the Yangtze River
non-linear seismic analysis[3]; Abdel-Ghaffar, et al
proposed a seismic performance evaluation method for
suspension bridges[4]; Dumanoglu, et al analyzed the
stochastic response of suspension bridges to
earthquake excitations, and estimated the spatial
dynamic responses of the Fatih Sultan Mehmet
(second Bosporus) suspension bridge under
earthquake excitation with different speeds of wave
propagation, respectively[5-6]; Saiidi, et al calculated
the seismic performance of the Madrone Bridge during
the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake[7]; ZHU and LAO
compared the selection methods of input earthquake
waves for seismic analysis of bridges[8]; Lupoi, et al
investigated seismic behaviours of bridges accounting
for spatial variability of ground motion[9]; T Ribeiro,
et al studied the dynamic responses of the Alcácer do
Sal Railway Bridge, 8 span simply supported steel
bowstring arch bridge, on the Southern Line of the
Portuguese Railways[10]; Kim and Kawatani proposed
a modal analysis model to study the three-dimensional
responses of steel monorail bridges under moderate
earthquake excitations[11]; CAO and ZHONG
performed a seismic analysis on a long-span
cable-stayed bridge across the Yangtze River[12].
For arch bridges have distinct seismic features,
GUO and YANG established a seismic analysis model
to calculate the dynamic responses of a steel tubular
concrete arch bridge[13]; Usami, et al proposed a
three-dimensional analysis model to investigate the
seismic performance evaluation of steel arch bridges
to strong ground motions from major earthquakes, by
using the modified ground motions based on the
records from the 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu earthquake[14];
LI and GE studied the seismic responses of a 5-span
half-through CFST arch bridge[15], XU Ji studied the
seismic performance of a large-span RC arch bridge[16];
Galvín and Domínguez performed dynamic analysis on
a cable-stayed steel arch bridge[17], and ZHAO and LI
performed dynamic analysis on a continuous
rigid-frame arch bridge[18].
2
In this paper, an FEM model is established for the
main span of the bridge, with the main box arch and
suspender members modeled by beam elements, truss
members by truss elements, and the orthotropic steel
deck by plate elements. The natural frequencies and
mode shapes are acquired by the eigen-parameter
analysis. By input of the Tianjin earthquake
acceleration waves to the bridge system, the dynamic
responses of the bridge, including the displacement and
accelerations of the main joints of the structure, and the
seismic forces and stresses of the key members, are
calculated by the structural analysis program, based on
which the main properties of the seismic responses of
the bridge are summarized, and the safety of the
structure is evaluated.
2. Bridge’s analysis model
2.1 Introduce to the bridge
The Nanjing Dashengguan Yangtze River Bridge
under construction is a long span rail-cum-road bridge
across the Yangtze River, which is designed with many
new materials, structures and construction
technologies.
Fig. 2 shows the configuration arrangement of the
Nanjing Dashengguan Yangtze River Bridge. The
major part of the bridge is symmetrically arranged,
with 108+192+336+336+192+108 m six-span
continuous steel truss-arch structures.
P4
10800 19200 33600 33600 19200 10800
Fig. 2 Configuration of the Nanjing Dashengguan
Yangtze River Bridge
The major part of the bridge is a steel structure
composed of six spans of 3-piece parallel main
trussed-arches with center-to-center distances 15.0 m,
and the cross-bracing systems at each joint section of
the bridge. The main spans of the bridge are 2×336 m
steel trussed-arches, with the arch-rise of 84.2 m, and
 Seismic analysis of a long-span continuous steel truss-arch bridge across the Yangtze River
thus a rise-to-span ratio of 1:4. The height of arch rib is
12 m at the arch crowns and 56 m at the arch springings.
The total height of the arch is 96.2 m from the
springing to the crown. Next to the main arches are
N-shaped flat chord trusses which are 16 m in height,
with the panel length of 12 m for most panels and 15 m
for the four panels close to each arch springing. The flat
chord truss and the arched truss are connected with
variable height panels. The bridge deck for railways is
28 m above the springing level.
Fig. 3 is showing the cross section arrangement of
the main truss part of the bridge. To meet the
requirement of running safety and stability of the
trains, the deck of the bridge is designed as monolithic
orthotropic steel plate stiffened with longitudinal and
transverse ribs and connected with the lower chords of
the main truss, forming a plate-truss composite
structure, so as that the deck plate jointly participates in
the internal force bearing of the truss members (see Fig.
4). The deck is 41.6 m in width, which carries six tracks,
including two tracks (G1, G2) for high-speed trains of
300 km/h, two tracks (P1, P2) for conventional trains of
120 km/h (freight) and/or 200 km/h (passenger), and
two tracks (U1, U2) for urban subway trains of 80 km/h.
The two subway tracks are 5.8 m in width, located on
the cantilevered decks projected from the outer sides of
the main truss, the central line of the tracks are 3.25 m
from the center of truss chords.
U1 G1 G2 P1 P2
200 200 300 200 200 260 200
255 325 1500 1500
4160
Fig. 3 Cross section arrangement of the bridge
2.2 Bridge modeling
The bridge is modeled by the structural analysis
software ANSYS. All members in the main truss,
including the three peaces of arch ribs, upper and lower
chords, hangers, vertical and diagonal web members,
top and bottom longitudinal bracing members, and
cross-bracing members, are regarded as spatial beam
elements in the FEM model.
The bridge deck system is modeled with
“beam-grid” method, where the orthotropic plate and
the stiffening ribs are simplified as six longitudinal
beams, with each supporting a railway track, and as
main and secondary cross beams in each panel of the
main span. The equivalent section properties of a beam
are calculated with the section properties of the actual
structure within the area represented by the beam. The
weights of the steel deck and the secondary loads are
distributed to the longitudinal beam.
The main spans are supported by three huge pot
neoprene bearings on each pier-cap of 12.5 m × 40.5 m
× 3.0 m in dimension, and the maximum reaction
capacity of each bearing is up to 170,000 kN.
The main piers of the bridge are designed with a
round-end hollow cross section, which has the plane
size of 12.0 m × 40.0 m, with the round wall thickness
of 1.5 m, and a central partition wall 4.0 m. The
platforms are 34 m × 76 m × 6 m in dimension, which
are supported by 46 bored piles with the diameter of 2.5
m (see Fig. 4).
U2
200
325 255
Fig. 4 Foundation model of the bridge pier
The piers are modeled with spatial beam elements,
and the platforms by block elements. The connections
3
 Seismic analysis of a long-span continuous steel truss-arch bridge across the Yangtze River

between the pier cap and the main structure are treated
as master-and-slave freedoms.
The stiffness of the pile foundations and the
surrounding soils are simplified as equivalent base
springs, with their stiffness added onto the
corresponding platform nodes. The spring stiffnesses
of the equivalent base springs are listed in Table 1,
where KX, KY and KZ are the translation stiffnesses in
longitudinal, transverse and vertical directions, and
KRX, KRY and KRZ are rotational stiffnesses
corresponding to the longitudinal, transverse and
vertical axes of the bridge, respectively.

Table 1 Foundation stiffness of the bridge piers

Pier KX /GN KY /GN KZ /GN KRX /GN·m-1 KRY /GN·m-1 KRZ /GN·m-1
P4 1.077 1.047 62.10 9121 2209 224.3
P5 0.9950 0.9700 67.09 12870 2384 257.8
P6 3.524 3.524 162.9 58410 15470 1745
P7 1.931 1.931 157.5 56350 56350 1007
P8 0.4287 0.4287 127.6 45500 11870 285.9
P9 0.3447 0.3384 58.56 11200 2049 105.1
P10 6.758 5.710 48.12 6160 1810 822.7

structure is 554 kN/m, and the secondary load

Fig. 5 FEM model of the bridge
Totally, there are 3771 nodes and 8507 spatial
beam elements in the bridge model. The FEM model of
the Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge is shown in Fig. 5.
The total weight of the bridge structure is about
110,000 t, in which the self-weight of the main
including the track and other railway facilities is taken
as 388 kN/m in the modal analysis.
2.3 Modal analysis of bridge
The natural vibration properties of the bridge are
analyzed by the general structural analysis software
ANSYS. There are 80 orders of natural frequencies and
mode shapes for the bridge are obtained. The
descriptions for the first 10 modes are given in Table 2,
and the first 6 mode shapes of the bridge are shown in
Fig. 6.

Table 2 Modal properties of the bridge

No. Freq. /Hz
1 0.3425
2 0.3781
3 0.4100
4 0.5968
5 0.6290
6 0.6641
7 0.6717
8 0.7387
9 0.8048
10 0.8281
Mode description
1st vertical anti-symmetry of arch.
1st lateral anti-symmetry with arch and deck in phase.
2nd lateral symmetry with arch and deck in phase.
2nd vertical symmetry of arch.
3rd vertical anti-symmetry of arch.
3rd lateral symmetry with arch and deck out of phase.
4th lateral anti-symmetry with arch and deck out of phase.
4th vertical symmetry of arch.
5th lateral symmetry with arch and deck in phase.
6th lateral anti-symmetry with arch and deck in phase.

4
 Seismic analysis of a long-span continuous steel truss-arch bridge across the Yangtze River

(a) The first vertical mode (front view) (b) The first lateral mode (plan view)

(c) The second vertical mode (front view) (d) The second lateral mode (plan view)

(e) The third vertical mode (front view) (f) The third lateral mode (plan view)
Fig. 6 Natural vibration modes of the bridge

As is seen in Table 1 and Fig. 5, the first mode of 80

the six-span continuous steel truss-arch bridge is a

Acceleration /gal

30

vertical movement in anti-symmetry, with the -20

frequency 0.3425 Hz. The second mode is a lateral -70

movement in anti-symmetry with arch and girder in -120

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
phase and frequency 0.3781 Hz. T ime /s

One can also see that the natural frequencies of the (a) Horizontal acceleration (direction x)
bridge are rather low, with its tenth frequency only 160
120
0.8281 Hz. This result indicates that the six-span
Acceleration /gal

80
40
continuous steel truss-arch bridge is rather flexible. 0
-40
-80
3. Seismic analysis of bridge -120
-160
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3.1 Earthquake excitation to the bridge T ime /s

The earthquake acceleration record at Tianjin (b) Horizontal acceleration (direction y)

80
during the Tangshan Earthquake in China is taken as 60
Acceleration /gal

40
the input to the bridge, to analyze the seismic responses 20
0
of the structure. -20

The earthquake took place at 21:53, on November -40

-60
25, 1976, with its record length 19.12 sec, richter -80
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
magnitude 6.9, epicentral distance 65 km, frequency T ime /s

component 0.30-35.00 Hz. The peak accelerations in x, (c) Vertical acceleration

y and z directions are 104.1804 gal, 145.8047 gal and Fig. 7 Accelerations of the Tianjin earthquake record

73.1401 gal, respectively. Fig. 7 is showing the According to the Chinese Aseismic Design Code
original accelerometers of the Tianjin Earthquake for Railway Bridges, the earthquake intensity for the
record.

5
 Seismic analysis of a long-span continuous steel truss-arch bridge across the Yangtze River

area where the Nanjing Dashengguan Yangtze River 0.3

Bridge locates is 7 degree. Thus the peak accelerations 0.2

0.1

Acceleration /g
in three directions of the Tianjin earthquake record 0.0
were normalized to be 0.125g in horizontal direction -0.1

-0.2
and 0.0625g in vertical direction.
-0.3
3.2 Earthquake responses of the bridge -0.4
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
The dynamic responses of the bridge under the
T ime /s
normalized Tianjin earthquake accelerations were (a) Vertical acceleration
0.3
analyzed. The damping ratio of the structure is taken as
0.2
0.02, and the time step in the integral calculation is

Acceleration /g
0.1

0.002 sec. Fig. 8 shows the time histories of the 0.0

displacement responses at the mid-span node of the -0.1

-0.2
arch rib.
-0.3
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
12.0
T ime /s
8.0
(b) Lateral acceleration (Upper chord)
Displacement /cm

4.0
0.3
0.0
0.2
-4.0
Acceleration /g

0.1
-8.0
0.0
-12.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 -0.1

T ime /s -0.2

(a) Vertical displacement -0.3

15.0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
10.0 T ime /s
Displacement /cm

5.0 (c) Lateral acceleration (Lower chord)

0.0
Fig. 9 Mid-span accelerations of the bridge
-5.0

-10.0

-15.0
Fig. 10-Fig. 13 are showing the time histories of
-20.0 the stresses of the upper and lower chord arch rib
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
T ime /s members, the vertical web member and the hanger
(b) Lateral displacement (Upper chord) member at the mid-span of the main arch.
15.0

10.0 36.0
30.0
Displacement /cm

5.0 24.0
Member stress /MPa

18.0
0.0 12.0
6.0
-5.0 0.0
-6.0
-10.0
-12.0
-15.0 -18.0
-24.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-30.0
T ime /s 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

(c) Lateral displacement (Lower chord) T ime /s

Fig. 8 Mid-span displacements of the bridge Fig. 10 Stress of mid-span upper chord arch rib

Fig. 9 shows the time histories of the acceleration

responses at the mid-span node of the arch rib.

6
 Seismic analysis of a long-span continuous steel truss-arch bridge across the Yangtze River

25.0
20.0
span. The vertical maximum acceleration is 2.774 m/s2,
15.0
which occurs at the upper chord node of the 336 m
Member stress /MPa

10.0
5.0 main arch span.
0.0
-5.0 The maximum stresses of some main members of
-10.0
-15.0 the bridge are listed in Table 4.
-20.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
T ime /s Table 4 Maximum stresses of bridge members
Fig. 11 Stress of mid-span lower chord arch rib Position Stress /MPa
Upper chord 29.94
6.0
Mid-span arch rib
4.0 Lower chord 17.92
ember stress/MPa

2.0

0.0
Mid-span vertical web member 5.515
-2.0 Mid-span vertical hanger member 13.42
-4.0
M

-6.0

-8.0 One can see that the maximum stress occurs at the
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
T ime /s upper chord member of the mid-span arch rib, which is
Fig. 12 Stress of mid-span vertical web member 29.94 MPa. And those of the vertical web member and
16.0 the hanger member are, respectively, 5.515 MPa and
12.0
13.42 MPa. These stresses induced by the earthquake
Member stress /MPa

8.0

4.0
0.0
excitation are rather small, compared with those
-4.0 induced by the dead weight of the structure and by the
-8.0

-12.0 live load of train vehicles.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
T ime /s
4. Conclusions
Fig. 13 Stress of mid-span hanger member
The FEM model is established for the six-span
The maximum displacements and accelerations of
108+192+336+336+192+108 m continuous steel
the 108+192+336+336+192+108 m continuous steel
truss-arch bridge. The natural frequencies and mode
truss-arch bridge are listed in Table 3, in which Main,
shapes are acquired by eigen-parameter analysis. By
Side 1 and Side 2 represent the 336 m main arch span,
inputting the Tianjin earthquake accelerations to the
192 m truss span and 108 m truss span, respectively.
bridge system, the dynamic responses are calculated.
Table 3 Maximum responses of the bridge The main conclusions from the analysis include:
Position Main Side 1 Side 2 (1) The first mode of the six-span continuous steel
Lateral displacement /cm 13.99 18.64 10.85
truss-arch bridge is a vertical movement in
Vertical displacement /cm 10.84 2.927 1.029
Lateral acceleration /m·s-2 2.453 3.669 4.589 anti-symmetry, with the frequency 0.3425 Hz. The
Vertical acceleration /m·s-2 2.774 1.218 1.303 second mode is a lateral movement in anti-symmetry
with arch and girder in phase and frequency 0.3781 Hz.
The results in Table 2 indicate that the lateral
The tenth frequency is only 0.8281 Hz. These results
maximum displacement is 18.64 cm, which occurs at
indicate that this huge bridge is rather flexible.
the upper chord node of the 192 m truss span. The
(2) The maximum displacements of the bridge
vertical maximum displacement is 10.84 cm, which
under the Tianjin earthquake record with design scales
occurs at the upper chord node of the 336 m main arch
are 18.64 cm in lateral at the upper chord node of the
span.
192 m truss span, and 10.84 cm in vertical at the upper
The lateral maximum acceleration is 4.589 m/s2,
chord node of the 336 m main arch span, respectively.
which occurs at the lower chord node of the 108 m truss

7
 Seismic analysis of a long-span continuous steel truss-arch bridge across the Yangtze River
(3) The maximum accelerations of the bridge
under the Tianjin earthquake record with design scales
are 4.589 m/ s2 in lateral at the lower chord node of the
108 m truss span, and 2.774 m/s2 in vertical at the upper
chord node of the 336 m main arch span, respectively.
(4) The maximum stresses excited by the seismic
excitation with design scales are 29.94 MPa in the arch
rib member, 5.515 MPa in the vertical web member
and 13.42 MPa in the hanger member, respectively,
which are rather small compared with those induced by
the dead weight of the structure and by the live load of
train vehicles.
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2007, 32(1): 21-24.
(Edited by Jenny)
May 2009, Volume 3, No.5 (Serial No.18) Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture, ISSN 1934-7359, USA

3D building modeling: A critical investigation practice to learning,

analyzing and deconstruting architecture

Andrea Cammarata
(DiAP-Department of Architecture and Planning, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milan 20133, Italy)

Abstract: The research deal with the reconstruction through
digital 3D CAAD (Computer Aided Architectural Design)
modeling of masterpieces of modern and contemporary
architecture. The charm of reconstruction through digital
modeling is far less than that of work done on traditional
maquette, indeed, makes much deeper level of detail and
specificity from knowing. We had to know many technical
characteristics of the buildings beyond size, like static-structural
features, physical features, economic features and others. In this
way the model become real-simulation, a simulated architectural
model in all aspects. In addition to these aspects we deeply
analyze also the formal, morphological, historical and
architectural aspects. The idea is to revitalize and re-discover the
logics and the rules of the projected constructions that the
designer architect have invented for each masterpiece of
architecture, through the comprehension of how is done. The
proportional analysis of the modularity on which the design is
based is mandatory subject of investigation.
Key words: representation; analysis; 3D; modularity; model;
architecture
1. Background
The Politecnico di Milano was established in 1863
by scholars and entrepreneurs. Over the years, it has
been the home-institution to most prominent professors,
including several Nobel Prize winners.
The Politecnico di Milano has approximately
40,000 students and more than 1200 professors as
permanent staff in its seven campuses located in the
Lombardy Region, organized in seventeen departments
of nine networked schools, which makes it the largest
institution in Italy for engineering, architecture and
industrial design.
Andrea Cammarata, professor; research fields: representation,
CAAD, digital modeling. E-mail: andrea.cammarata@polimi.it.
The School of Architecture and Society is located
at the Leonardo Campus in the center of Milan and at
Piacenza. The Leonardo Campus is the historical seat
of Politecnico di Milano since 1927, with most of the
academic activities taking place inside this original
core of the campus. The new Piacenza Campus
represents the latest development of the Politecnico di
Milano.
Today, research is increasingly and more closely
connected to teaching and represents a priority
commitment which makes it possible for us to attain
high level results at international level. Research work
goes hand in hand with cooperation and alliances with
the industrial system[1].
We always think that knowing the world where
one will work is a fundamental requirement of
students’ training. Being confronted with the needs of
manufacturing, industrial and public administration
sectors helps research to approach new terrain and to
meet the need for constant and rapid innovation. Such
an alliance with the industrial sector not only permits
the university to continue along its traditional areas but
also acts as a stimulus for their development.
This paper deals with a research carried out by the
CoDE (Cooperative Design Environment) Lab with the
students of the “3D Parametric CAAD Design” class
(Leonardo Campus-Milano) and “Digital Design
Drawing” (Arata Campus-Piacenza), with trainees and
dissertationists.
Both classes deal with all the subjects concerning
CAAD-assisted design, with the aim of teaching
students how to work autonomously from the

9
 3D building modeling: A critical investigation practice to learning, analyzing and deconstruting architecture
analytical pre-planning phase to the final rendering of
the artifact. The most frequently used programs are:
Autodesk Revit, Graphisoft Archicad and Nemetschek
Allplan.
The workgroup, reporting to the Italian Chapter of
IAI (International Alliance for Interoperability), relies
on the cooperation of qualified professionals.
2. Teaching method
Subjects of analysis and reconstruction were not
the projects, but the already created buildings that
supply a wider choice of sources and information[2].
We analyzed the formal, morphological, historical and
architectural aspects.
For the time being we only deal with Aalto, Ando,
Botta, Bottoni (Fig. 1), Holl (Fig. 2), Isozaki, Kahn, Le
Corbusier, Meier (Fig. 3), Mies van der Rohe,
Niemeyer, Ponti, Terragni and Wright. Soon we will
add to the list of possible choice Eisenman, Nouvel,
Siza and Venturi.
Fig. 1 Piero Bottoni-Ina building (Marescotti)
Fig. 2 Steven Holl-Chapel of St. Ignatius (Donelli)
10
Fig. 3 Richard Meier-Royal Dutch Papers Mills
headquarters (Ni Ya)
The teaching method works like this: once the
students have learned to use in deep detail the CAAD
modeler, they are invited to choose from a list of works
(prepared by the teachers) that cover the whole activity
of several architects (those above).
Each student must choose a different architecture
and search for, with our supervision and direction, all
the necessary information and documentation to
interpret and reproduce the object.
Also, the material must be sufficiently
comprehensive to fully understand the foundational
principles of the building, both from the morphological
point of view, and from the structural, formal and
functional.
The representation of a building only from the
visual point of view, so as it seems equal to the original,
has absolutely no interest in the course and for the
research group.
Thereafter, each single job is supervised with a
series of revisions to assist the interpretation stage,
where students are often lacking, to route correctly to
ensure that the work will not be superficial.
When the architectural model is correctly finished
the students submit it to the teachers and to the whole
classroom, highlighting features and peculiarities, in
ways that I will clarify later.
The research group had refined this type of
approach for several years with academic results that
gradually improve quality and interest.
 3D building modeling: A critical investigation practice to learning, analyzing and deconstruting architecture
The CAAD Digital Model Archive of CoDE Lab,
directed by Andrea Cammarata, presently boasts
approximately 250 models generated by means of
different techniques and programs, and with different
matter-formal investigation levels.
3. Methodology approach
A significant model of this search could be Peter
Eisenman’ study “Ten canonical buildings
1950-2000”[3], where some significant modern
architecture works are analytically “deconstructed” in
order to restore the logics governing their
“construction”. This type of cognitive operation is at
the same time a planning operation, since it “rebuilds”
the invisible plot of the conceptual order sustaining the
designed and possibly built work. Such operation is all
the more feasible because the architecture refers to a
recognizable order principle.
That’s how the choice of certain works by these
authors as quite significant case studies is justified for a
disassembly and re-assembly operation of the
“constituent” logics supporting them.
With reference to Eisenman’s study again, these
architectures can be defined as “canonical”, meaning
“the history of architecture as a continual and
unremitting assault on what has been thought to be the
persistence of architecture: subject/object,
figure/ground, solid/void, and the part-to-whole
relationship”.
These concepts are now canonical starting from
our authors’ work: their works have therefore become
canonical too.
“Rather, the idea of the canonical begins to
describe potential methods of analysis, which derive
from an interest in reading architecture in a more
flexible and less dogmatic way”.
As we all know, the “theory of proportions” is not
just a branch of mathematics and geometry: it has long
been the foundation of architectural design, until the
modern movement depreciated it as a residual of
academic architecture (Fig. 4 is showing the 3D model
of Richard Meier-Exhibition and Assembly Hall ).
Fig. 4 Richard Meier-Exhibition and Assembly
Hall (Michael Angelo Albert)
But Le Corbusier[4] was still using a proportional
measure system based on the harmonious ratio of the
human body’s measures. This system was not as much
based on the theorems of scientific disciplines as it was
on the tradition of architectural and artistic culture,
from Vitruvio to Leonardo.
But our reference can still be Eisenman, not only
for referring to the above-mentioned “rule” concept,
but also for using the “close reading” concept. This is
how he explains it: “Colin Rowe[5] first taught me how
to see what was not present in a building. Rowe did not
want me to describe what I could actually see: for
example, a three-story building with a rusticated base,
increasingly less rustication in each of its upper stories,
and with ABCBA proportional harmonics across the
façade, etc.. Rather, Rowe wanted me to see what ideas
were implied by what was physically present. In other
words, less a concern for what the eye sees–the
optical–and more for what the mind see–the visual[6].
This latter idea of “seeing with the mind” is called here
“close reading”.
What exactly is the meaning of “close reading”?
Or, as Eisenman put it: “close reading of what?” A
possible answer that we consider significant is the
following: “Close reading can be said to define what
has been known until now as the history of architecture.
But for our purpose here, close reading also suggests
11
 3D building modeling: A critical investigation practice to learning, analyzing and deconstruting architecture
that a building has been “written” in such a way as to
demand such a reading.” In other words, “close
reading” concerns what the author calls “critical
architectural ideas”, which must be seized not in the
“optical” coexistent elements of the works, but in the
“visual” ones. The distribution is explicit: “Visuality
does not refer to a prime facie response to image, but
rather to what is apparent and implied by aspects of the
building’s formal organization.”
Only the decomposition and recomposition of this
modular language-through a computer-assisted “close
reading”-accounts for the “architectural ideas”
conveyed by Serlio in his project, highlighted here for
the first time. (Fig. 5 shows the 3D model of Ludwig
Mies Van Der Roth Bacardi Office building).
Fig. 5 Ludwig Mies Van Der Roth Bacardi
Office building (Marinaro)
The newest idea is therefore to revitalize and
re-discover the construction of maquettes through the
use of digital instruments. This digital 3D models are
“real” simulation of existing buildings made by
contemporary or modern most famous architects.
The charm of reconstruction through digital
modeling is far less than that of work done on
traditional maquette, indeed, makes much deeper level
of detail and specificity from knowing.
The fact that it’s not applicable on the concept of
“scale representation” increase dramatically the level
of details that can be achieved can be infinitely more
than a traditional maquette.
From this point of view the models are greatly
different. In some cases, for example, we have
analyzed in detail including all the decorations and the
12
furnishing of the house. Usually this happens with
buildings in which the foundational logic that governs
the project went up to the definition of the interior,
involving every part as an active and an important part
of the creative project. The most interesting samples
are Frank Lloyd Wright’ building.
Sometimes, however, we found much more
interesting to investigate the technological equipment
(plant), especially when they become drivers of the
overall design process. There are many cases of this
kind of study, for example, the modular systems from
Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe period until recent
years. (Fig. 6 shows the 3D model of Botta-Cymbalist
Synagogue and Jewis Heritage Center).
Fig. 6 Botta-Cymbalist Synagogue and
Jewis Heritage Center (Dardanelli)
Still different cases are those in which the building
is very wide. In these cases the job is mostly focused on
to put in evidence the project in its fundamental
characteristics, that in the perfect reproduction of every
part and/or component of the structure. Often besides,
in the case of great buildings, as in the case of buildings
turned to particular purposes, are missing a lot of
information. Generally documentation is easily found
 3D building modeling: A critical investigation practice to learning, analyzing and deconstruting architecture
on the first and last floor, along with the standard, often
hypothetical.
In this sense we have always given priority to
understand and focus on the modeling project, the
generative scheme, rather than the perfect reproduction
of all the details.
We can also investigate and understand in detail
many more aspects that in a maquette is not possible to
properly highlighted.
The single objects that are components (part of)
the model are simulation of architectural elements. We
know many technical characteristics of them beyond
size, like static-structural features, physical features,
economic features and others.
The set of characteristics of individual objects that
make up the model, if properly placed in relation to
each other, give us an interactive digital model, which
itself has the same physical nature, and can be
subjected to simulated action/reaction very specific
interest. (Fig. 7 shows the 3D model of Richard Meier-
Rickmers Reederei Headquarters).
Fig. 7 Richard Meier-Rickmers Reederei
Headquarters (Piana)
Several research and thesis are going on right now
in accord and in collaboration with some colleagues to
highlight other aspects that do not normally become
part of traditional learning, but these tools make it very
fascinating to look into.
Among these we quote case studies of historical
reconstructions, sustainable architecture, estimated
metric calculation, virtual yard and structural
calculation. Such experimentations are developed in
close collaboration with the manufacturing software
houses, usually very interested to the intensive testing
that we do and, above all, to the dissemination and
integration in the didactics. Their support is essential to
always have the most updated version available.
For instance, in some recent historical studies we
have structurally faced a series of buildings structurally
based on vaults. Such vaults must laboriously be
modeled to one to one with a specific 3D modeler.
Despite this, once passed the ended model to the
program of structural calculation, this has never been
able to interpret the element “vault”, doing therefore
calculations that gave completely wrong results. This
inconsistency was immediately reported to the
manufacturing house that will handle to eliminate the
problem in a next release of the program.
4. Transformations
The simulation applied to the transformations that
some important functionalist buildings have undergone
during their existence. Sometimes the changes were
due to a difference or adjustment of their intended use,
and sometimes the changes were quite substantial and
due to design and/or assembly mistakes.
We often just observed the remarkable differences
between the designed and the created building.
The lack of information also allows to understand
the reasons of the project changes and to assess them
from an architectural-methodological viewpoint.
This type of simulation led to a whole series of
remarks on the alleged/real flexibility of the analyzed
buildings and on the building techniques and
technologies of the time, with their pros and cons, and
we realized how experimental certain futuristic works
were at the time. (Fig. 8 shows the 3D model of
Giuseppe Terragni–Novocomum building ).
13
 3D building modeling: A critical investigation practice to learning, analyzing and deconstruting architecture
Fig. 8 Giuseppe Terragni–Novocomum
building (Dell’ Acqua)
Most often we can see and understand the
modifications that a building has undergone (suffered)
during its existence and its history. Time is a great
threat to the architecture, but much more often for bad
architecture.
The good architecture often shows unusual and
unexpected abilities of adaptation to the carelessness of
the men and the changes of destinations of use which
are submitted.
To let the students to make these operations of
comparison is very instructive, also because it teaches
them that the architecture before being monument of
herself is made of alive objects that, sometimes, are
dynamic.
The most modern programs CAADs have features
such as the “alterations” and/or the “phases”, that allow
to compare the state of the building in two (or more)
separate temporal moments, features which have
proved valuable in this type of investigation.
5. Project never built or building
demolished
As far as created and lost works are concerned, we
deepened only certain specific cases that seemed most
interesting.
This type of choice is also due to the shortage of
traceable sources, thus making the real/virtual barrier
too thin: we often had to interpret drafts or drawings
that were too partial to deduce the whole object and we
14
therefore had to reconstruct by subsequent
suppositions.
The whole technological aspect of the building
would also be further neglected, since in project
representations of the past it isn’t always possible to
understand and extrapolate the building’s structure,
facilities and many constructive details.
Although this operation looks quite interesting,
we have not applied it very often, being
“non-scientific” and unverifiable.
Instead they are revealing very interesting some
experiments in the virtual reconstruction of historic
designed buildings never realized.
Such searches, based on authors of the
Renaissance, you/they are bringing to the realization of
very complex and articulated models, that you/they
also receive vast consensus in disciplinary sectors as
that of the historians, that generally shown little interest
in experimentations of technological character.
It’s currently in progress the virtual realization of
the whole “ideal city” planned by Sebastiano Serlio,
and the project could be completed within the autumn.
They are in phase of study other similar experiences on
authors such as Vignola and Palladio. (Fig. 9 shows
the 3D model of Gio Ponti-Pirelli skyscraper ).
Fig. 9 Gio Ponti-Pirelli skyscraper (Monaci)
6. Operations and modularity
We especially analyzed the operation of these
architectures: how plans and prospectuses turn into
volumetric drawings, where and how certain situations
seem to be solved in a difficult or complex way.
 3D building modeling: A critical investigation practice to learning, analyzing and deconstruting architecture
The constituent proportional analysis of the
modularity on which the design is based is another
subject we are currently investigating (as already
longly said at the beginning of this paper), from
masters of the modern movement to contemporary
architects.
We are browsing a whole series of works and
looking for the expressive language of modular grids
and symmetries, thus producing three-dimensional
constituent morphological analyses.
Task for students is to find a way to
graphic-representative that expresses the concepts of
spatial relationships that usually are not obvious or
evident. When it comes to represent two-dimensional
diagrams, representing how many have already been
explored and exploited. In 3D, however, much has still
to be done. Both by tradition, which for simplicity is
almost always refers to axonometric views, often of the
split, which allow us to return to work in 2D to 3D
views. Even in this case a field extensively. (Fig. 10
shows the 3D model of Oscar Niemayer-Mondadori
building).
Fig. 10 Oscar Niemayer–Mondadori
building (Paderni)
When it comes with representing bidimensional
schemes, a lot of representative formalities (modalities)
are already been explored and exploit. In 3D instead,
very it is still to be done. Both by tradition, and for
simplicity is almost always refers to axonometric sights
(views), often using 3D sections, that allow us to draw
in 2D on 3D sights (views). Also this case it is an area
widely investigated and discussed.
Some recent experimentation of important and
innovative studies of architecture you/they have shown
that the form of the representation of the architecture,
it’s architecture itself, contributing in substantial way
to the project’ final form.
The research of new expressive forms and
investigation of the three-dimensionality is pushing
therefore to give new interpretative keys of the form
(shape) of the architecture itself, with the hope to rise
the students sensibility (tomorrow’s building designer)
to the planned (projected) and controlled manipulation
of shapes.
A further discussion in this direction is
represented by a case study in which we are developing
new way for the representation of flows (people, traffic,
normal access, situations of maximum crowding, risky
situations, etc.) and their visual simulation inside the
architectural project.
7. Trends and mathematics
Another fascinating aspect, almost consequential
to the previous one, has been the rediscovery of the
appeal of certain buildings’ analysis, which-for
previous or subsequent analyses-disclosed a trend, a
morphology and/or a plasticity shaped on
mathematical-physical[7] or proportional elements[8].
The analyses and their computerized audit highlighted
some very complex relationships and extraordinary
design solutions. (Fig. 11 shows the 3D model of
Andrea Palladio–La Rotonda, Villa Cpra).
Fig. 11 Andrea Palladio–La Rotonda,
Villa Cpra (Nemeth)
(to be continued on Page 21)
15
May 2009, Volume 3, No.5 (Serial No.18) Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture, ISSN 1934-7359, USA

Underground water biological field’s variation and

geoenvironmental safety in city*

YI Nian-ping, ZHANG Xin-gui, WANG Yang, HUANG Jun-peng

(College of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China)

Abstract: In the process of city construction, as a comprised
factor of city geological environment, underground water takes
the most active part, and its dynamic change is fiercest. The city
construction unceasingly disturbs underground water chemical,
dynamical, physical and biological field. In return, the four
fields’ changes also can affect the geological environment that
city lived by, in other words they affect safety and stability of
geological environment. Interaction of underground water and
the geoenvironment directly displays in the following two ways:
The first is that the underground water and the geological body
transfer the energy each other; the second is that the strength
balance of geological body is broken. Underground water
variation brought about by city construction is the factor which
cannot be neglected. Underground water variation on the one
hand changes soils or rocks’ physical, biological, chemical and
mechanical properties, then influences the deformation and
strength of geological body. On the other hand it changes its
own physical, chemical properties and biochemical component.
At present, from mechanics aspect, interaction between
chemical field and biological field variation of the underground
water and the geological body lacks research. Although
interaction between them is long-term, slow, but when it
compared with water-soil or water-rock interaction in the entire
process of formation of rocks or soils or geologic evolution
history, the qualitative change of the biological and chemical
action of rocks or soils brought about by city construction is
remarkable. In this paper, aiming at underground water
biological field factor which is easily neglected by people, it
analyzes that underground water biological field affects possible
mechanism and approach of properties variation of rocks or soils
*
Acknowledgments: This work is keystone items of Ministry
of Education P.R.C (No. [2003]77), National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 40062002), Natural Science
Foundation of Guangxi (Nos. 0447001, 0249010, 0575019,
0779012, 0632006-1B, RC2007001) and Department of
Water Resources of Guangxi (No. [2004]4).
Corresponding author: YI Nian-ping (1966- ), female, senior
engineer; research fields: geological environment and engineering,
geotechnical engineering. E-mail: npyi@gxu.edu.cn.
in city construction, brings forward further research method and
development direction have been also proposed.
Key words: underground water; biological field; microscopic
structure
1. Introduction
In the process of city construction, as a comprised
factor of the city geology environment, underground
water takes the most active part, and its dynamic
change is fiercest, so it becomes the outstanding one of
multitudinous factors that initiates the city geology
disaster and the geology effect of correlative
environment. The city construction on the one hand
remolds the soil characteristic, on the other hand also
imposes all kinds of loads to the soil body, it
unceasingly disturbs the chemical, dynamical, physical
and biological field of underground water. Meanwhile
it arouses four actions in the soil body: The physical
action (includes lubricating, soft and sloughy action,
strengthened action of hygroscopic water), chemical
action (includes exchange of ionic, dissolution,
hydration, hydrolysis, corrosion, oxidation and
deoxidation, precipitation), mechanics action (includes
seepage, seepage flow, pore water pressure and water
dynamic pressure, uplift pressure, frozen-heave force,
as well as one kind of matrix suction in unsaturated soil)
and the biological action (biological absorption,
transformation, elimination, degeneration and reaction
of chemical composition). The interaction of
underground water and the geological body directly
displays as following: The first is that the underground
water and the geological body factors transfer the

16
 Underground water biological field’s variation and geoenvironmental safety in city
energy. The second is that the strength balance of
geological body is broken. The third is that
biochemical component of the underground water will
be changed. Underground water variation on the one
hand changes the physical, biological, chemical and
mechanical properties of rocks or soils, then influences
the deformation and strength of geotechnical body. On
the other hand it also changes the physical, mechanical
properties and the biochemical component of
underground water. Although interaction with them is
long-term, slow, but when compared with water-soil or
water-rock interaction in the entire process of
formation of rocks or soils or geologic evolutional
history, biological or chemical action are remarkable in
terms of water-soil or water-rock interaction that city
construction brought about. The biological influence is
a factor which cannot be neglected, as the aquatic
environmental variation and chemical variation affects
mutually, its change is still remarkable.
As the development of city construction, the
massive use of three industrial wastes, greenhouse gas
discharging, household garbage piling up and filling,
chemical fertilizer, agricultural chemicals cause
serious pollution of underground water, soil mass and
atmosphere, affects structure and properties of soil
through water-soil action, and destructs water-soil
biology and the ecosystem environment, and finally,
through the water as carrier and solvent, the physical
climate system and the biochemistry circulatory system,
cause the mutual action of the telluric stratums.
Because of increase of project activity and some
unreasonable exploitation ways of underground water,
the condition of surface drainage and seepage flow is
changed, equilibrium cycles of surface water,
underground water and atmosphere precipitation are
destroyed, the four field structures of underground
water are transferred, and the influence of biological
field variation is even more prominent. The influence
that underground aquatic biological field variation to
the soil body stability involves the geotechnical
engineering, hydrology geochemistry, biology,
environment geology and so on, and its research can
better consummate and develop water and soil
interaction theory.
2. Factors of undergroundwater
biological field variations
The underground water biological field mainly
refers to the environment of each biotic factorial action
which generally includes the botanic and microorganic
action. We mainly discuss the influence of
microorganic function. The microorganism is an
organism which the naked eye cannot catch, including
the bacterium, mycelium microorganism, the fungus
that contain no chlorophyll, the algae contains
chlorophyll, the protozoon and the
super-microorganism, whose structure is smaller than
the bacterium, which can not be found even under the
microscope[1]. The underground water that opens the
structure, richly contains each kind of microorganism
group. In the half-opened structural water, there mainly
lives the anaerobe. The underground water structure
whose hydrological geology was sealed generally lacks
the microorganism. Soils or rocks also usually include
microorganisms of all kinds, like the bacterium, the
fungus and the emission fungus. Bacterium is the most,
the emission fungus is less, the fungus is the least. The
microorganic function is controlled by quantity and
temperature of organism, hardness index and
ingredient as well as vicissitudinary intensity of water.
The primary factors that cause the underground water
biological field variation include:
(1) The function that excessive exploitation of
underground water which caused by city construction,
excavations, transports, piles and fills of soil, telluric
surface processing and so on, have directly changed the
environment of microorganism growing in
underground water and soil mass.
(2) The discharging of three industrial wastes,
greenhouse gas, creates the greenhouse effect and
17
 Underground water biological field’s variation and geoenvironmental safety in city
climate vicissitude, changes the soil mass and
microorganic habitat in underground water.
(3) The discharge of three types of wastes, causes
the pollution of the city ecosystem, microorganism
species that are adapt to the polluted environment to
leave and propagate massively, but species that are not
is on the verge of extinction, or even extinct. The
decrease of microorganism species and the increase of
the microorganism quantity cause the influence, even
the variation of the biologic environment of
underground water.
(4) The activities of city construction changes the
drainage, supply, seepage-flow condition and
hydraulic relationship of underground water,
accelerates the process of the pollution of underground
water and causes the change of biochemistry
environment of water. The change of hydraulic
condition causes the transformation of pattern of the
microorganism migration and the microorganism
distribution in underground water.
(5) Factors such as Engineering construction,
environmental variation and so on cause the disorder of
the structure of soil mass, the fluctuation of the number
of grain structure, the change of the quantity and
distribution of the pore, the strengthening of hydraulic
conductivity and air permeability between the big
pores, which are extremely advantageous to
microorganisms’ activities. There lives massive
aerobic microorganisms on the water film of big pores
and anaerobic microorganisms in the small pore. But in
the extremely fine pore, which bacterium cannot enter
in, the organisms are able to be preserved. The
structural destruction causes the variation of the
activeness and the distribution of the microorganisms
in the soil as well as the indirect influence of the
underground water biological environment which
flows through the soil body.
3. Soil body stability effect caused by
underground water biology field variation
18
The interaction, influence, exchange, seepage
between microbial populations in underground water
and soil mass environment and the influence of soil
body stability created by biotic factors in the
underground water were mainly aroused by the
absorption and degeneration of the contaminative
substances in the underground water and the soil body
done by the microorganisms or organisms in the water.
Then the chemical component and mutual action in the
water and soil body, microstructure as well as the
physical characteristic and mechanical properties of
soil mass are changed. Through the long-term
water-soil interaction, the quantitative change will
cause qualitative change.
Take the Benzene as an example to understand the
microbial degeneration characteristic, to analyze how
they affect chemical composition variation of the
underground water and the soil microscopic structure
and then influence the stability of the soil body.
(1) Oxygen-needed degeneration. In oxygenous
environments, nearly all petroleum pollutants can be
degenerated and O2 is this kind of acceptor in
degeneration process. Take the aromatic benzene as the
example, its mineralized equation is[2]:
C6H5-CH3+9O2→7CO2+4H2O (1)
(2) Desulphurization degeneration. As researches
indicate, when some electron acceptor whose oxidized
ability is strong was consumed, SO42- may replace the
anaerobic microorganism to degenerate the electron
acceptor of the hydrocarbon pollutant. Regarding
benzene, its reaction equation is[2]:
C6H5-CH3+4.5 SO42-+3 H2O
→2.25H2S+2.25HS-+7HCO3-+0.25H+ (2)
(3) Denitration degeneration. When the dissolved
oxygen in the water-bearing stratum is almost
consumed away, the anaerobic microorganism uses
NO3- to replace O2 as the final electron acceptor, to
carry on the hydrocarbon degeneration. Regarding
benzene, its reaction equation is[2]:
 Underground water biological field’s variation and geoenvironmental safety in city
C6H5-CH3+7.2Ｈ++7.2NO3-
→7CO2+7.6H2O+3.6N2 (3)
We can see from the above reaction equations that
the biodegradation can transform the harmful pollutant
to nearly harmless product. In reaction (1), whether it
can carry on is decided by the content of dissolved
oxygen in underground water. The higher the content
of dissolved oxygen is, the easier reaction will carry on,
the more CO2 will be produced. In the region where
oxygen content is sufficient in underground water, on
the intersurface of soil and water, the fractional
pressure and heightenning of CO2 can urge dissolution
to the calcite, the dolomite, the magnesite and the
calcareous cement in the medium. This causes the
content of Ca2+, the Mg2+ in the underground water and
hardness of underground water increase. As the water
migration impetus circulation of chemical composition,
the macroscopic intensity of soil can weaken gradually.
Although this kind of action seems week, the reaction
is carried on continuously and CO2 is produced
unceasingly. Especially the region that benzene
pollution is serious and the oxygen content is sufficient,
is so. In the reaction (2), SO42- can be consumed
unceasingly. The SO42- in the underground water play
an extremely vital role in fluorine migration, the more
SO42- are, the more advantageous to the fluorine
migration it is. It can displace the fluorine ion in the
stratum, cause the fluorine content in the underground
water increase and create the fluoride to concentrate in
the underground water. The research results of
literature[2] indicate that the fluorine pollution may
cause the stability of soil colloid be senhanced, and it
does not favor the clay soil to gather and deposit. This
does not make for the formation of good soil structure
and is easy to cause other pollution matters to shift
along with the soil colloid flowing, which will make
the pollution scope expand and the pollution degree
aggravate. Obviously, in the soil belt that fluorine
pollution is serious, without doubt the reduction of
SO42- quantity can attenuate the occurrence of this kind
of displacement process, enormously eliminate the
normal effect produced by the structural property due
to the formation displacement and restrain the fluorine
migration in underground water and a series of
geological and environmental effects which are caused
by itself. Moreover, H+ and H2S that are produced in
reaction, cause the pH value of the underground water
to reduce, be acid, which brings certain corrosion
action to soil mineral ingredient. Reaction (3) consums
NO3- and H+, the pH value of water elevates.
In environment of anaerobic underground water,
the microorganisms also may use hydroxide or the
oxide of iron in the environment as the electron
acceptor, namely:
C6H5-CH3+36Fe(OH)3+72H+
→7CO2+36Fe2++94H2O (4)
In the stage that Fe(OH)3 colloids which is
adsorbed on soil skeleton is deoxidized to the form of
Fe2+, where soil is in the environment of deoxidization,
the colloids Fe3+ that are already softened and include
massive hygroscopic waters are deoxidized to Fe2+
which are easily dissolved. The disappearance of
organic matter and iron colloid which bear enormous
specific surface area in the soil causes the surface
energy of soil drop largely, hygroscopic water reduce,
and meanwhile, Fe2+ increase in the solution, the
double electric layer of soil grain become thinner, grain
gather and deposit easily, the diameter of particle
become larger and the internal friction angle of soil
mass increase. The acidity of water-soil system is
slightly reduced. In addition, the research results of
literature[4] indicate that, under existence of organic
matter, the microorganism in soil and water, because
their vital activities need massive oxygen, causes
electric potential of oxidation and deoxidization in the
system to reduce, Fe3+ that dissociates in ferric oxide
gradually to be deoxidized to Fe2+. At the same time the
biological enzyme that is produced in the
microorganism activities and the organic acid that is
produced in the decomposition of organic matter, can
also promote the oxidation and reduction reaction to
carry on smoothly. Therefore, the ferric oxide as
19
 Underground water biological field’s variation and geoenvironmental safety in city
cementation that dissociates in the soil will unceasingly
activate and drain, the physics and mechanical
properties of soil can go down slowly.
The biological adsorption also is the factor which
cannot be neglected. There are lots of waste water or
solid rejects contain heavy metal ions like arsenic,
cadmium, chromium, copper, mercury, nickel, lead,
selenium, zinc that are produced in the process of
industrial production, which are the pollution source,
that are extremely harmful to the ecosystem. The soil
layers clean the heavy metal in the polluted water in the
function of capture like adsorption, which can possibly
cause the heavy metal accumulation in the soil and
change its own constitutive property. From the studies
of people, we can discover that microorganism like the
bacterium, the fungus, the algae and so on in the
underground water, can adsorb or concentrate the
heavy metal and reduce the influence of heavy metal
pollution source to the soils or rocks in the process of
the underground water migration. The biological
adsorption of the heavy metal ions mainly include the
electrostatic attraction, the complexing, the chela
gathers, ionic exchange, micro precipitation, oxidation
and reduction reaction, and so on, whose mechanism is
complex and is the current hotspot of the research. The
effect of biological adsorption mainly depends on
many factors like the pH value, the temperature, the
diameter of absorbent particle, the adsorption time and
the initial concentration of heavy metal ion etc. The
adsorption of microorganism in underground water, on
the one hand weakens the pollution of water and soil
caused by heavy metal ions, on the other hand,
weakens or even eliminates the action, which is created
by heavy metal ions. These heavy metal ions initiate
the chemical reactions through contact of water and
soil to change the microscopic structures and physics
mechanical properties of rocks or soils. Although this
action is extremely weak, the accumulative effect of
this kind of action cannot be neglected, because the
process of the interaction between underground water
and soil is extraordinarily long. Looking from this
20
point, the biodegradation or all other correlative
biological actions is so. Under the combined actions of
all biological effects of the underground water, it will
finally affect the structural strength of soil mass.
4. Conclusions
Interaction between underground water and soil
body is a complex system where its factors affect each
other. The influence of underground water to soil body
includes four aspects, physical, mechanical, chemical
and biological. This paper, from aspect of biological
action, focuses on the influences of soil stability
caused by the variation of underground biological field.
At present, the correlative literatures mainly
concentrate on the aspects of dynamical and physical
field variation. Researches of chemical field variation
were begun in the recent years and that to the field of
biologic field variation were less compared to the
chemistry field. Focusing on the present situation of
serious pollution of the underground water the
urbanized development brought about, the influence of
biological action of underground water on soil
structure increasingly bears the important practical
significance, and the scope of exploration and research
may be wider.
When studying the influence of biological field
variation, we should not only limit to the sole process
simulation for biological action of underground water
and the soil mass. What we should do is to combine the
important physical processes of the soil– the properties
of rock and soil, the microscopic structure and the four
field variations of underground water, and then to carry
on the comprehensive analysis, taking the human
activities into account. It will be helpful for us to carry
on the discussion, research, and discovery on the
mechanism of biological field variation, and to deepen
the understanding of the interaction of water-soil and
carry it further. We can use the method that the theory
and the test unite, according to different category
natures of microorganism in underground water. From
 Underground water biological field’s variation and geoenvironmental safety in city
the analysis of the intrinsic factors—the composition of
soil mass, the mechanical characteristic, the structural
strength and so on, and the external factor—the
influence of environmental field, we can take the key
factor of the influence, use the existing test methods ,
establish the suitable simplification pattern, analyze
and prove, simulate the biological variation coupling
shape of the underground water under certain condition,
find its latent engineering significance, combine the
influence that city underground water variation to the
soil stability and the city safety, provide the
advantageous scientific reference for forewarning and
the elimination of latent danger of the city that
underground water brought about.
(continued from Page 15)
References:
[1] Banham, R.. The Architecture of the Well-Tempered
Environment, London, 1969.
[2] Curtis, W. J. R.. Modern Architecture Since 1900. London,
1996.
[3] Eisenman P.. Ten Canonical Buildings 1950-2000. New
York, 2008.
[4] Le Corbusier. Vers une Architecture. Paris, 1923.
[5] Rowe, C.. The Architecture of Good Intentions: Towards a
Possible Retrospect. Academy Editions, 1994.
References:
[1] LI Xue-li. Hydrology Geochemistry. Beijing: Atomic
Energy Publishing House, 1988. (in Chinese)
[2] CHEN Yu-dao, ZHU Xue-yu. Hydrocarbon pollutant
mechanism of the ground water biodegradation. Dawu
Water Source Guangxi Geology, 1999, 12(2): 12-16. (in
Chinese)
[3] XU Zhong-jian, LIU Guang-shen, WANG Hong-yu, LIU
Wei-ping. Research on influence of the fluorine pollution
to the soil colloid stability. Science of China
Environmental, 2002, 22(3): 218-221. (in Chinese)
[4] ZHOU Fang-qin, LUO Hong-xi, WANG Yin-shan.
Microorganism to certain geotechnical project nature
influences. Journal of Taiyuan Science and Technology
University, 2000, 31(1): 26-31. (in Chinese)
(Edited by Jenny)
[6] Pevsner, N.. Pioneers of Modern Design from William
Morris to Walter Gropius. New York, 1949.
[7] Rowe, C.. The Mathematics of the Ideal Villa and Other
Essays. Cambridge, MA, 1976.
[8] Tafuri, M., Dal Co, F.. Il Ruolo Dei ‘Maestri’, in
Architettura Contemporanea. Milano, 1979.
(Edited by Jenny)
21
May 2009, Volume 3, No.5 (Serial No.18) Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture, ISSN 1934-7359, USA

A statistically refined Bouc-Wen model for the identification of structures

under tri-directional seismic excitations*

LIN Jeng-wen
(Department of Civil Engineering, Feng Chia University, Taichung 407, Taiwan)

Abstract: This paper presents a statistically refined Bouc-Wen becoming increasingly important because of the aging
model of tri-axial interactions for the identification of structural
of infrastructure systems. Aging infrastructure systems
systems under tri-directional seismic excitations. Through
limited vibration measurements in the National Center for are causing extreme concern in densely populated areas
Research on Earthquake Engineering in Taiwan conducting and there is an urgent need for reliable identification
model-based experiments, the 3-D Bouc-Wen model has been systems that are capable of providing an accurate
statistically and repetitively refined using the 95% confidence
estimation of the safety and of the remaining life of
interval of the estimated structural parameters to determine their
statistical significance in a multiple regression setting. When the such structures.
parameters’ confidence interval covers the “null” value, it is Several researchers utilized different
statistically sustainable to truncate such parameters. The methodologies of system identification to extract
remaining parameters will repetitively undergo such parameter
structural characteristics. For instance, Beck and
sifting process for model refinement until all the parameters’
statistical significance cannot be further improved. The Jennings[2] determined the optimal estimates of the
effectiveness of the refined model has been shown considering model parameters by minimizing a selected
the effects of sampling errors, of coupled restoring forces in measure-of-fit between the responses of the structure
tri-directions, and of the under-over-parameterization of
structural systems. Sifted and estimated parameters such as the
and the model. Lus, et al[3] proposed methodology
stiffness, and its corresponding natural frequency, resulting from which is based on the eigensystem realization
the identification methodology developed in this study are algorithm and on the observer/Kalman filter
carefully observed for system vibration control.
identification approach to perform identification of
Key words: Bouc-Wen model refinement; 95% confidence
structural systems using general input-output data via
interval; multiple regression; natural frequency estimation
Markov parameters. LIN, et al[4] presented an adaptive
1. Introduction on-line parametric identification algorithm based on
the variable trace approach for the health monitoring of
System identification for structural health
non-linear hysteretic structures.
monitoring[1] and damage detection in civil structures
Health monitoring has two main applications[5].
is moving to the forefront of worldwide research
One is related to natural disasters such as earthquakes
activities. Such monitoring and detection for buildings
and hurricanes which can damage or destroy civil
and bridges is important for the public safety related to
engineering structures such as buildings and bridges.
natural disasters such as earthquakes, and is also
After such events government engineers must make
assessments of the damage/safety of structures. Visual
*
Acknowledgments: This research was sponsored by the
inspection only allows rather limited information about
National Science Council, Taiwan (No. NSC
96-2221-E-035-038). the extent of damage, since damage can easily be
LIN Jeng-wen (1970- ), male, Ph.D., assistant professor;
present in places that are not visible or accessible.
research fields: system identification and control, applied
economics. E-mail: jwlin@fcu.edu.tw. Trying to infer the actual safety of a structure from

22
 A statistically refined Bouc-Wen model for the identification of structures under tri-directional seismic excitations

what is visible is risky and inaccurate. System uncertainty of measurement, and safety and damage
identification methods[6-7] by pass this limitation by assessment[8]. Thus, we propose a statistical confidence
assessing damage based on dynamic behavior interval based nonlinear model refinement approach
properties, using dynamic modeling. The second main and apply it to the un-damped structural system (Fig. 1),
application is to the aging infrastructure in the US. i.e. a three-story full scaled steel structure, under 3-D
Many of the roadways and bridges have become old excitations using vibration measurements in the
enough that hidden deterioration can be quite serious. National Center for Research on Earthquake
One prime example is the Williamsburg Bridge of the Engineering (NCREE) in Taiwan, conducting
New York city, which required very expensive model-based experiments. Three strong ground
renovation. Hence, this area of research involves both motions (Δt = 0.005 sec) of the 1940 El Centro
the saving of millions of dollars in replacement of (California), 1995 Kobe (Japan), and 1999 Chi-Chi
buildings and bridges, and more importantly, an (TCU084, Taiwan) earthquakes were given as
increase in public safety. earthquake loads during the shaking table tests. Time
In dynamic modeling, however, possible effects histories of structural accelerations are measured,
of sampling errors, of coupled restoring forces in while structural velocities and displacements are
tri-directions, and of the under- over-parameterization integrated from the corresponding accelerations.
of structures deter successful identification schemes. It
would be sophisticated to analyze the identification
methodology within a probabilistic framework due to
the random nature of environmental loads[6]. In this
context, we propose a statistical and nonlinear model
parameter refinement approach to the extended
Bouc-Wen model of tri-axial interactions so as to
simplify the mathematical model for an economic
design of system vibration control. First, a
model-based experimentation is implemented in which
the 3-D Bouc-Wen model is adopted and modified.
Next, we apply the resulting nonlinear model
parameter refinement approach to evaluate the
structural frequency and compared the value obtained
with the value of the fast Fourier transform, followed
by conclusions of this study. Fig. 1 Model-based experiment in the National Center for
Research on Earthquake Engineering (NCREE), Taiwan
2. Model-based experimentation and
3-D Bouc-Wen model of tri-axial interactions The geometry of the structure (Fig. 1) contains a
slab-beam-column configuration for each floor (degree
One major area of system identification is to
of freedom), in which the associated mathematical
promote experimental analyses, where analytical
model possesses a concentrated mass representing the
methodologies are tested using recorded data in the
slab and a resistance box representing the
field or lab. Important challenges are yet to be
beam-column frame. Estimates of the structural mass
confronted: stochastic modeling of nonlinear systems,
can be obtained from the geometry of the structure and

23
 A statistically refined Bouc-Wen model for the identification of structures under tri-directional seismic excitations
from knowledge of the type of materials. The structure
is constructed with materials of steel and concrete with
density 7.85 t / m 3 and 2.3 t / m 3 , respectively. Each
floor’s dimension is 4 m × 2.5 m × 11.5 cm, consisted
of concrete and supplement with a 6930 kg mass block,
while the beam-column frame, for each floor, is
equipped with a length of 4.5 m, a width of 3.0 m, and a
height of 3.0 m, with the cross-sections of the beams
and columns are H200×150×6×9 mm and
H200×204×12×12 mm, respectively. After a simple
calculation, the masses of the first, second and third
floors are 11364.206 kg, 11364.206 kg and 11030.738
kg, respectively.
Since the accuracy of structural identifications
highly depends on the adopted system’s model, it is
required to establish a reasonable, feasible as well as
general description of a nonlinear model that is able to
provide the best description of the system’s behavior.
However, if no a priori information is available on the
type of the structural system, problems related to
under-parameterization and over-parameterization will
arise[6]. Notice that the case of under-parameterization
includes all the cases in which the model used to
represent the structural response (e.g. the restoring
force) has fewer characterizing parameters than the
“real” structural system, while the opposite is true for
the case of over-parameterization[6]. In characterizing
the system’s characteristics, Juditsky, et al[9] pointed
out that the quality of the nonlinear black-box
modeling procedure is always a result of a certain
trade-off between the “expressive power” (order) of the
model we try to identify (the larger the number of
parameters used to describe the model, the more
flexible is the approximation), and the measurement
(stochastic) error (which is proportional to the number
of parameters). Such a rapprochement leads to search
for an initial flexible model followed by refining it to
the extent that cannot be further improved for
exact-parameterization of structures as well as
economic design of structural vibration control.
24
The Bouc-Wen model of tri-axial interactions is
used to represent the behavior of the structural system
(i.e. the shear-type building in Fig. 1). The rigid body
motion of the structure under tri-directional excitations
contains displacements in the x, y and z directions, and
our focus will be on the shear stiffness in the x-y plane.
The effects of structural rotation arising from
asymmetry of structure or unsymmetrical excitations of
structure have been excluded via a synchronous signal
check. The remaining factors that affect accurate
identifications are sampling errors, coupled restoring
forces, and the under-over-parameterization of
structures. For convenience, the equation of motion for a
single degree of freedom structure can be expressed as:
mu&&(t ) + r (u (t ), u& (t ), t ) = −mu&&g (t ) (1)
Where m denotes the structural mass, u (t ) is
the structural displacement, u& (t ) is the structural
velocity, u&&(t ) is the structural acceleration, and
u&&g (t ) is the ground-induced acceleration, while t
indicates the time and r (t ) is the restoring force. The
mathematical formulation for the variation of the
restoring force r over time, i.e. r& is coupled in the x
and y shear-directions[10], and it can be expressed,
including the effects from the z direction, as:
r&x = k xu& x + cxu&&x + b1x u& x rx rx + e1xu& x rx2 +
b2 x u& y ry rx + b3x u& z rz rx + e2 xu& y rx ry + e3xu& z rx rz (2)
r&y = k y u& y + c y u&&y + b1 y u& y ry ry + e1 y u& y ry2 +
b2 y u& x rx ry + b3 y u& z rz ry + e2 y u& x rx ry + e3 y u& z rz ry (3)
Such an extended model will be used to explore
the effects of the coupled restoring forces and of the
under-over-parameterization of the structural system
on parameter estimation. The effect of sampling errors
will be analyzed when a statistical identification
approach is developed as follows.
3. Model refinement approach and
evaluation of natural frequency
A statistical confidence interval based model
refinement approach is developed and applied to the
 A statistically refined Bouc-Wen model for the identification of structures under tri-directional seismic excitations

Bouc-Wen model of tri-axial interactions (Eqs. (2-3)) ground excitations. The component y denotes the
in a multiple regression setting using the Matlab variation of the restoring force over time while the
“regress” program. In the multiple regression setting, component x j corresponds to the component of the
the 95% confidence interval of the estimated structural parameter in Eq. (2). The R-square value[11] refers to
parameters is selected to determine their statistical the fraction (39.55%) of the variation in the values of y
significance. Any level C confidence interval for a that is explained by the least-squares regression of y on
parameter is an interval computed from sample data by x j (j=1, 2, 3, …, 8).
a method that has probability C of producing an
Table 1 Regression of the Bouc-Wen model of tri-axial
interval containing the true value of the parameter, as interactions in the x direction for the first floor of the
illustrated in (Fig. 2)[11]. The 95% confidence interval structure (Fig. 1) under the El Centro ground excitations
is selected because of: (1) The convention; (2) The Regress y x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8
higher confidence interval would cause more stringent R-square = 0.3955
selection of the parameters and thus fewer possibility y ( r&x ) Coef. [95% Conf. Interval]
of incorporating the considered nonlinear parameters x1 ( u& x ) 3.66E+06 3.55E+06 3.77E+06
of the system’s model, which is generally unpractical
&&x )
x2 ( u -5.38E+03 -1.24E+04 1.65E+03
for real-life applications for systems with more or less
x3 ( u& x rx rx ) 5.39E-04 -0.0012 0.0023
nonlinear behaviors.
x4 ( u& x rx2 ) 0.0024 6.32E-04 0.0041
x5 ( u& y ry rx ) 0.0014 -2.44E-04 0.0030
x6 ( u& z rz rx ) -0.0028 -0.0052 -2.66E-04
x7 ( u& y rx ry ) 3.82E-04 -0.0010 0.0018
x8 ( u& z rx rz ) -2.01E-04 -0.0024 0.0020
_cons 3.68E+03 2.74E+03 4.62E+03

Table 2 Regression of the refined Bouc-Wen model of

tri-axial interactions in the x direction for the first round
Fig. 2 Adopted from Moore and McCabe (2005): Regress y x1 x4 x6
A level C confidence interval is the area between–z* R-square = 0.3948
and z* under the standard normal curve
y ( r&x ) Coef. [95% Conf. Interval]
If the parameters’ confidence interval contains the
x1 ( u& x ) 3.68E+06 3.57E+06 3.78E+06
“null” (zero) value, it is statistically significant to
x4 ( u& x rx2 ) 0.0020 4.42E-04 0.0035
remove such parameters while maintaining the
parameters whose confidence intervals do not cover the x6 ( u& z rz rx ) -0.0010 -0.0032 1.25E-03
zero value. Repeat this process by rerunning the _cons 3.72E+03 2.78E+03 4.65E+03
regression and analyzing the confidence intervals of
Maintaining the components of the estimated
the sifted parameters to refine the model until all
parameters whose 95% confidence interval does not
parameters are statistically sustainable, i.e. the
contain the zero value and rerunning the regression will
confidence interval of all estimated parameters do not
contain the zero value in the end. result in Table 2. As a consequence, this statistical
Table 1 lists the regression of the Bouc-Wen sifting process maintains the contributing parameters to
model of tri-axial interactions in the x direction (Eq. (2)) the structural restoring force for the first round.
for the first floor of the structure under the El Centro Continue such a parameter sifting process for the

25
 A statistically refined Bouc-Wen model for the identification of structures under tri-directional seismic excitations

current refined model leads to Table 3, which cannot be respectively. It is noteworthy that the R-square value of
further improved. In this way, the identification error the final refined model drops in 1% range from the
will be much reduced. This is because every time the original model for all the considered excitations,
non-contributing parameters are removed, the truly indicating the goodness of the proposed nonlinear
contributing parameters are granted more statistical model refinement approach. Nonetheless, the R-square
significance as shown by their shorter range of the 95% value can be used as a weighting factor when
confidence interval (e.g. the parameter of x1, referring calculating the overall averaged structural stiffness as
to the structural stiffness, shown in Table 1 and Table listed in the last portion of Table 4. The associated
2), corresponding to the shorter range of variation in overall refined components are determined utilizing the
terms of precision on one hand. Along with the simple component set with the stiffness value that is closest to
random sampling design of the experiment without the overall averaged structural stiffness. The second and
bias, the parameters are sifted in such a way toward third floors of the structural stiffness can be identified in
their true values in terms of accuracy on the other hand. the same way and they are listed in Table 5.
In addition, the final refined model in Table 3 contains Table 3 Regression of the refined Bouc-Wen model of
only two components, indicating a drastically tri-axial interactions in the x direction for the second round
simplified and refined model, while the corresponding Regress y x1 x4
R-square value drops in 1% range, sufficing for a good R-square = 0.3948
model refinement approach[11]. y ( r&x ) Coef. [95% Conf. Interval]
Through the statistical and repetitive model x1 ( u& x ) 3.68E+06 3.57E+06 3.78E+06
refinement approach, Table 4 lists the final estimated
x4 ( u& x rx2 ) 0.0020 4.56E-04 0.0035
structural stiffness and sifted components for the first
_cons 3.74E+03 2.80E+03 4.67E+03
floor of the structure in x and y shear-directions,
Table 4 List of the final estimated structural stiffness and sifted components for the
first floor of the structure in x and y shear-directions, respectively
El Centro, 1F x y
R-square 0.3955 0.3717
Original
Stiffness k 3663567.135 3699161.787
Component y x1 x4 y x1 x2 x4 x6 x8
Refined R-square 0.3948 0.3714
Stiffness k 3676096.047 3694863.000
Kobe, 1F x y
R-square 0.4367 0.7517
Original
Stiffness k 3592287.953 4416428.755
Component y x1 x3 x4 x5 x6 x8 y x1 x2 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8
Refined R-square 0.4367 0.7517
Stiffness k 3592358.465 4416770.840
TCU084, 1F x y
R-square 0.5259 0.7922
Original
Stiffness k 1982924.184 6899554.698
Component y x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x8 y x1 x2 x6 x7 x8
Refined R-square 0.5259 0.7921
Stiffness k 1982472.276 6887053.032
(to be continued)

26
 A statistically refined Bouc-Wen model for the identification of structures under tri-directional seismic excitations

1F (overall) x y
Component y x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8
Original
Stiffness k 2989848.155 5304152.831
Component y x1 x3 x4 x5 x6 x8 y x1 x2 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8
Refined
Stiffness k 2992992.361 5298451.058

Table 5 List of the final estimated structural stiffness and sifted components for the second
and third floors of the structure in x and y shear-directions, respectively
2F (overall) x y
Component y x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8
Original
Stiffness k 1920367.631 3463978.056
Component y x1 x3 x5 x6 x7 y x1 x2 x3 x4 x6
Refined
Stiffness k 1916070.149 3470437.122
3F (overall) x y
Component y x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8
Original
Stiffness k 2330979.292 4587142.628
Component y x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 y x1 x2 x4 x6 x7
Refined
Stiffness k 2331291.201 4587766.128

Consequently, the newly developed model Table 6 List of the remaining number of parameters,
through model refinement, for each floor of the structure
refinement approach demonstrates its ability to capture
in x and y shear-directions
structural signature and its applicability to a wide
Direction x y Overall
variety of series models, enabling an economic design 1F 6 7
for structural vibration control. This model 2F 5 5
simplification through model refinement is illustrated 3F 8 5
in Table 6 where the remaining number of parameters Average 6.33 5.67 6.00
is listed and averaged. The averaged remaining number
Once the structural stiffness for each floor of the
of parameters is 6.33 and 5.67 for the considered
structure in both x and y shear-directions is obtained, it
structure under different excitations in x and y
is convenient to evaluate the corresponding natural
directions, respectively. The overall averaged number
frequencies via[12]:
of parameters is 6, which is reduced from the original
det K − Mωn2 = 0 (4)
model containing 8 parameters. It is noted that the 95%
confidence interval based model refinement approach where det represents the determinant of a matrix, K
represents the estimated stiffness matrix, M the
is likely to fail in capturing structural properties with
the probability of 5% (1-95%) in one set of samples[11]. calculated diagonal mass matrix, and ωn the natural
With three sets of excitations, it will fail only in the frequency to be determined. Using Eq. (4) to perform
probability of 0.0125% (5% × 5% × 5%), because each an eigenvalue-eigenvector computation, the natural
test is independent with the failure probability of 5% in frequencies for the first, second, and third modes are
obtained and listed in the row of “Refined Model” in
terms of sampling errors.
Table 7 for the x and y shear-directions, respectively.
The first modal frequencies for the refined models are

27
 A statistically refined Bouc-Wen model for the identification of structures under tri-directional seismic excitations

1.0442 Hz and 1.4048 Hz in the x and y shear-directions, respectively.

Table 7 Comparison of evaluated natural frequencies using FFT with those values obtained
using the model refinement approach in x and y shear-directions, respectively
Direction x y
Mode First Second Third First Second Third
FFT (Hz) 1.1191 3.4184 5.9754 1.4365 5.0950 9.4046
Original model (Hz) 1.0445 2.9711 3.9819 1.4045 4.0610 5.4368
Relative error (%) 6.67 13.08 33.36 2.23 20.29 42.19
Refined model (Hz) 1.0442 2.9716 3.9802 1.4048 4.0605 5.4388
Relative error (%) 6.69 13.07 33.39 2.21 20.30 42.17

spectrum correspond to the locations of the system’s

4. Evaluation of natural frequency using
fast fourier transform
For comparison purposes, evaluation of system’s
natural frequency was conducted by performing the
fast fourier transform (FFT) of each floor’s
acceleration signal. Fig. 3 shows the FFT spectrum of
the measured structural accelerations for the first,
second, and third floor, respectively, in the x direction,
and the averaged modal frequencies of the first, second,
and third floors are listed in the row of FFT in Table 7.
Three peak values in amplitude in the frequency
natural frequencies for the first, second and third
modes. Similarly, the natural frequencies can be
obtained in the y direction. Table 7 also compares the
results of evaluated natural frequencies using the FFT
with those values obtained using the developed model
refinement approach in the x and y directions. The
relative errors between these two approaches for the
first modes are 6.69% and 2.21% in the x and y
shear-directions, respectively. Thus, the averaged
relative error of both shear-directions for the first mode
is 4.45% as listed in Table 8.

Fig. 3 FFT of structural accelerations for the first (left), second (middle), and third (right) floor in the x direction

Table 8 Averaged relative errors of both shear-directions Obviously, the model refinement approach
for the first, second, and third modes, respectively,
demonstrates satisfactory results in evaluating modal
when comparing the evaluated modal frequencies
between approaches of regressions, using (1) original frequencies. When comparing the evaluated modal
model and (2) refined model, and of FFT frequencies between approaches of regressions, using
Relative error (%) First mode Second mode Third mode the original model and the refined model, and of FFT,
Original model 4.45 16.69 37.78 the averaged relative errors are the same for the two
Refined model 4.45 16.69 37.78 models as listed in Table 8, indicating that the model
simplification through model refinement not only

28
 A statistically refined Bouc-Wen model for the identification of structures under tri-directional seismic excitations
features efficient identifications but also contains
accurate results.
In order to ascertain the effectiveness of the
developed model refinement approach, we also
conducted modal frequency evaluation using the
structural analysis program such as SAP2000. It is then
possible to compare the results between the two
approaches out of 1) FFT; 2) the model refinement
approach; 3) the SAP2000 program. Table 9 lists the
averaged relative errors of both shear-directions for the
first, second, and third modes, respectively, when
comparing the evaluated modal frequencies between
the approaches of 1) FFT and the model refinement, 2)
the model refinement and SAP2000, and of 3) FFT and
SAP2000. For the evaluation of the first modal
frequency, the approaches between FFT and the model
refinement shows least relative error of 4.45%. The
relative errors for the other two cases are large, since
the evaluated modal frequency using the finite element
oriented SAP2000 program is relatively high due to the
relatively small structural displacement calculated.
Hence, the evaluated first modal frequencies in the x
and y shear-directions using the model refinement
approach are justified and reliable when comparing
them with those results of FFT.
Table 9 Averaged relative errors of both
shear-directions for the first, second, and third modes,
respectively, when comparing the evaluated modal
frequencies between the approaches of (1) FFT and the
model refinement, (2) the model refinement and
SAP2000, and of (3) FFT and SAP2000
Relative error between First Second Third
different approaches(%) mode mode mode
FFT and model refinement 4.45 16.69 37.78
Model refinement and SAP2000 40.02 37.94 41.93
FFT and SAP2000 60.84 34.54 7.15
5. Conclusions
A 95% confidence interval based nonlinear model
parameter refinement approach has been developed and
applied to the extended Bouc-Wen model of tri-axial
interactions representing the considered shear-type
structural system under tri-directional seismic
excitations. Such an approach has refined and simplified
the extended Bouc-Wen model for the
exact-parameterization of the structural system as well
as the economic design of system vibration control.
Inevitable excessive parameters in the extended initial
model have been repetitively removed in each round of
the multiple regression setting for successful
identifications until all the sifted parameters sustain their
statistical significance, accounting for possible sampling
errors and other source of measurement errors.
The effectiveness of the developed approach has
been shown in the evaluation of system’s natural
frequency: the averaged relative error of both x and y
shear-directions for the first mode is 4.45%, when
comparing the results with those using the fast Fourier
transform. The effectiveness of such an approach is
also ascertained by conducting modal frequency
evaluation using the structural analysis program such
as SAP2000. Comparing the results of the evaluated
modal frequencies between two approaches out of 1)
FFT, 2) the model refinement approach, and 3) the
SAP2000 program, it turns out that the approaches
between FFT and the model refinement shows least
relative error. This justifies the results of the model
refinement approach when comparing them with those
results of FFT. In addition, the proposed model
refinement approach is unlikely to fail in the test cases
of the El Centro, Kobe, and TCU084 excitations, with
only the failure probability of 0.0125% in terms of
sampling errors. The overall developed identification
methodology from initial model to model refinement to
natural frequency evaluation provides reliable indices
that are indicative of current conditions of structures
for safety assessment.
References:
[1] Ashrafi S. A., Smyth A. W. and Betti R. A.. Parametric
identification scheme for non-deteriorating and
deteriorating non-linear hysteretic behaviour. Structural
Control and Health Monitoring, 2005, 13(1): 108-131.
(to be continued on Page 45)
29
May 2009, Volume 3, No.5 (Serial No.18) Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture, ISSN 1934-7359, USA

Tall building configuration effects on their response

to earthquake loading

Mohammed S. Al-Ansari
(Civil and Architectural Engineering Department, Qatar University, Doha 2713, Qatar)

Abstract: This paper studies and analyzes the response and has significant effects on the response of the building to
behavior of regular and irregular building structures in
earthquake loading. Interaction between architect and
earthquake zones. The non-linear dynamic response of tall
buildings structures were obtained using five simulated models, structural engineer is required as a designer must
which were subjected to UBC code dynamic and static realize that a building’s configuration will determine
equivalent earthquake loads. The maximum response of the were seismic damage will occur because earthquake
structural models were computed and analyzed in order to verify
forces will be concentrated in the areas of poor aspect
the effects of building configuration on drift results. Drift results
agreed with codes recommendations regarding building and detailing causing maximum damage.
configuration and showed that regular buildings performance in Architects play a key role in determining the form
resisting earthquake forces is better than that of irregular and function of buildings and balancing many
buildings.
conflicting factors. For this reason, the architect may
Key words: drift; configuration; response; earthquake loads
have a more significant effect on the building’s
1. Introduction earthquake performance than the structural engineer
may, and both share the earthquake resistance
The response of tall building to earthquake
building's design responsibility but structural engineer
loading depends on its configuration. Building
is held liable for building’s safety, stability and design
configuration can be defined as building size and shape
quality[2-6].
in a 3D form and recently there has been increased
Structure response as a building drift (roof
emphasis on the importance of a building’s
displacement) is the key parameter in performance-
configuration Fig. 1. Both shape and structural system
based seismic design rather than force or strength that
work together to make the structure image distinctive
is used in conventional code design approaches
or attractive and early decisions concerning size, shape,
because performance is characterized by the level of
arrangement, and location of major building elements
damage and damage is related to building displacement.
can have a significant effect on the building’s
This paper studies and analyzes the response of
performance. Size and shape of the building establishes
buildings with different configuration and material in
its mass that is the major determinant of the total
earthquake zones. The building response to UBC static
inertial forces in the building[1].
equivalent and dynamic earthquake loads was
Improper architectural -structural configuration is
computed, documented, and analyzed using simulated
one of the greatest causes of damage to buildings
computer models[7].
because each of these choices of shapes and structure
2. Out line of the numerical work
Mohammed S. Al-Ansari, male, Ph.D., associate professor;
research fields: structure analysis and design, earthquake
engineering. E-mail: malansari@qu.edu.qa.

30
 Tall building configuration effects on their response to earthquake loading

Five types of buildings square, cruciform, tube,
circular and setback are simulated using STAAD PRO
2003[8]. For example, an eighteen stories concrete
square building has a 24,390 quadrilateral plate element
(4-node element) each with 12 degrees of freedom (see
Fig. 2). Each building type has four models, two of
them are all-concrete and the other tow have steel frame
and concrete shear walls and slabs. Table 1 shows
building models’ configuration and roperties.
The first set of tests consisted of subjecting all
models to UBC static equivalent earthquake loading,
which is defined by the following maximum base
shear[8] (UBC Eq. 30-4):
C I
V = V W (1)
RT
Where CV = seismic coefficient (UBC Table
16-R), I = building importance factor (UBC Table
16-K), R = numerical coefficient ductility and strength
(UBC Table 16-N), T = elastic fundamental period of
vibration, in seconds, of the structure in the direction
under consideration, W = building weight.

Table 1 Building models’ configuration and roperties

Square Cruciform Tube Circular Setback
Building model
18 stories 30 stories 18 stories 30 stories 18 stories 30 stories 18 stories 30 stories 18 stories 30 stories
Height (m) 72 120 72 120 72 120 72 120 72 120
Ec * (MPa ) 3.5×104 4×104 3.5×104 4×104 3.5×104 4×104 3.5×104 4×104 3.5×104 4×104
Es ** (MPa ) 2×105 2×105 2×105 2×105 2×105 2×105 2×105 2×105 2×105 2×105
Static weight
208,044 383,910 208,044 383,910 228,816 383,910 208,044 383,910 179,988 337,960
(kN) All concrete
Dynamic weight
288,162 539,400 288,162 539,400 288,162 539,400 288,162 539,400 252,804 475,670
(kN) All concrete
Static weight
138,322 251,142 138,220 251,142 138,220 251,142 138,220 251,142 119,850 219,269
(kN) Steel & concrete
Dynamic weight
165,06 361,368 165,506 361,368 165,506 361,368 165,506 361,368 146,489 326,194
(kN) Steel & concrete
Notes: * Concrete Modulus of Elasticity; ** Steel Modulus of Elasticity.

The second set of tests consisted of subjecting all
buildings to UBC dynamic loads using the SRSS
response spectrum method, which is defined by the
following ground acceleration:
a = gC = ω 2 Δ
Where a = ground acceleration, g = gravity
acceleration, C = lateral force coefficient, ω =
circular frequency, and the maximum structural
response Δ . All buildings are symmetrical and do not
have any torsional effects.
Square concrete models static equivalent
earthquake tests resulted in top drift ranging from 14
mm to 115 mm and from 36 mm to 263 mm for 18 and
30 stories building respectively (see Table 2). The
dynamic tests resulted in top drift ranging from 204 mm
to 305 mm and from 456 mm to 683 mm for 18 and 30
stories building respectively (see Table 12, Fig. 3).
Square models with concrete shear walls, slab
and steel frame (beams and columns) static equivalent
earthquake tests resulted in top drift ranging from 21
mm to 383 mm and from 36 mm to 411 mm for 18 and
(2) 30 stories building respectively (see Table 3). The
dynamic tests resulted in top drift ranging from 290 mm
to 435 mm and from 393 mm to 590 mm for 18 and 30
stories building respectively (see Table 13, Fig. 3).
Cruciform concrete models static equivalent
earthquake tests resulted in top drift ranging from 18
mm to 166 mm and from 53 mm to 389 mm for 18 and
30 stories building respectively (see Table 4). The
dynamic tests resulted in top drift ranging from 236 mm
to 512 mm and from 544 mm to 789 mm for 18 and 30
stories building respectively (see Table 12, Fig. 4).
Cruciform models with concrete shear walls, slab
and steel frame (beams and columns) static equivalent

31
 Tall building configuration effects on their response to earthquake loading
earthquake tests resulted in top drift ranging from 29
mm to 468 mm and from 47 mm to 598 mm for 18 and
30 storyies building respectively (see Table 5). The
dynamic tests resulted in top drift ranging from 316 mm
to 473 mm and from 488 mm to 732 mm for 18 and 30
stories building respectively (see Table 13, Fig. 4).
Tube buildings concrete models static equivalent
earthquake tests resulted in top drift ranging from 18
mm to 131 mm and from 46 mm to 329 mm for 18 and
30 stories building respectively (see Table 6). The
dynamic tests resulted in top drift ranging from 326
mm to 489 mm and from 525 mm to 789 for 18 and 30
stories building respectively (see Table 12, Fig. 5).
Tube buildings models with concrete shear walls,
slab and steel frame (beams and columns) static
equivalent earthquake tests resulted in top drift ranging
from 31 mm to 495 mm and from 46 mm to 574 mm
for 18 and 30 stories building respectively (see Table
7). The dynamic tests resulted in top drift ranging from
351 mm to 526 mm and from 454 mm to 681 mm for
18 and 30 stories building respectively (see Table 13,
Fig. 5).
Circular buildings concrete models static
equivalent earthquake tests resulted in top drift ranging
from 17 mm to 127 mm and from 41 mm to 290 mm
for 18 and 30 stories building respectively (see Table
8). The dynamic tests resulted in top drift ranging from
223 mm to 334 mm and from 505 mm to 758 mm for
18 and 30 stories building respectively (see Table 12,
Fig. 6).
Circular Buildings models with concrete shear
walls, slab and steel frame (beams and columns) static
equivalent earthquake tests resulted in top drift ranging
from 20 mm to 381 mm and from 42 mm to 485 mm
for 18 and 30 stories building respectively (see Table
9). The dynamic tests resulted in top drift ranging from
302 mm to 452 mm and from 431 mm to 647 mm for
18 and 30 stories building respectively (see Table 13,
Fig. 6).
Setback buildings concrete models static
equivalent earthquake tests resulted in top drift ranging
32
from 12 mm to 115 mm and from 31 mm to 228 for 18
and 30 stories building respectively (see Table 10). The
dynamic tests resulted in top drift ranging from 187 mm
to 279 mm and from 418 mm to 627 mm for 18 and 30
stories building respectively (see Table 12, Fig. 7).
Setback buildings models with concrete shear
walls, slab and steel frame (beams and columns) static
equivalent earthquake tests resulted in top drift ranging
from 18 mm to 289 mm and from 31 mm to 384 mm
for 18 and 30 stories building respectively (see Table
11). The dynamic tests resulted in top drift ranging
from 268 mm to 401 mm and from 362 mm to 542 mm
for 18 and 30 stories building respectively (see Table
13, Fig. 7).
3. Results and discussion
Concrete building models drifts of 18 stories
subjected to static equivalent earthquake loads showed
that the square model performed the best with the least
drift in all earthquake zones. Zone 4 was chosen as an
example. It is worth mentioning that the setback model
in zone 4 has a smaller drift (114.5 mm) than the square
model (115.5 mm) because of its lighter weight. For a
setback model having the same weight as the square
model, the setback model drift (221 mm) is higher than
the square model drift.
The 18 stories building models with steel frames
response to static equivalent earthquake loads was very
close in its general behavior to that of total concrete
building models. Zone 3 was chosen as an example
(see Fig. 8).
Concrete building models drifts of 30 stories
subjected to static equivalent earthquake loads showed
that the square model performed the best with the least
drift in all earthquake zones. Zone 2 was chosen as an
example (see Fig. 9). It is worth mentioning that the 18
stories cruciform model has a very close drift to that of
the tube model, but the 30 stories cruciform model has
a larger drift than that of 30 stories tube model and it
 Tall building configuration effects on their response to earthquake loading

gets larger with the increase of the earthquake loads Table 3 Steel frame square building response
to equivalent static load
and soil profile.
Zone
Δx (mm)
soil type
The 30 stories building models with steel frames
18 stories 30 stories
response to static equivalent earthquake loads was very 1 20.502 35.606 S1
close in its general behavior to that of total concrete 27.328 47.466 S2
building models. Zone 1 was chosen as an example 38.754 53.396 S3
(see Fig. 10). 53.654 72.241 S4
77.496 112.695 S5
Concrete building models drifts of 18 and 30
2 40.98 71.185 S1
stories subjected to dynamic earthquake loads showed 51.222 88.975 S2
that the square model performed the best with the least 74.516 106.765 S3
drift in all earthquake zones （see Fig. 11）. The 18 and 95.38 130.484 S4
30 stories building models with steel frames response 149.031 200.622 S5
3 54.636 94.905 S1
to dynamic earthquake loads was very close in its
68.292 118.624 S2
general behavior to that of total concrete building
95.38 142.344 S3
models (see Fig. 12). 119.225 166.064 S4
Table 2 Concrete square building response 190.760 256.789 S5
to equivalent static load 4 81.950 142.344 S1

Zone
Δx (mm)
soil type
102.437 177.923 S2
18 stories 30 stories 134.128 195.713 S3
1 14.322 35.966 S1 160.954 216.670 S4
19.084 47.943 S2 250.372 337.032 S5
21.465 53.931 S3 5 230.608 410.767 S1
28.608 71.896 S4 230.608 410.767 S2
45.282 113.815 S5 230.608 410.767 S3
2 28.608 71.896 S1 255.612 410.767 S4
35.754 89.861 S2 383.419 410.767 S5
42.900 107.827 S3 Table 4 Concrete cruciform building response
52.429 131.781 S4 to equivalent static load
71.485 179.689 S5
Zone Δx (mm) soil type
3 38.136 95.85 S1 18 stories 30 stories
47.664 119.804 S2 1 17.982 53.158 S1
57.193 143.758 S3 23.967 70.861 S2
66.721 167.712 S4 26.959 79.712 S3
81.014 203.645 S5 35.935 106.267 S4
4 57.193 143.758 S1 56.887 168.228 S5
2 35.935 106.267 S1
71.485 179.689 S2
44.915 132.822 S2
78.632 197.665 S3
53.849 159.377 S3
85.778 215.624 S4 65.867 194.783 S4
101.403 215.624 S5 89.812 265.605 S5
5 81.549 204.990 S1 3 47.908 141.673 S1
95.307 239.582 S2 59.880 177.080 S2
95.307 239.582 S3 71.853 212.486 S3
104.835 263.54 S4 83.825 247.898 S4
101.784 301.018 S5
115.475 263.54 S5
(to be continued)

33
 Tall building configuration effects on their response to earthquake loading

4 71.853 212.486 S1 54.014 139.247 S3

89.812 265.605 S2 65.970 170.166 S4
98.791 292.195 S3 89.882 232.005 S5
107.711 318.725 S4 3 48.036 123.787 S1
114.272 318.725 S5 59.992 154.706 S2
5 100.426 303.007 S1 71.948 185.625 S3
117.370 354.139 S2 83.904 216.546 S4
117.370 354.139 S3 101.838 262.925 S5
129.107 389.553 S4 4 71.948 185.625 S1
166.696 389.553 S5 89.882 232.005 S2
98.849 255.195 S3
Table 5 Steel frame cruciform building response
107.816 278.385 S4
to equivalent static load
114.846 278.385 S5
Zone Δx (mm) soil type 5 102.510 256.053 S1
18 stories 30 stories
1 29.251 47.362 S1 119.772 299.249 S2
38.993 63.138 S2 119.772 299.249 S3
66.459 71.026 S3 131.728 329.163 S4
92.010 94.689 S4 131.223 329.163 S5
132.894 149.905 S5
2 61.348 94.689 S1 Table 7 Steel frametube building response to
73.099 118.353 S2 equivalent satic load
121.829 142.017 S3
155.941 173.569 S4 Zone
Δx (mm)
Soil type
18 stories 30 stories
243.657 236.672 S5
3 77.971 126.241 S1 1 30.959 45.734 S1
97.463 157.793 S2 41.258 60.867 S2
155.941 189.344 S3 67.024 68.434 S3
194.926 220.896 S4 92.802 91.133 S4
311.881 302.896 S5 134.048 144.099 S5
4 116.955 189.344 S1 2 61.868 91.133 S1
146.194 236.672 S2
77.335 113.833 S2
219.291 260.336 S3
128.892 136.532 S3
263.150 283.999 S4
409.344 397.545 S5 164.982 166.798 S4
5 281.372 527.275 S1 257.785 230.822 S5
281.372 527.275 S2 3 82.491 121.399 S1
281.372 527.275 S3 103.114 151.665 S2
311.881 527.275 S4 164.982 181.931 S3
467.822 597.654 S5 206.228 212.197 S4
Table 6 Concrete tube building response to 329.965 295.359 S5
equivalent static load 4 123.737 181.931 S1

Zone Δx (mm) soil type

154.671 227.330 S2
18 stories 30 stories 232.006 250.029 S3
1 18.146 46.488 S1 278.408 272.729 S4
24.124 61.947 S2 433.078 387.553 S5
27.113 69.677 S3 5 297.687 506.578 S1
36.080 92.867 S4 267.687 506.578 S2
57.003 146.976 S5 297.687 506.578 S3
2 36.080 92.867 S1 329.965 506.578 S4
45.047 116.057 S2 494.947 574.149 S5

34
 Tall building configuration effects on their response to earthquake loading

Table 8 Concrete circular building response 190.118 282.740 S5

to equivalent static load 4 81.602 167.966 S1

Zone
Δx (mm)
soil type
102.003 209.952 S2
18 stories 30 stories 133.677 230.945 S3
1 16.988 40.757 S1 160.412 251.938 S4
22.640 54.332 S2 249.530 371.096 S5
25.467 61.119 S3 5 229.669 484.724 S1
33.949 81.481 S4 229.669 484.724 S2
53.74 128.991 S5 229.669 484.724 S3
254.572 484.724 S4
2 33.949 84.481 S1
381.858 484.724 S5
42.431 101.842 S2
50.912 122.204 S3 Table 10 Concrete setback building response
62.222 149.353 S4 to equivalent static load
84.840 203.651 S5
Zone Δx (mm) soil type
3 45.258 108.63 S1 18 stories 30 stories
56.567 135.778 S2 1 12.275 31.104 S1
67.876 162.927 S3 16.359 41.466 S2
18.402 46.647 S3
79.185 190.076 S4
24.528 62.190 S4
96.149 230.800 S5
38.824 98.458 S5
4 67.876 162.927 S1 2 24.528 62.190 S1
84.840 203.651 S2 30.655 77.734 S2
93.332 224.012 S3 36.782 93.277 S3
101.803 244.374 S4 44.951 114.001 S4
111.033 244.374 S5 61.289 155.454 S5
5 96.784 255.611 S1 3 32.698 82.915 S1
40.867 103.634 S2
113.112 263.677 S2
49.036 124.346 S3
113.112 263.677 S3
57.205 145.091 S4
124.422 290.042 S4 76.316 176.182 S5
126.892 290.042 S5 4 49.036 124.364 S1
61.289 155.454 S2
Table 9 Steel frame circular building response
67.416 171.000 S3
to equivalent static load
73.543 186.545 S4
Zone
Δx (mm)
soil type 100.158 186.545 S5
18 stories 30 stories 5 69.917 177.346 S1
1 20.422 42.009 S1 81.712 207.273 S2
27.219 56.004 S2 81.712 207.273 S3
38.630 63.002 S3 89.881 228.000 S4
53.477 83.995 S4 114.463 228.000 S5
77.235 132.978 S5 Table 11 Steel frame setback building response
2 40.813 83.995 S1 to equivalent static load
51.009 104.988 S2
Zone
Δx (mm)
soil type
74.265 125.98 S3 18 stories 30 stories
95.059 153.971 S4 1 18.083 30.890 S1
148.530 220.896 S5 24.106 41.171 S2
3 54.407 111.985 S1 39.161 52.065 S3
68.003 139.976 S2 54.220 72.081 S4
95.059 167.966 S3 78.312 104.107 S5
118.824 195.957 S4 (to be continued)

35
 Tall building configuration effects on their response to earthquake loading

2 36.151 61.756 S1 S4
45.186 77.190 S2 4 223.215 504.563 S1
75.300 100.104 S3 267.634 608.062 S2
334.114 757.943 S3
96.384 128.127 S4
S4
150.600 200.185 S5
5 186.496 417.626 S1
3 48.197 82.334 S1 223.773 501.407 S2
60.243 102.912 S2 279.256 626.539 S3
96.484 128.127 S3 S4
120.480 160.153 S4 S5
192.768 256.231 S5
Table 13 Steel frame building models response
4 72.289 123.490 S1 to dynamic load
90.360 154.375 S2
Model
Δx (mm)
soil type
135.540 180.169 S3
18 stories 30 stories
162.648 216.198 S4
1 290.347 393.379 S1
225.008 336.302 S5
348.228 472.157 S2
5 207.383 356.358 S1
434.799 590.085 S3
207.383 356.358 S2
S4
207.383 356.358 S3
2 316.220 488.040 S1
207.383 356.358 S4
379.340 585.671 S2
289.152 384.345 S5
473.983 732.403 S3
Table 12 Concrete building models response S4
to dynamic load 3 350.951 453.901 S1

Model
Δx (mm)
soil type
421.519 544.782 S2
18 stories 30 stories 526.212 680.851 S3
1 203.852 455.611 S1 S4
244.562 546.938 S2 4 301.656 431.287 S1
305.332 683.737 S3 361.893 517.619 S2
S4 451.871 646.928 S3
2 235.897 543.618 S1 S4
311.847 660.031 S2 5 267.691 361.520 S1
512.109 789.010 S3 321.199 433.537 S2
S4 400.792 541.857 S3
3 325.919 524.671 S1 S4
391.232 637.440 S2 S5
488.553 789.010 S3

Model 1 Square Model 2 Cruciform Model 3 Tube Model 4 Circular Model 5 Setback
Fig. 1 3D structural building models

36
 Tall building configuration effects on their response to earthquake loading

Fig. 4 Cruciform building plan and elevation

Fig. 2 Finite element model of 18 stories concrete building

Fig. 5 Tube building plan and elevation

Fig. 3 Square building plan and elevation

37
 Tall building configuration effects on their response to earthquake loading

18Story Steel Frame Buildings in Zone 3

350

Square
300 Cruciform
Tube
Circular
250 Setback

Drift (mm)
200

150

100

50

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Soil Profile
Fig. 8 Building response to equivalent static load
30 Story Concrete Building in Zone 2
300

Square
Cruciform
250 Tube
Circular
Setback

Fig. 6 Circular building plan and elevation 200

Drift (mm)

150

100

50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Soil Profile
Fig. 9 Building response to equivalent static load
30 Story Steel Frame in Zone 1
160
Square
Cruciform
140 Tube
Circular
Setback
120
Drift (mm)

100

80

Fig. 7 Setback building plan and elevation

60

40

20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Soil Profile
Fig. 10 Building response to equivalent static load

38
 Tall building configuration effects on their response to earthquake loading

18 Story Concrete Building 30 Story Concrete Building Base on static equivalent earthquake load testing
550 900
500 Square
Cruciform 800
results the cruciform building must be limited to
450 Tube
Circular building of moderate height<72 m and in zones 1, 2
D rift (m m )

D rift (m m )
700
400 Setback
350 600 and 3. Tube model could be used for 30 stories building
300
500
250 in zones 1, 2 and 3. Circular model could be used for 30
400
200
150 300
stories building in zones 1, 2, 3 and 4. Square model
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
could be used for 30 stories building in all zones. Base
Soil Profile Soil Profile
Fig. 11 Building response to dynamic load on dynamic test results the square model only could be
used for 18 and 30 stories buildings.
18 Story Steel Frame Building 30 Story Steel Frame
550 800 Simple and regular models of square and circular
Square
500 Cruciform
Tube
700 shapes performed better than irregular and complex
D rift (m m )
D rift (m m )

450 Circular
Setback 600 models such as cruciform and tube. Setback
400

350
300
250
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Soil Profile
Fig. 12 Building response to dynamic load
4. Conclusions
This paper presents a numerical simulated testing
of building models with the same weight but different
configuration. Square and circular models are
classified as regular and simple models but cruciform
and tube models are irregular and complex. Setback
model was introduced as a practical and economical
model with less weight and simple configuration.
Structure models of 18 stories building models
subjected to static equivalent earthquake and dynamic
load testing have performed almost the same of having
the square model in first place followed by the circular
model. Cruciform and tube models drift results were
about the same. For the 30 stories, building models
square and circular ranked first and second respectively.
The cruciform model behavior with increase in
buildings height gets worse by having large drift and
must be limited to moderate height. The tube model
performed better than the cruciform model yet still not
as good as square or the circular models.
500 performance was very good because it has the simple
400 shape (square) and light weight building.
300
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
References:
Soil Profile
[1] Arnold, C. and Reitherman, R.. Building Configuration
and Seismic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1982.
[2] Seo, Song, Kwon, Hong and Park.. Drift design model for
high – rise buildings based on resizing algorithm with a
weight control factor. The Structural Design of Tall and
Special Buildings, 2008, 17(3): 563-578.
[3] Christenson, R., Spencer, B. and Johnson, E.. Coupled
building control considering the effects of building/
onnector configuration. Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, 2006, 132(6): 53-863.
[4] Wdowicka, Wdowicki, and Blaszczynski.. Seismic
analysis of south gate building according to Euro code 8.
The Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings, 2005,
1(14): 59-67.
[5] Park, H., Hong, K., Seo, J.. Drift design of steel-frame
shear-wall systems for tall buildings. The Structural
Design of Tall and Special Buildings, 2002, 11(1): 35-49.
[6] Melbourne, W.. Shaping tall buildings to reduce
aerodynamic excitation and response. Conference
Proceeding, ASCE (Vol. 23), 2000.
[7] International Conference of Building Officials: Uniform
Building Code. Whittier, California, U. S. A. 1997.
[8] Research Engineers (Europe) Limited. Staad Pro 2003.
Three Dimensional Static and Dynamic Finite Element
Analysis and Design of Structures. Draycott House,
Almondsbury Business Center, Bristol, U.K., 2003.
(Edited by Jenny)

39
May 2009, Volume 3, No.5 (Serial No.18) Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture, ISSN 1934-7359, USA

Experimental analysis of Tuned Liquid Damper (TLD)

for high raised structures

S. Arash Sohrabi, Samad Dehghan

(Islamic Council of East Azerbaijan Province-Consultant, Iranian National Retrofitting Center-north West Branch)

Abstract: Tuned liquid damper is one the passive structural structure’s lateral motions and vibrations caused in the
control ways which has been used since mid 1980 decade for
high raised structure to increase safety factor.
seismic control in civil engineering. This system is made of one
or many tanks filled with fluid, mostly water that installed on top Nowadays most of the high raised buildings are built
of the high raised structure and used to prevent structure using different motion controlling tools that are mostly
vibration. In this article we will show how to make seismic table passive-based, e.g. Viscoelastic dampers (VED),
contain TLD system and analysis the result of using this system
Tuned mass dampers (TMD), Friction dampers (FD),
in our structure. Results imply that when frequency ratio
approaches 1 this system can perform its best in both dissipate Stainless steel dampers (SSD) and Tuned Liquid
energy and increasing structural damping. And also results of Dampers (TLD) that is used in very countries, for
these serial experiments are proved compatible with Hunzer example Fukuoka Tower in Japan.
linear theory behavior.
Key words: TLD; seismic table; structural system; Hunzer
2. Liquid damper theory
linear behavior
Since water sloshing properties are non-linear, it’s
1. Introduction not a good idea to analyze it using potential theory, but
Nowadays using methods for absorbing energy of in the case of deep water tanks that are open to small
earthquake, wind and etc. including designing resistant excitations, velocity of sloshing can be analyzed by the
buildings, specially in the case of already built potential theory.
structure retrofitting, are popular amongst engineers in In the following experiments, TLD tank is
a way that with adding some equipments and systems considered as a rigid body. In a tank with the length of
to the structure, it’s possible to reduce the energy level L and the depth of H that is shown in Fig 1. X and Y
influencing the structure, so that structure responses axes are considered as the horizontal and vertical axes,
and destructions of structure will be decreased the water in the tank is considered as ideal,
tremendously. For this purpose using new technologies incompressible, nonviscous, and irrotational. η is
in the damper field is essential. considered as vertical movement of the water surface
High raised buildings are often under strong of the tank that all of the above mentioned unknown
dynamic loads caused by the environmental factors factors can be calculated:
1 ⎛ ∂φ ⎞ 2C ω πx (1)
including loads caused by earthquakes, strong winds η= ⎜ ⎟ = 1 cos sin ωt
g ⎝ ∂t ⎠ y = H g L
and etc., that’s why the biggest obstacle for the
∂φ 2C π cosh [π ( y + H ) / L ] πx (2)
structural engineers is to find ways to lessen the x= =− 1 cos cos ωt
∂t g cosh (πH / L ) L
∂φ 2C1π sinh [π ( y + H ) / L ] πx (3)
y= = cos cos ωt
Corresponding author: S. Arash Sohrabi, professor; ∂t g cosh (πH / L ) L
research field: seismic retrofitting. E-mail: a.sohrabi@icsr.ir,
arash_sohrabi64@yahoo.com.

40
 Experimental analysis of Tuned Liquid Damper (TLD) for high raised structures
In above equations, g stands for gravity
acceleration, φ is considered as the potential energy
function, t stands for time, C stands for const., ω is
considered as angle velocity (radian per second), also
the velocity is distributed horizontally and vertically
based on the equations No. 2 and No. 3 as shown in the
Fig. 2.
Fig. 1 View of wave surface inside the tank
Fig. 2 Velocity distribution in the tank
Horizontal velocity in the tank’s center is in its
maximum and with approaching to the sides, it will
decrease; vertical velocity in bottom of the tank is zero
and on the sides are in its maximum. In order to
increase damping effect, one can use the bumps on the
sides of the tank, where the vertical velocity is in its
maximum. Of course in this paper’s experiments,
horizontal velocity is considered as the main cause of
the damping of the TLD system and to increase the
damping effect of water sloshing fender screens is used
in the center of the tank, where the horizontal velocity
is in its maximum, and placed vertically on the tank.
Fig. 3 is showing the tank and metal drilled screens that
is used in the experiment. As shown in the picture,
screens are placed, in equal distance of 22 cm from the
end, in the prepared tracks on the tank. To prevent the
sides of the glass tank from breaking down in the time
of seismic table experiment, vulcanite, with the
thickness of 5 cm , is placed on the sides. Length of the
tank is about 70 cm with height of about 32 cm and
width of about 35 cm.
Fig. 3 Schematic and TLD system tank view
Connection between equal damping factor (ξeq)
and excitement domain ratio (D/L) is shown in the
Table 1 calculated using equation No. 4 for the cases of
no screen, one screen and two screens. Equal damping
factor is connected directly to the numbers of fender
screens and it has no connections to the shape factor.
With increasing the number of fender screens, equal
damping factor increases, so damping factor of fender
41
 Experimental analysis of Tuned Liquid Damper (TLD) for high raised structures

screens will be different based on the numbers of η=

Pw
screens and their places on the tank. ⎛ L ⎞
ρ w ⎜ g − × ω e2 × θ h ⎟ (11)
β ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛D⎞ (4)
ξ eq = a ⎜ ⎟
⎝L⎠ 3. System production
Table 1 This a table caption of factors
In order to doing experiments on the TLD systems,
Damping factors /
α β ξeq having a laboratory scale is essential, in this paper, one
screen No.
No screen 1/2 2/3 0.156 of the three models is produced for the experiments, the
One screen 2/2 2/3 0.208 method used was using a electrical motor and a
Two screens 3/3 2/3 0.312
dynamic arm to change the motion from rotation to
For calculating η (maximum uplift) near the transitive, that with the help of this transitive motion,
tracks, Hunzer theory linear model was used. the movement of the seismic Table that holds the glass
In the beginning of the experiment on forced tank can be provided with different frequencies and
vibrations with const induced vibration field on TLD with excitement domain of 12 cm. The length of the
system with using one-way motion, calculating the glass tank in this paper is 68.7 cm.
natural frequency of the TLD tank itself is needed that
has a direct connection to H/L and can be calculate
through equation No. 5.
1 πg ⎛ πH ⎞ (5)
fn = tanh ⎜ ⎟
2π L ⎝ L ⎠
Calculations of γ frequency (inducted frequency)
to Natural tank frequency ratio:
f (6)
γ =
Fn
Dynamic amplification factor (D.A.F), that can be
calculated through equation No.7 and has a direct
relation to γ frequency ratio and equal damping factor
(ξeq), as shown in the equation No.7, when the induced
frequency is equal with natural frequency of the tank,
in other word, when the frequency ratio is near 1,
dynamic amplification factor is only connected with
equal damping factor, in other words, number of the
drilled screens, its also proved with the experiments
Fig. 4 A view of TLD system
results:
γ2 (7) With selecting the different heights (H) and
D. A.F =
(1 − γ ) 2 2
+ 4ξ 2 γ 2 resulting different shape factors (H/L), the experiments
H (iω ) = D × D. A..F (8) done with the frequencies of 0.4 MHz, 0.8 MHz, 1
π × H ( iω ) ⎛ πH ⎞ MHz and 2 MHz. the results are shown in the Table
θh = tanh⎜ ⎟ (9)
L ⎝ L ⎠ 2-Table 4:
L2 π ⎛ πh ⎞ (10)
Pw = ρ w × × × ω e2 × θ h × cot gh⎜ ⎟
12 2 ⎝ L⎠

42
 Experimental analysis of Tuned Liquid Damper (TLD) for high raised structures

Table 2 Frequency = 0.4 MHz, no screen

L/H fn γ D.A.F H (i ω ) θh Pw η H Z theory Z experimental
20.82 0.41 0.98 3.115 0.3738 0.256 665.87 7.2 3.3 10.5 9
10.57 0.573 0.7 0.873 0.1048 0.1383 388.104 4.17 6.5 10.67 11.25
5.97 0.74 0.54 0.41 0.049 0.1083 300.095 3.57 11.5 15.07 16
4.04 0.867 0.46 0.271 0.0325 0.0967 269.42 3.05 17 20.05 22
3.04 0.94 0.426 0.219 0.0262 0.0928 257.67 2.99 22.6 25.59 26.5

Table 3 Frequency = 0.4 MHz, one screen

L/H fn γ D.A.F H (iω ) θh Pw η H Z theory Z experimental
20.82 0.41 0.98 2.093 0.2512 0.172 470.37 4.83 3.3 8.13 6.25
10.57 0.573 0.7 0.83 0.0996 0.1313 366.58 3.97 6.5 10.47 10
5.97 0.74 0.54 0.392 0.047 0.1039 287.71 3.3 11.5 14.8 14.37
4.04 0.86 0.46 0.267 0.032 0.0961 267.75 3.03 17 20.03 20.75
3.04 0.94 0.426 0.217 0.026 0.0921 255.69 2.94 22.6 25.54 25.6

Table 4 Frequency = 0.4 MHz, two screens

L/H fn γ D.A.F H ( iω ) θh Pw η H Z theory Z experimental
20.82 0.41 0.98 1.603 0.1923 0.132 360.981 3.79 3.3 7.09 5.5
10.57 0.573 0.7 0.78 0.0936 0.1234 341.82 3.69 6.5 10.19 9.5
5.97 0.74 0.54 0.371 0.0446 0.0982 271.679 3 11.5 14.5 14
4.04 0.86 0.46 0.258 0.0309 0.0908 252.98 2.84 17 19.84 19.75
3.04 0.94 0.426 0.211 0.0253 0.089 248.75 2.85 22.6 25.45 25.5

for the frequencies for the tank with different screen

f= 0.8
number, Fig. 8 is showing the changes of wave surface
3.5
3
height (z) to bottom of the tank ratio for the frequencies
2.5
screen : 0 of 0.4 or 0.8 MHz with 0, 1 and 2 screens.
D.A.f

2
screen : 1
1.5
screen : 2 f=0.8
1
0.5
3.5
0
3
0 5 10 15
2.5
L/H screen : 0
D.A.F

2
screen : 1
1.5
screen : 2
f= 0.4 1
0.5
3.5 0
3 0 0.5 1 1.5
2.5 f/Fn
screen : 0
D.A.F

2
screen : 1
1.5
screen : 2
1
0.5
f =0.4
0 3.5
0 10 20 30 3
L/H 2.5
screen : 0
D.A.F

2
screen : 1
Fig. 5 The changes of D.A.F to shape factor ratio 1.5
screen : 2
1

Fig. 5 is showing the changes of D.A.F to shape 0.5

0
factor ratio, Fig. 6 is showing the changes of D.A.F to 0 0.5 1 1.5
f/Fn
f / f n ratio for the frequencies of 0.4 and 0.8 MHz,
Fig. 6 The changes of D.A.F to f / fn ratio for the
Fig. 7 is showing the changes of D.A.F to f / f n ratio
frequencies of 0.4 and 0.8 MHz

43
 Experimental analysis of Tuned Liquid Damper (TLD) for high raised structures

3.5 about Hunzer linear theory has approximate results in

3

2.5
calculating z and etc., this percent is the maximum
screen : 0
allowed error.
.F

2
.A

screen : 1
D

1.5
screen : 2
1 The amount of D.A.F decreasing in experiments
0.5
0
for the excitement frequency of 0.8 MHz with 0, 1 and
0 0.5 1 1.5
f/Fn 2 screens are 30.5% and 51% that these decreases can
be compared to the previous state of tank vibration with
Fig. 7 The changes of D.A.F to f / fn ratio for the
frequency of 0.4 MHz.
frequencies for the tank with different screen number

Maximum error witnessed between experiment

result and Hunzer theory is about 14.3%. Considering
the calculating error, systematic error and also knowing

f=0.4 no.screen=2 f=0.4 no.screen=1

30 30
25 25
20 20
experimental exprrimental
Z

15
Z

15
theory theory
10 10
5 5
0 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
H H

f=0.4 no.screen=0

30
25
20
experimental
Z

15
theory
10
5
0
0 10 20 30
H

Fig. 8 The changes of wave surface height (z) to bottom of the tank ratio for the frequencies
of 0.4 or 0.8 MHz with 0, 1 and 2 screens

smaller is the response amplification ratio, while the

4. Conclusion
To improve the serviceability of high-rise
buildings, a Tuned Liquid damper with special plate
was developed.
Through an experimental study of the TLD
system, we can make the following conclusions.
(1) The response amplification ratio of the wave
front to the excitation amplitude varies in a nonlinear
manner. The larger the excitation amplitude, the
damping ratio of the TLD increases.
(2) In high-rise structures subject to random
excitation, such as wind and earthquake, higher
damping effects were found in the models with larger
mass ratio, more wire plate, and larger shape factor.
(3) Experiments Show that with increasing the
number of fender screens, equal damping factor
increases, so damping factor of fender screens will be
different based on the numbers of screens and their
places on the tank.

44
 Experimental analysis of Tuned Liquid Damper (TLD) for high raised structures

(4) The amount of D.A.F decreasing in [4] LI S. J., LI G. Q., TANG J. and LI Q. S.. Shallow
cylindrical tuned liquid damper for vibration control of
experiments for the excitement frequency of 0.8 MHz
high-rise structures. The Structural Design of Tall
with 0, 1 and 2 screens are 30.5% and 51% that these Buildings, 2002, 11(4): 295-308.
decreases can be compared to the previous state of tank [5] Reed, D., YU J. K., Yeh, H. and Gardarsson, S..
vibration with frequency of 0.4 MHz. Investigation of tuned liquid dampers under large
amplitude excitation. ASCE Journal of Engineering
(5) The TLD shows good structural performance
Mechanics, 1998, 124(4): 405-413.
in reducing the vibration response of the structure. [6] M. j. Tait, A. A. El Damatty, N. Isyumov, M. R..
Therefore, it can be used as an efficient vibration Siddique numerical flow models to simulate Tuned Liquid
control device for the tall buildings. Dampers (TLD) with slat screens. Journal of Fluids and
Structures, 2005, 20: 007-1023.
[7] Emami Azadi and Moan T. Ductility demand analysis of
References:
simplification pile-soil-jacket system under extreme sea
[1] Chopra, A. K.. Dynamic of structure: Theory and
waves and earthquakes. Proc of EURODYN 96 Conf.,
Application to Earthquake Engineering Prentice Hall,
1996: 1025-1034.
Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1995.
[2] Daewoo Institute of Construction Technology. The Design
(Edited by Jenny)
and Analysis of Tall Buildings. Technical Report, 1996,
DEP-007-96.
[3] Young-Kyu Ju. Structural Behavior of Water Sloshing
Damper with Embossments Subject to Random Excitation
2004, 31: 120-132.

(continued from Page 29) [8] HUANG N. E., SHEN Z., LONG S. R., WU M. C., SHI H.
H., ZHENG. Q., YEN N. C., TUNG C. C. and LIU H. H..
[2] Beck J. L and Jennings P. C.. Structural identification
The empirical mode decomposition and the Hilbert
using linear models and earthquake records. Earthquake
spectrum for nonlinear and non-stationary time series
Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 1980, 8: 145-160.
analysis. Procedures of the Royal Society of London, 1998,
[3] Lus H., Betti R. and Longman R. W.. Identification of
454: 903-995.
linear structural systems using earthquake-induced
[9] Juditsky A., Hjalmarsson H., Benveniste A., Delyon B.,
vibration data. Earthquake Engineering and Structural
Ljung L., Sjöberg J. and ZHANG Q.. Nonlinear black-box
Dynamics, 1999, 28: 1449-1467.
models in system identification: Mathematical
[4] LIN J. W., Betti R., Smyth A. W. and Longman R. W..
foundations. Automatica, 1995, 31(12): 1725-1750.
On-line identification of nonlinear hysteretic structural
[10] Park Y. J., WEN Y. K. and Ang A. H. S.. Random
systems using a variable trace approach. Earthquake
vibration of hysteretic systems under bi-directional ground
Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 2001, 30(9):
motions. Earthquake Engineering and Structural
1279-1303.
Dynamics, 1986, 14: 543-557.
[5] Longman R. W.. Notes on the health monitoring,
[11] Moore D. S. and McCabe G. P.. Introduction to the
Department of Mechanical Engineering. Columbia
Practice of Statistics. W. H. Freeman and Company, New
University, New York, 2002.
York, 2005.
[6] LIN J W.. Adaptive algorithms for the identification of
[12] Chopra A. K.. Dynamics of Structures. Prentice-Hall,
nonlinear structural systems, Doctoral dissertation,
1995.
Columbia University, New York, 2001.
[7] YANG J N and LIN S.. Identification of parametric
variations of structures based on least squares estimation (Edited by Jenny)
and adaptive tracking technique. Journal of Engineering
Mechanics ASCE, 2005, 131(3): 290-298.

45
May 2009, Volume 3, No.5 (Serial No.18) Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture, ISSN 1934-7359, USA
The influence of Fe extracting as a filler of fiber concrete performance*
Nawir Rasidi
(Department of Civil Engineering, State Polytechnic of Malang, East Java 65141, Indonesia)
Abstract: This research is showing the effect of increasing an
Fe extracting from the compression strength, tension and
bending moment. The variations in this experiment are the
increasing of Fe extracting 0.5%, 1% and 1.5% of concrete
volume. Water Cement Ratio (WCR) variation of 0.48, 0.56 and
0.60. The result of increasing 1.5% Fe extracting causes the
increasing of tension strength 44.028 kN/cm2, the increasing of
slit tension strength 2.226 kN/cm2, the increasing of bending
moment 14.81 kN/cm2 from normal concrete. 0.48 WCR
produces tension strength, slit tension strength and bending
moment more than 0.56 and 0.60 WCR. The increasing of Fe
extracting with the distribution variation area and the spread
concrete in the tension concrete area produce 3.705 kN/cm2
bending moment higher than the spread fiber in all of concrete
area. The 4 cm fiber length produces the higher bending moment
than the 2 cm fiber length. The difference is equally 5.185
kN/cm2. The combination result of the examined acting varieties
by continuation statistic test gives the result to get the maximum
tension and split tensile. It is a concrete combination of
increasing 1.5% fiber percentage, 0.48 WCR, full spreading area
and the 4 cm fiber length. The maximum bending moment is the
increasing of 0.5% fiber percentage, 0.48 WCR, full spreading
area and the 4 cm fiber length.
Key words: Fe extracting; fiber concrete performance; acting
combination
1. Introduction
Fiber concrete is a composite that consists of
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) concrete mixed with
fiber. This fiber concrete technology has started its
invention from overseas, with the material sources
comes from overseas also. From some studies, it is
obtained that fiber utilization as micro reinforcement
*
Acknowledgement: The authors would like to thanks Prof.
Dr. Ir. Agoes Soehardjono MD, MS., and Prof. Dr. Ir. Sri
Murni Dewi, MS. University of Brawijaya for his support and
encouragement to pursue activities beyond research, such as
teaching, code development activities and publication.
Nawir Rasidi, ST, MT, Ph.D. candidate; research field:
concrete structure. E-mail: abunawir@yahoo.co.uk.
46
has some advantages than common concrete. Army
Cops Engineer USA found that fiber mesh usage in
concrete could improve 10.5% abrasion; hence it can
increase the building use life two times. Fiber mesh is
also known able to serve to decrease the cracking
potency that may be emerging on the outside of
building wall at the operation time.
Based on its properties, it is assessed that pressure
capacity of concrete is higher relatively than its tensile
strength and concrete is a brittle material. Tensile
strength value is only about 9%-15% from its
compression capacity[1]. One of ways is by adding fiber
into concrete mixture, which has function as micro
reinforcement and spread evenly in concrete.
The previous research was done by Suhendro
concerning to metallic fiber additional to steel wire on
concrete. This research results shows that concrete
quality can increase or more ductile. This research is
also resulting the tensile strength rise 55-65 MPa[2].
Similarly with Qomariah, B. S. research. The most
effective percentages of the fiber amount of iron flake
is 2% to concrete mixture where it results: pressure test
rise 42%, tensile test rise 31% and elasticity modulus
rise 44% to normal concrete[3]. Then, Rochidajah
researching about bending behaviour and ductility
bendrat fiber concrete that resulting a raising on split
tensile strength equal to 0.063 MPa, but pressure
capacity reduce at 0.55 MPa[4]. Besides, it also happens
the same collapse as normal concrete that is tensile
collapse appropriate with structure collapse.
This research is one of efforts to increase the
concrete tensile capability by using metallic fiber from
local material that is Fe extracting. Fe extracting is a
residue material of iron fitting process or other
 The influence of Fe extracting as a filler of fiber concrete performance

materials. These kinds of materials are available in 4. Limitation of the study

industrial area or engineer workshops that still
The limitations of this study are:
considered useless up to this time, especially in the
(1) The testing is done to one kind of concrete
Civil Engineer Science field. The properties of the Fe
quality that is K 200 (fc′=20 MPa).
extracting is more heterogeneous than wire fiber,
(2) The addition of Fe extracting uses volume
because Fe extracting that will be used is the residue of
measurement technique is that the volume represents
iron fitting from various kinds and various quality of
conversion result of weight measurement.
iron, while wire fiber has the same quality. Similarly
(3) The employing iron fiber comes from fitting
with the form of Fe extracting, it has many shapes;
process residue of some kinds of iron that has diameter
there is straight shape and spiral shape, while for the
between 0.5-2 mm and has been cut with length 2 cm
wire fiber has only straight shape. This study will test
and 4 cm and has not done fiber straighten. It means
whether the Fe extracting can be used for increasing
that the fiber used as its original.
concrete tensile strength and how its impact to concrete
bending. 5. Review of related literature
2. Purpose of the study 5.1 Research about fiber concrete
Some research about fiber concrete is concrete
The purposes of this study are as follow:
with fiber additional in concrete mixture has been done
(1) To know the effect of Fe extracting addition to
many times. Some of them are: Suhendro, who tries to
compression capacity and concrete split tensile
find out the alternative fiber materials as the substitute
strength and also concrete bending tensile strength.
of steel material from foreign country with expensive
(2) To know the effect of water cement ratio to
prices. Local material used is wire, which usually used
fiber concrete of Fe extracting to compression capacity
for tying the reinforcement. The bendrat used as fiber
and concrete split tensile strength.
material with diameter about 1 mm and length 60 mm.
(3) To know the effect of Fe extracting to
The result of the research shows that concrete quality
spreading area of fiber on the full area and tensile area
can increase or more ductile[2]. Suhendro with total
to flexural strength of concrete and also length
scale argued that ultimate strength of concrete has
variation of fiber to bending strength of concrete.
better fiber than non-fiber concrete.
3. Significance of the study The other research was done by add a little steel
fiber into reinforced concrete confirmed that it can
The significances of the study are:
increase the shear strength 70%[5]. The other research is
(1) Give an alternative to increase the concrete
by add 2.5% volume of iron scrap to concrete matrix,
tensile strength by adding fiber from Fe extracting.
with 3 mm width, 5 cm length and 3 mm width, 5 cm
(2) Can be used by practitioner to reduce the
length respectively it can increase pressure capacity,
amounts and large tensile reinforcement or can be used
tensile and bending strength, by the certain mixture
on the practical concrete utilization.
conditional it can be done better[3-4].
(3) Can give big enough benefits and
The better measurement of Fe extracting
contributions or input for construction worlds,
utilization as the fiber material is 1 mm width and 30 cm
especially building construction that use concrete as
length. Table 1 is the result of fiber concrete with iron
raw materials.
scrap on 28 days. The most effective percentages of the
amount of iron scarp fiber is 2% to concrete mixture,

47
 The influence of Fe extracting as a filler of fiber concrete performance

where it results: pressure test rise 42%, tensile test rise
31% and elasticity modulus up 44% to normal concrete.
Afterwards, in 2003, the researcher study about
fiber concrete with iron scrap in the form of steel
reinforcement that causing split tensile strength rise as
much as 0.063 MPa, but it happen reduction at 0.55
MPa pressure capacity (because made over
reinforced)[4].
The fiber materials can be used to repair the
weaknesses of concrete has reported by American
Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee.[1-10]
The examples of fiber shape can be seen in the
following pictures[9] (see Fig. 1):

Table 1 Fiber concrete with iron scrap on 28 days

Modulus of
Compression Tensile
A kind of concrete elasticity
(kN/cm2) (kN/cm2)
(kN/cm2)
Normal concrete 275 41 167,923.30
Concrete with iron
277 49 241,276.67
scrap 1 mm × 30 mm
Fig. 1 Some types of fiber
Concrete with iron
283 15 194,020.00 Source: Soroushian and Bayasi, 1987.
scrap 2 mm × 30 mm

5.2 Concept of fiber utilization in concrete
The other way to handle the weaknesses of tensile
strength in concrete is adding fiber into concrete
mixture, which meant to make this fiber able to do its
function as micro reinforcement that spread randomly
in concrete mixture. Hence, it will be able to restraint
the formation of cracks too early in tensile area caused
by hydration and by loading[6].
The results of research that ever done by foreign
researcher suggest that the concrete properties, which
can be repaired by fiber additional into mixture is:
ductility, the properties related to material ability
energy absorption, impact resistance, tensile and
flexural strength, resistant to fatigue (fatigue of life),
resistant to shrinkage impact, and resistant to abrasion.
5.3 Type of fiber
While the fiber position in the concrete can be
seen in the following pictures[3] (see Fig. 2):
Fig. 2 Fiber position in the concrete
Source: Bistek Magazine, 2001, 9(1): 17.
Some studies about mechanism properties and
application in the fiber concrete utilization practice has
reported more by American Concrete Institute (ACI),
researcher gives the report about some fiber material that
often used like noted in the following table (see Table
2).

Table 2 Fiber specification

Density Modulus of youngs
Fiber Tensile (Ksi) Volume fract (%) Diameter (inch) Length (inch)
(t/m3) (103 Ksi)
Teel 7.86 100-30 30 0.79 0.0005-0.04 0.5-1.5
Glass 2.7 >180 11 2-8 0.004-0.03 0.5-1.5
Plastic 0.91 >100 0.14-1.2 1-3 >0.1 0.5-1.5
Carbon 1.6 <100 >7.2 1-5 0.0004-0.0008 0.02-0.5

Recently, type of fiber often used in foreign length, and has various shapes to increase pull-out
country is steel fiber that has diameter 0.5 mm, 50 mm resistance.

48
 The influence of Fe extracting as a filler of fiber concrete performance
Researcher’s study shows that repair level of fiber
made of local wire stubs, which has the same quality
with the original fiber steel that usually used in foreign
country. The properties of various local fiber studied
by researcher as shown in the following Table 3[7]:
Table 3 The properties of fiber
Tensile strength Elongations Density
Kind of wire
(kN/cm2) (cm) (t/m3)
Steel 2300 10.5 7.77
Bendrat (wire) 385 5.5 6.68
Normal 250 30 7.7
5.4 Slenderness ratio
The slenderness ratio is the ratio of fiber length to
the diameter or wide of fiber. The large slenderness
ratio will impact the concrete workability and tends to
spongy; hence the wholly quality of concrete will
decrease. However, if the concrete workability can be
resisted, hence more fine fiber more lower the crack on
concrete and reducing the concrete crack width, so that
it can increase the concrete quality.
The fiber length (l) ratio to fiber width (d) will
influence the foundry applications. The stipulations are:
(1) For l/d<45, fiber mixing into concrete
manually.
(2) For 45<l/d<100, concrete mixing, which needs
certain technique in order to get homogenous mixture.
(3) For l/d<100, is almost impossible to get
homogenous concrete mixture.
5.5 Fiber volume
Fiber volume is the comparison between fiber
volumes to concrete volume wholly. The more large
fiber volume (Vf) to concrete matrix volume, the more
improve the concrete strength, but the percentages of
quality advance will be less if Vf oversize Vf
maximum.
5.6 Pressurecapacity of concrete
Test of concrete pressure capacity is very
important, considering to the pressure capacity of
concrete can be used as guidance to the other properties
of concrete. For instance, it can be predicted the tensile
strength, flexural strength, plastic modulus, concrete
solidness, along with the concrete strength.
The quality of concrete usually determined by the
pressure capacity, while the concrete strength itself is
the concrete workability to restraint the force of
compression or force of pressure. According to
Indonesian code, the pressure capacity of concrete is
the amount of load per unit of measure that makes the
testing material will be smashed up if its loaded with
certain force of compression produced by the press
machine. The concrete pressure capacity is determined
by the arrangement of cement comparison, rough and
fine aggregate, water and also some kinds of mixture.
Water comparison to cement represent primary factor
in determining the concrete strength.
The more lower cement water comparison then it
will more high the pressure capacity, on the contrary,
more high the comparison hence it will more easy the
concrete operation, but it will lowering concrete
strength[4].
5.6.1 Tensile strength of concrete
Tensile strength of concrete is the concrete ability
in restraint force of attraction; the attraction value is
about 9 percent to 15 percent from pressure capacity of
concrete. The concrete strength in attraction is an
important characteristic that influences the tethering
and cracks dimension in the structure.
(1) Direct tensile strength
Direct tensile strength testing will produce direct
tensile strength (fct). Fig. 3 is the schemat of the testing.
Direct tensile strength is counted by the following
formula:
P
fct = ( k N /cm 2 ) (1)
A
Fig. 3 Direct tensile test
(2) Split tensile strength
49
 The influence of Fe extracting as a filler of fiber concrete performance

According to Wang and Salmon (1993, p. 11), compression strength and flexural strength (Fig. 6-Fig.
split tensile strength testing done by using laid 11). Table 4 is the results of these testings.
cylindrical tester down and added by steel plate with P satu
muatan

the up and down part dimension is 30×12 mm. Fig. 4 is L/3 L/3 L/3

the schemat of the testing. By giving pressure to the

diameter hence the cylinder will be split (Murdock,
1986, p. 9).The split tensile strength testing can be
counted by using the formula below:
2P
fct= π l d = ( k N / c m )
2
(2) 5 cm 50 cm 5 cm

P 60 cm

Fig. 4 Split tensile strength testing

(3) Bending tensile strength

In this testing, tensile strength is used bending
Fig. 5 Bending tensile strength testing
tensile strength testing because this test is almost close
2
tegangan beton karakteristik (kg/cm )
by the real tensile strength in its application in the field. 25

However, it doesn’t mean that bending tensile strength 20

19.618
is the better testing method than the other method. In 15 17.391
18.172

14.767
this bending tensile strength testing, the tester used is
10

beam with dimension 15 cm × 15 cm × 60 cm and its

maximum aggregate is 40 mm. The load application 5
tegangan beton
karakteristik
method is through one load in the centre point until the 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

tester is cracking. Fig. 5 is the schemat of the testing. Fig. 6

Komposisi campuran (%)
The relation of fiber composition and
Tensile strength in bending refers to the modulus of split tensile strength
rupture. It is counted according to the American
2
tegangan Beton Karakteristik (Kg/cm )
180

Standard for Testing Material (ASTM), which also 160 167.796

140

important in determines the crack and beam deflection. 120

123.767
100
This tensile strength produces higher tensile value then 80
103.549
Komposisi campuran
103.563

cylindrical trial, because of non-linear distribution at 60

40

the concrete tension in tensile destruction. 20

tegangan beton
karakteristik
0
5.6.2 Aalysis result 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Komposisi campuran (%)
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

Here we change the fiber’s composition and the Fig. 7 The relation of fiber composition and
WCR, and give the curves about split tensile strength, compression strength

50
 The influence of Fe extracting as a filler of fiber concrete performance

140.00
130.00
120.00

Kuat Lentur (Kg/cm2)

(kg/cm2)

117.57
60
100.00
40
Series 1
20
kuat tekan beton karakteristik

80.00
0
60.00 0 1 2
57.66 % Serat
40.00

Series1
20.00

0.00 Fig. 10 The relation of WCR and flexural strength

0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70
komposisi faktor air semen

Fig. 8 The relation of WCR and compression strength 91

90.37
10.000 90
9.363

Kuat lentur (kg/cm2)

9.000 89
8.000 88
6.951
87
7.000
kuat tarik beton karakteristik (kg/cm2)

6.655
86 Series1
6.000
85
5.000
84 84.44
4.000
83 82.96
3.000
82
2.000 81.348
81
Series1
1.000 80
0.000 1 2 3 4
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70
komposisi faktor air semen
Fig. 11 The relation of spreading area of fiber on the full
Fig. 9 The relation of WCR and split tensile strength
area and tensile area to flexural strength

Table 4 The result of combination acting

Flexural tensile
Compression strength Split tensile strength
Combination acting strength average
average (kN/cm2) average (kN/cm2)
(kN/cm2)
Full Area; WCR 0.48; 4 cm; 0% 183.439 20.099 32.888
Full Area; WCR 0.48; 2 cm; 0.5% 115.471 18.997 81.483
Full Area; WCR 0.48; 4 cm; 0.5% 138.198 20.053 64.443
Tensile Area; WCR 0.48; 2 cm; 0.5% 142.886 19.082 82.963
Tensile Area; WCR 0.48; 4 cm; 0.5% 138.641 19.828 90.373
Full Area; WCR 0.48; 4 cm; 1% 170.911 18.003 46.291
Full Area; WCR 0.48; 4 cm; 1.5% 190.233 21.939 47.646
Full Area; WCR 0.56; 4 cm; 1 % 131.914 7.926 54.531
Full Area; WCR 0.60; 4 cm; 1 % 134.179 8.068 54.214

decrease at 0.5% addition and will rise 2.226 kg/cm2

6. Conclusions and suggestion than the normal concrete at 1% and 1.5% addition.
6.1 Conclusions Water Cement Ratio (WCR) = 0.48 produce the
From the analysis result and discussion, it can be highest-pressure capacity and split tensile strength than
concluded that: WCR = 0.56 and WCR = 0.60. Tensile strength at
Fiber addition at 0.5% and 1% causes a decreasing WCR = 0.48 equals to 130.002 kg/cm2 and split tensile
reduction of the concrete pressure capacity, but it will strength equal to 9.363 kg/cm2. From the statistical test,
rise 44.028 kg/cm2 than the normal concrete at the it is resulted that the cement water factor in the fiber
1.5% addition. While, the split tensile strength will concrete of Fe extracting has not significant effect to

51
 The influence of Fe extracting as a filler of fiber concrete performance
the pressure capacity and has significant effect to the
split tensile strength.
The maximum rising of this bending tensile
strength happens in 1.5% fiber addition that is 14.81
kg/cm2 from normal concrete. The result of statistical
test shows that Fe extracting addition to bending tensile
strength has significant effect.
The fiber spread in the tensile area is resulting
higher bending tensile strength than the totally fiber
addition or in whole part of concrete. Its average
difference is equal to 3.705 kg/cm2.
4 cm fiber length results higher bending tensile
strength than 2 cm fiber length. Its average difference is
equal to 5.185 kg/cm2. The result of statistical test
shows that variation of fiber length to bending tensile
strength has not significant effect.
The combination result of some treatment that
tested by using continued statistic test that is integrity
different test resulted that to get maximum pressure
capacity and bending tensile strength of concrete uses
concrete combination with the percentages of fiber
addition 1.5% FAS 0.48 total spread area, and 4 cm
fiber length. While for the maximum result of bending
tensile strength of concrete given by the concrete
combination with the fiber addition percentages is
0.5%, 0.48 FAS, tensile spread area, and 4 cm fiber
length.
6.2 Suggestion
From the analysis result, hence there are some
suggestions that can be delivered, they are:
In the tester producing, it should avoid the fiber
spreading together and it would be better if the fiber
were asunder little by little and spread evenly in the
mixture. If it doesn’t give any attention, then it will
have a risk to cause the separate agglomeration of fiber
52
that will absorb the cement paste, hence it causes
appearing many holes in the concrete.
It needs to be done the next research to multiply
the treatment combination; hence it can produce the
optimum strength of fiber concrete.
References:
[1] American Concrete Institute ACI Committee 544. Guide
for Specifying, Proportioning, Mixing, Placing and
Finishing Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete, Report: ACI
544, 3R-93, 1993.
[2] Suhendro, B.. Laporan Penelitian Pengaruh Pemakaian
Fiber Secara Parsial Pada Balok Beton Bertulang.
Fakultas Teknik Universitas Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta,
1991.
[3] Qomariah, B. S.. Hubungan tegangan-regangan beton
mutu normal dengan serat serpihan besi. Majalah Bistek,
2001, 9(1): 14-25
[4] Rochidajah.. Perilaku Lentur dan Daktilitas Balok Beton
Serat Bertulangan Lebih yang Dikekang pada Jalur Tekan.
Tesis, Pasca Universitas Brawijaya Malang, 2002.
[5] Bayasi, M. Z. and Soroushian, P.. Effect of steel fiber
reinforcement on fresh mix properties in concrete. ACI
Material Journal, 1992, 89(4): 369-374.
[6] Soroushian, P & Bayasi, Z.. Concept of fiber reinforced
concrete. Proceeding of the International Seminar on
Fiber Reinforced Concrete. Michigan State University,
Michigan, 1987.
[7] Park, R. and Paulay, T.. Reinforced Concrete Structures.
New York: John Willey & Sons, 1975.
[8] American Concrete Institute ACI Committee 544.
Measurement of Properties of Fiber Reinforced Concrete,
Report: ACI 544, 2R-89, 1989.
[9] Dipohusodo, Istimawan.. Struktur Beton Bertulang.
Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta. 1994.
[10] Nawy, E. G.. Beton Bertulang Suatu Pendekatan Dasar,
PT. Refika Aditama, Bandung, 1998.
(Edited by Jenny)
May 2009, Volume 3, No.5 (Serial No.18) Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture, ISSN 1934-7359, USA

The leasing operation of research of the office building market in China

QIU Guo-lin
(Department of construction Management,School of Management of Jilin Architectural and Civil Engineering Institute,
Changchun 130021, China)

Abstract: The article analysis the external market environment the use of office space demand and investment
and the situation of requirement and the competitor in market of
demand for the formation of the property development
office building with the same rank and the same type according
to market research, the aim is to research the whole processing market. The three market mutual contact and mutual,
operation and management, including making the marker common decisions and affected the office market
orientation, confirming and finding the potential lesse making development.
the rent plan, negotiating and signing the contract.
The use of the office market supply and demand
Key words: market research; lesse; rent; negotiation
determine the market rent, price, and the vacancy rate.
1. Office market dynamics of model The use of the information office market will quickly
back to the investment market, office rents and prices
1.1 Office market: the use of market,
to determine the value of the investment office. This
investment markets and market development[1]
development costs and investment value of the
As the market for office space with a high degree
relationship between the expectations of investors and
of market-oriented operation, the policy interventions
investment income levels of new office space has
small, the characteristics of high profit margin,
driven the development of the project. In addition to
investors favored the real estate investment tool, also
the investment market for office space by the use of
known as real estate investment market “leader”.
market impact, but also by the broader capital market.
Office market is for office space in the sum of all
Investors will be office space and other investment
transactions, including supply and demand between
vehicles weigh and compare, compare the results will
the two sides, such as the sale or lease transactions
eventually be reflected in investor demand by the rate
and activities developed in the course of the
of return on investment. Lags behind the supply
transaction price, rent levels, the vacancy rate, yield,
impact of the use of market supply and demand for
and so on. Office market by the use of market,
office space, rent and the market price, thereby
investment markets and the development of a market:
affecting the investment market for office space
the market for office space refers to the use of office
investment income level.
space by the supplier (the owners) and demand (the
In 1994, the American scholar Keogh established
tenants) together form the office property market and
the relationship between model. The model can be
the resulting set of market variables, such as rent,
used to image shows the use of the market, investment
price, the vacancy rate; office investment market for
and development activities in the mutual dynamic role.
office space it refers to as an investment tool and the
Users of the information market will quickly back to
formation of the entire investment market a part of the
the investment market, and then transferred to the
development of the market for office space refers to
investment market by the development of the market,
decided to develop activities. At the same time, the
QIU Guo-lin, professor; research fields: project management
theory research and teaching. E-mail: qiuguolin1964@163.com. market will be greater investment in the capital market.

53
 The leasing operation of research of the office building market in China
Users of the market and the impact of changes in
investment market development of the market, create
demand for the development of the market, and the
corresponding development of the market for the other
two market supply.
1.2 Office rental market model[2]
Tsolacos and McGough (1998) to the Keogh
based on the theory, combined with user market and
the investment market and its impact on the mutual
development activities, the establishment of the office
market dynamics of the model.
Users of market demand and supply determine
the market rent. The use of office space needs and
national economic strength related activities, in
particular by the office of the office of industry
activities. National economic strength and trends can
be used to represent GDP in the office of the office
with activities in the banking industry, financial and
insurance industries (BFI: banking, finance, and
insurance sector) in the employment rate to represent.
The supply of office space with new production from
that office, but truly effective supply should also
include the existing stock of vacant part. Therefore,
with output as the supply of new office space on
behalf of the suitability of the need to look at the
vacancy in the stock relative to that part of the new
part is obvious.
In office rentals in the equation of the change is
the assumption that rents for office space from the
projected demand and new supply decisions. Current
demand is expected to previous years and changes in
the GDP, the current and previous years in the BFI
changes in the employment rate of the linear
combination of new supply is the current and previous
years in office completed a linear combination. So
rent is GDP, BFI and the employment rate for office
space completed in a linear sequence of their growth
portfolio, which BFI GDP and employment rate is
positive effect, the office of the completion of a
negative effect, this is because the new office space to
54
meet the investment needs of some, thereby inhibiting
the rent increase. Rent equation is as follows:
s
ΔVtcv =α2 + ∑vs ΔRt−s
s=0
M Q
+ ∑ pmΔVt−SPm − ∑ωqΔVtOFBO
−q +ε2tV GDP
m=0 q=0 (1)
I
ΔRt = α1 + ∑βi ΔVtGDP
−i +
i =0
I K
+ ∑ γ i ΔVt −BFIj − ∑ ωk ΔVt GFBO
−k + ε1t
j =0 k =0
(2)
In the equation, △ for the change of; R is the
actual rent levels; VGDP is the value; EBFI industry is in
the employment rate; VOFBO the private sector is the
number of completed office space; α, β, γ, ω are often
factors; i, j, k are the years; ε1t is the occasional
error[3].
2. Office market investment model
According to Keogh’s theory, there are three key
office investment market forces influence the value of
the assets.
First, the demand side, the existing office space
and expected level of rent will affect the value of the
assets, rents and demand is directly proportional.
Secondly, is still the demand side, the value of
assets by the office of the investment objectives of the
impact of yield. Yield goal is to invest in other
comparable office space investment opportunities in
the existing income level, the level of expected
income and relative risk level of function. According
to economic theory, investment opportunities in the
pricing of any deviation will lead to investment flows,
investment opportunities that various risks and
benefits are balanced. In the model, stock price
volatility to changes in economic conditions that
investors in the office and investment preferences.
Finally, the market supply side, the development
of the market to new supply, such attacks will increase
in the yield fell to the asset value of negative effects.
 The leasing operation of research of the office building market in China

The market value of the assets investment rates can also be used as the future economic
equation is as follows: expectations, this is expected to affect the expected
s demand for office space. The completion of the
ΔVt cv = α 2 + ∑ vs ΔRt − s
development of the market equation is as follows:
s =0
N
ΔVtOFBO= α3 + ∑sn ΔRt−n
M Q
+ ∑ pmΔV SP
t −m − ∑ωqΔV OFBO
t −q + ε 2t (3)
m=0 q=0 n=0
Φ H
+ ∑gφ ΔVtCV
−φ − ∑f h Δrt-h + ε3t
2.1 Office market development model INT
(4)
Office development model main factors affecting φ=0 h=0
office building obviously. This equation is meaning the actual short-term
The development and construction of the office interest rates, s, g, f are constant coefficients; n, h are
space rent and the value of the assets, because they years; ε3t is the chance for error[4].
represent the user and investment market conditions, To sum up, the rental market for office space, the
these two factors and that the situation over the past value of assets and the completion of a number of
few years to be included in the equation. In addition, factors and indicators as shown in Table 1.
the new development will be of short-term financing
costs, so as a short-term interest rates also explain
variables, have a negative effect. Short-term interest

Table 1 The influencing factor of the office building market curcil

Variable explained Influencing factor Explaining variable
Rent Economic active; BFI level; supply GDP varial; BFI level; rea
Assets value Rent level; share price; Rent vraial; hare price varial
Rent level; asset value; active short Rent varial; asset value varial; active short
Area
interest rate interestrate rate varial

The use of statistical data and regression analysis,
various factors can be calculated, as well as make sure
to explain the variable delay (in previous years of data
to be interpreted variables are obvious role),
quantitative come to rent, the value of assets and the
number of completed The equation, and thus of GDP,
BFI employment rate, rent, office space completed
volume, stock prices, the interaction between the
interest rate[5].
3. The investment management market
for office space
The main mode of operation for office space is
leasing business, that is the ultimate occupier (users)
rather than primarily through the purchase of leased
way to get the right to use the office space. Therefore,
the rental management office to become the core of
investment management market. Office market in
general the investment management market research
from the start, first of all, the market environment, the
same level with the type of market demand for office
space and an analysis of competitors, and so on, and
on the basis of this market positioning, then identify
and find potential lessees To develop programmes rent,
lease negotiations and a final contract.
3.1 Office tenant choice[6]
Choice of the tenant, to consider the main criteria
for a potential tenant by the type of business and its
reputation, financial stability and long-term
profitability of the capacity of the required size and
the need to provide the special property management
services.
Property management companies must be careful
analysis of each tenant to the credibility of the office

55
 The leasing operation of research of the office building market in China
rental property affected. Potential lessees should be
content with the business office of the lessee has been
operated by the content of coordination, its credibility
should be able to strengthen the overall image building.
Property management companies should also analyse
the potential lessees engaged in business in the process
of financial stability, as it relates to potential lessees of
the lease period stipulated in the contract whether the
obligation to pay the rent on time. From the tax
authorities, business administration, bankers, brokers
and financial statements provided by the lessee to
determine its credibility and financial position.
Tenant selection process of one of the most
complex office building is to determine whether there
is sufficient space to meet the characteristics of a
particular tenant needs, to meet the leasing of space to
the area of the specific needs, which often determines
the potential The lessee can become a reality the
lessee. In considering whether a suitable area for
leasing space can be used often to consider the
following three aspects: (1) Of the combination of
buildings, whether a separate portfolio of rental units
to meet a certain Rent-seeking characteristics of the
needs. (2) Rent-seeking to experience the nature of
business, some agencies need to be able to separate
the office, and often can hope that these offices along
the exterior of the building layout, to be able to
receive adequate natural light and broaden their
horizons. But there are also some companies may not
want to have too much room and around the external
walls. (3) To lease office space to future expansion
plans, if a company in the future expectations of a
large-scale expansion must be considered in a building
whether or how to meet their future business
development needs, particularly when the rent-seeking,
Hope that when his office on layout. In general, for
each office staff of 15-20 m2 unit within the
construction area of more appropriate, although each
staff closed the office space in general need only 5-6
m2. However, reception room, conference rooms,
traffic area, storage space, office equipment and the
56
size of the public activities area than office space may
be to increase the number of indicators.
Some rent-seeking, for the smooth conduct of its
business, the need to provide some special services,
property management companies have provided a
greater difference in standard services, property
management companies if not properly consider these
issues in the future management of the property on the
May be many contradictions. In accept or reject the
special requirements of potential tenants, property
management companies and owners should consider
leasing the entire period of the actual expenses and
costs - benefit ratio, in the future in order to determine
who should bear the contract special services. For
example, a company to install a computer workstation,
as the workstation need to consume a large amount of
electricity, may be more than office building in the
supply line load some lessees need additional
independent of the cooling system; some tenants to
install themselves as the larger Equipment, the bearing
capacity of the building has put forward higher
requirements. To meet these requirements may be a
lot of money and construction equipment of the
system also may bring some trouble. However,
property management companies or owners may have
to consider a result of the favorable factors, such as
the initial installation of such equipment could put the
future installation of other equipment convenient, and
rent-seeking are very clear and its subsidiary
construction equipment or installation of the
equipment of the work And the cost, it is likely to
seek a long-term leases, in order to avoid repetition of
such investment.
3.2 Determine the rent for office space
Determine the rent for office space, the general
should seriously consider the following three aspects:
(1) Or can be calculated using the lettable area
Accurate measurement of the importance of this
relationship to ensure whether the property rental
income and maximize the value of the property
market.
 The leasing operation of research of the office building market in China
Office space in the measurement when there are
three very important concept, that is, building area,
and the lettable area of rental units within the
construction area. According to the relevant
provisions of the Ministry of Construction, the
construction area of the country “construction area of
the rules” calculation; rental unit within the
construction area, including the use of units within the
area, external wall, the wall between the units and
common units and the construction of the separation
barrier between space The level of projected area of
half a lettable area of rental units within the
construction area with sharing the common
construction area (including: elevator shaft, stairways,
bathrooms, transforming rooms, equipment rooms,
public foyer, aisle, the basement, on duty Jingwei Shi ,
And other functions for the entire construction
services on the use and management of the public
release of the construction area, rental units and public
building space between the wall and the external walls
of the wall half the level of projected area). In the
calculation of sharing the common construction area,
who have the use of space rental as an independent in
the basement or garage as well as air defense projects
not included in the basement of the building area of
sharing common parts. Each of the independent rental
units, following:
Each of the independent rental units yuan =
lettable area of rental units within the construction
area × (1 + construction area sharing common factor),
the building area of sharing the common factor =
entire building including the common area of building
the entire rental unit and the construction area.
A commitment to lease the area who can be part
of one floor, may also be the whole floor or several
layers of the floor. For the whole of the lease, the
tenant, the tenant must not only share in their common
floors of the building area, but also sharing the bottom
hall and all other services for the lessee or the use of
the common construction area. General construction
of the common area of old-sharing factor is much
greater than the new construction. The office building,
sharing the common factor of 0.2 to 0.3 in between.
(2) Develop rental programme[7]
The level of rents for office space depends
largely on local real estate market conditions.
Determine the rent, according to the owners should
generally be the first to achieve the investment
objectives and its yield an acceptable minimum level
of rent (that is, able to cover mortgage debt service,
operating expenses and loss of vacant rental) to
determine a basis for rent. When calculated based on
the rent higher than market rents, property
management companies to consider lowering
operating costs so that the basis for a downward
adjustment to the rental market rent levels.
In certain market conditions, an office property in
the overall level of rental property itself depends
mainly on the situation and the position. But office
construction within a specific rental unit rent is based
on the entire building in which the location of a
certain difference, in terms of high-rise building more
obvious. Property management companies in
determining the rent for office space rental units, the
common position of better rental units over the rental
income to balance the bad location of the rental
income rental units so that the entire building, the
average rent for office space remained at slightly
higher than the base rent Level.
(3) Rental units the size of the planning and
interior decoration
When the tenant selection office is very
concerned about their lease part of the effective use of
their employees and can provide a comfortable
working environment. Property management
companies can be considered a lessee of the scale,
organization structure, preferences and tastes, the need
to install the equipment and financial capacity to pay,
(to be continued on Page 62)
57
May 2009, Volume 3, No.5 (Serial No.18) Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture, ISSN 1934-7359, USA

Design and construction of high and large span cast-in-place

reinforced concrete cantilever flowering frame beam*

WANG Rui1, ZHEN Liang1, WAN Chao2, WU Jing1, SHEN Yan-jun1

(1. Engineering College of China University of Geoscience, Wuhan 430074 , China;
2. Civil Engineering and Architecture College, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China)

Abstract: The high and large span cast-in-place reinforced The construction work of the office building of
concrete cantilever structure of the office building of some court,
this court is 8 floors aboveground (including stilt floor)
which is located I-steel at the cantilever and used steel pipe
scaffold as the support, has guaranteed the frame body and and 1 floor underground. The total aboveground
structure security by the frame body calculating, on-site test and building area (including stilt floor) is about 7542 m2,
reasonable construction order. the basement building area is 273 m2, it’s cast-in-place
Key words: cast-in-place reinforced concrete; support of
reinforced concrete frame structure. Roof’s elevation is
cantilever structure; high and long span; design and
construction 39.700 m, east west is long, north and south is wide
(Take east west for longitudinal, north and south for
1. Preface transverse). Outward along frame periphery is
cast-in-place reinforced concrete cantilever flowering
The design and construction of high and large
frame beam, cantilever’s length is 3.9 m on both
span cast-in-place reinforced concrete cantilever
longitudinal sides, it’s 3.7 m on both transverse sides.
structure is a difficulty of the modern reinforced
See Fig. 1 (Real outlook of the office building of some
concrete structure project construction, because of
court).
these factor’s influence such as the big span, the high
height, the big load of reinforced concrete itself and
complex construction, its development and application
are subjected to certain limit[1]. Giving consideration to
artistic, economical and safe principle, this article has
taken the design and construction of large span
cast-in-place reinforced concrete cantilever flowering
frame beam support of the office building of some
court as an example, through frame body calculation,
field test and using reasonable construction procedure
and scene optimization work, have proven the Fig. 1 Real outlook of the office building of some court
structure’s reliability.
2. Scheme selection for frame body
1. Engineering situation
Cantilever length is 3.9 m on two longitudinal
sides of this project, span is larger, which is the key
Corresponding author: WANG Rui (1984- ), Ph.M.; point of design calculation, therefore, it takes one
research field: highway geology engineering. E-mail:
wangrui8484@126.com. longitudinal side cast-in-place reinforced concrete

58
 Design and construction of high and large span cast-in-place reinforced concrete cantilever flowering frame beam
cantilever structure as an example to calculation and
design.
2.1 Scheme assumption
According to the location at the upper air, large
span and big load of cantilever concrete structural
plane it, based on the actual situation of construction
site and previous construction experience,we had
preliminarily considered several following projects:
Scheme one is using steel pipe to put up three
rows of landing scaffolds.
Scheme two is consulting with construction unit
and design unit to replace cantilever concrete structural
plane with steel structure.
Scheme three is putting up cantilever frame to
compose steel platform as construction bearing
operation area.
2.2 Scheme’s technical analysis and
comparison
For the scheme one, landing scaffolds occupy
many steel pipes, the cost is expensive (high), the
construction period is long and more labor is wasted.
For the scheme two, construction technology is
complex, it needs design unit to carry on structural
design anew but the building owner doesn’t agree on.
For the scheme three based on scheme one we
carry on the optimization, it relatively reduces the cost
and shortens the construction period, moreover it is
verified by experts that it can reach the request of
technical quality and safety.
Synthetically considering feasibility, security,
efficiency of each project, we select scheme three
which puts up cantilever frame for this project.
3. Design for frame body
In Fig. 2 (Down-looking planar graph of
cantilever flowering frame beam), the position which
blackbody shows is cantilever flowering frame beam.
Cantilever which is on one longitudinal sides of
this project mostly is used method of hanging each
layer, namely from the seventh floor to the eighth floor
and then to the roofing layer, finally to flowering beam,
withstand superstructure’s cantilever steel pipe or
bottom die of cantilever beam by diagonal brace from
under layer in turn. The transverse distance of diagonal
brace steel pipe is 1 m, setup longitudinal link rod
which drawing pace is 1.2 m.
Fig. 2 Down-looking planar graph of cantilever
flowering frame beam
External frame which is on two longitudinal sides
of this project that put up from the third floor, therefore
it used external frame to support bottom die of
cantilever beam, simultaneously, it needed to take
some reinforcement measures to brace stiffness and
strength of diagonal brace steel pipe. First, put up two
rows of support frames closely at the edge of the eighth
layer and its distance is 1.50 m, and the spacing is 0.8
m. The sweeping pole is 0.2 m away from floor and its
drawing pace and span are all 1m; two rows of support
frames touch to the floor’s top surface, meanwhile steel
pipe thick column hoop and two rows of floor’s support
frames are connected together with steel pipe and then
on the seventh floor, the eighth floor and the roofing
layer connect and fix steel pipe thick column and cross
bar which is on diagonal brace steel pipe of the seventh
floor, its vertical distance is 1.2 m; meanwhile connect
diagonal brace frame and two rows of vertical support
frame which is on the floor as well as external frame in
together transversely, its drawing pace and span is 1.2
m and 1 m; then connect diagonal brace steel pipe and
thick column hoop with steel pipe which are knotted
vertically to diagonal brace steel pipe by setting two
59
 Design and construction of high and large span cast-in-place reinforced concrete cantilever flowering frame beam
tensile nodes which is set in the 1/3 of diagonal brace
steel pipe. Ensure that diagonal brace frame and
external frame as well as inner brace frame are
connected firmly. See Fig. 3 (Elevation drawing of
cantilever frame’s support system).
Fig. 3 Elevation drawing of cantilever frame’s
support system
Fig. 4 Real photo of putting up construction of
cantilever frame
60
In the roofing level, it’s the bottom of flowering
frame at the 38.750 m elevation, there is no application
point on the apex of two rows of setting inner vertical
support frames, therefore, in this layer connect two
rows of vertical support frames and inner frame of
roofing level with transverse steel pipe to keep them
together, simultaneously, because the pillar which is at
the roofing is free end, the pillar which is nearby edge
of the floor is connected to the pillar which is in the
floor with steel pipe column hoop in together.
Moreover, because this project uses external frame to
bear partial load, therefore, we carry on whole
reinforcement to external frame. The concrete
reinforcement method is that connecting two rows of
external frames which is on both longitudinal sides
from the third the floor to the sixth floor and side
column which is in relevant floor with thick column
hoop in together. In order to reflect situation for
scaffolding condition of support, photographs scene
photo of field scaffolding as follow Fig. 4.
4. Checking calculation for structural
stability
Put up steel pipe which height is 11.15 m and the
deviation vertical direction angle is 20 degrees, carry
on the checking calculation to steel pipe’s bending
strength[2]:
4.1 Load calculation
(1) Permanent load
Standard of template’s dead weight:
1 kN×0.85×0.85 = 0.73 kN
Dead weight of fresh concrete floor:
2.4×9.8×0.9×0.4×0.85 kN =7.19 kN
Dead weight of steel bar:
(4×3.85×0.85+4×2.98×0.85+8×1.21×0.85+5×5.3
×0.395) ×9.8 N =410.71 N
NGK=0.73+7.19+0.41 kN =8.33 kN
(2) Construction load
Standard of construction and equipment load:
NQK=0.3 kN×0.85×0.85 =0.22 kN
 Design and construction of high and large span cast-in-place reinforced concrete cantilever flowering frame beam
4.2 Checking calculation for bending strength
Strength of vertical direction is:
N = 1.2×8.33 kN+1.4×0.22 kN = 10.30 kN
Strength of direction which is vertical to pole is:
N1 = N×sinθ = 10.30 kN×sin20° = 3.52 kN
Bending moment value:
M = N1·L = 3.52×0.21 kN·m = 0.739 kN·m
= 739 N·m
Modulus of steel pipe section:
W = 5.08 cm3
Checking calculation for strength:
σ = M/W = 739/5.08 N/mm2=145 N/mm2
< f = 205 N/mm2
Therefore steel pipe’s bending strength meet the
requirement.
5. Design for pressure test
5.1 Choose of pressure test’s scheme
In order to ensure the safety of construction for
high and large span cantilever support frame,
determine stress condition of each frame body’s
member and deformation condition of frame body, put
up test frame on the biggest stress position before
construction. Use method of uniform load for pressure
test, according to actual dead weight of reinforced
concrete, dead weight of template, live load of
construction and equipment, put them together,
multiply by 1.2 time of safety factor, then according to
1.2 time of gross weight, accumulate relevant weight
on laying plate. Take observation for the biggest
settlement of frame body through theodolite, and
acquisition and analysis for the biggest stress value of
member auxiliarily using stress instrument.
5.2 Calculation of the biggest load
The position of the biggest stress position is in the
○D /○5 —○ 6 axes.
Concrete volume V = 9.132 m3, weight of
concrete M = 9.132 m3×2.4 t/m3 = 21.92 t, weight of
steel bar is 1.7 t, therefore gross weight of reinforced
concrete is G1 = 23.62 t.
Weight of per square template is 0.01 t, area is
92.26 m2, therefore, the weight of template is G2 = 0.01
t/m2×92.26 m2 = 0.92 t.
Construction live load and equipment load are 300
kg per square, total plane area is 30.24 m2, construction
live load is G3 = 0.3 t/m2×30.24 m2 = 9.072 t.
Gross weight is F = 23.62 t+0.92 t+9.072 t =
33.61 t, load of unit area is 33.61 t/30.24 m2 = 1.11
t/m2.
5.3 Design for pressure test’s scheme
Use sandbag to accumulate load respectively on
test frame, 1st accumulate load to 70% of gross weight,
named N1 = 33.61×0.5×0.7 t = 11.76 t; 2nd
accumulate load to 90% of gross weight, named N2 =
33.61×0.5×0.9 t = 15.12 t; 3rd accumulate load to
100% of gross weight, named N3 = 33.61×0.5×1 t =
16.8 t. If test frame’s various data is at the limit range
of calculated value, then the project of using support
frame is safe and reliable, so it can be use to the formal
project construction.
6. Key constructions
(1) Good steel pipe for support steel pipe is
necessary and serious rusting, deformed, crooked steel
pipe are forbidden to use. Steel pipe of diagonal brace
must be a whole and two butted steel pipe are forbidden
to be used for diagonal brace.
(2) Fastener which is used to put up external frame
must be guaranteed completly, should not allow
mutilated fastener to be used to diagonal brace frame.
Only must pass through acceptance when putting up is
finished then it may pour concrete. In process of
pouring concrete, it needs to send special man to nurse
support system and should be solve promptly if finding
case as subsidence, loosening, deformation[3].
(3) Strictly controll actual construction load must
be strictly controlled in order not to exceed design load,
relevant control measures must be drafted and if it
exceeds maximum load, materials like steel bar and so
on it can not be stacked above support.
61
 Design and construction of high and large span cast-in-place reinforced concrete cantilever flowering frame beam
(4) Pumping concrete can’t be poured directly into
beam slab which is at the point of cantilever, but should
be poured on construction platform which at the inside
of cylinder, be shoveled to position of cantilever by
man to reduce pumping concrete to impact cantilever
position. Vibrate concrete from far to near as possible
and make sure that there is nobody standing on the top
of cantilever[4].
7. Conclusion
(1) Using common fastener and steel pipe, by the
method of cantilevering layer by layer to put up high
and large span cantilever support frame, it does not
need increase other tools and materials, operation is
simple and quick, construction cost is inexpensive.
(2) In the process of making project (scheme), we
should carry on comprehensive and painstaking plan,
ensure that design calculation is detail and exact,
construction method is proper, measure is reasonable.
(continued from Page 57)
and so on to help identify the best single tenant size,
and its lease on the rental unit within the room layout,
office equipment layout, the internal arrangements for
access to design.
References:
[1] WANG Cheng-qing, NI Peng-fei. Chinese estate periodic
fluctuation: Explanation of transfer and chance policy.
Finance and Economy, 2002, (9): 80-91.
[2] TAN Gang. Research of the estate periodic fluctuation in
Shenzhen. Construction Economy, 2001, (7): 59-68.
[3] YE Yan-bing and DING Lie-en. Design and research of
estate alarm index system. Optimization of Capital
Construction, 2001, (5): 39-41.
62
Check strictly in implementation process, put up
according to design project and do conscious
informatization construction work to ensure the quality
and safety.
(3) This high and large span cast-in-place
reinforced concrete flowering beam support system has
characteristics such that construction is simple,
construction period is short, it’s economically viable,
may provide experience reference for similar project.
References:
[1] DING Wei, PU Jian-yun. Cantilever Fastener-Style Steel
Pipe Scaffold Apply in Extra-High Building Construction.
[2] GB5001722003. Design Standard of Steel Structure.
[3] JGJ13022001. Safety Technology Standard of
Construction Fastener-style Steel Pipe Scaffold.
[4] Compilation Group of Construction Handbook.
Construction Handbook. Beijing Building Industry Press,
2003.
(Edited by Jenny)
[4] ZHAO Li-ming and JIA Yong-fei. Research of Estate
Alarm System, Press of Tianjin University, 199: 52-54. LI
Ang. Eemulational Research of System Dynamics of
Estate boom Cycle, Construction Management Institute in
Qinghua University, 2002, (6): 25-30.
[5] LI Zi-nai and YE An-zhong. High Measure Economics.
Changchun: Qinghua University Publishing Company,
2000, 56(11): 12-16.
[6] ZHANG Tao, GONG Liu-tang and PU Yong-xiang. On
the asset return, mortgage lending and property price.
Journal of Finance, 2006: 24-25.
[7] WANG Cheng-qing, NI Peng-fei. Chinese estate periodic
fluctuation: Explanation of transfer and chance policy.
Finance and Economy, 2002, (8): 25-31.
(Edited by Jenny)