Solar Thermal Propulsion

SOLAR THERMAL PROPULSION 2011
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BASIC PRINCIPLE
3. COMPONENTS OF AN STP SPACE CRAFT
4. SOLAR THERMAL PROPULSION CONCEPTS
5. METHODS FOR HEATING PROPELLANT
6. WORKING OF SOLAR THERMAL SPACE CRAFT
7. SOLAR THERMAL PROPULSION FOR A SMALL SPACE CRAFT
8. SPECIFICATIONS OF STP SPACE CRAFT
9. BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS
10. CONCLUSION
11. REFERENCE
BTLIT Mechanical Page 1

SOLAR THERMAL PROPULSION
ABSTRACT
Solar thermal propulsion is a form of spacecraft propulsion. Spacecraft propulsion is used

to change the velocity of spacecraft and artificial satellites. There are many methods for
spacecraft propulsion. Solar thermal propulsion is an excellent choice because it requires only
one propellant and combines moderate thrust with moderate propellant efficiency. A solar
thermal rocket has to carry only the means of capturing solar energy such as concentrators and
mirrors. Instead of converging that solar energy to electrical power as in the case of photovoltaic
systems where a solar thermal propulsion system uses the solar energy directly as heat. The
heated propellant is fed through a conventional rocket nozzle to produce thrust. Typically
hydrogen is used as the propellant due to its low molecular weight corresponding to a high
specific impulse
Solar thermal propulsion effectively bridges the performance between the chemical and
electrical propulsion. Solar thermal propulsion system provides long duration and long distances
are suitable for inter orbit transfer and maneuvering missions. In this system the engine thrust is
directly related to the surface area of the solar collector and to the local intensity of the solar
radiation. Now solar thermal propulsion is an active area of research. This technology
development has continued to be advanced under air force research laboratory [AFRL] over the
last 20 years. this paper focuses on a low earth orbit LEO to geosynchronous equatorial orbit
GEO transportation system using a solar thermal system.

1. INTRODUCTION
A solar thermal rocket has to carry only the means of capturing solar energy such as
concentrators and mirrors. Instead of converging solar energy to electric power as like a
photovoltaic system, a solar thermal propulsion system uses the solar energy directly as heat. The
heated propellant is fed through a conventional rocket nozzle to produce thrust. The engine thrust
is directly related to the surface area of the solar collector and to the local intensity of the solar
radiation.
2. BASIC PRINCIPLE
The propulsion system of a solar thermal powered space craft consist of three basic
elements.
1. Concentrator
2. Thruster/Absorber
3. Propellant system
Concentrator focuses and directs incident solar radiation to an absorber/thruster which

receives solar energy, heats and expands propellant (hydrogen) to produce thrust. A propellant
system which stores cryogenic propellant extended periods and passively feeds it to the
thruster/absorber. Figure1 shows the basic principle of the solar thermal propulsion system.
The basic principle of solar thermal propulsion is to utilize the solar light to heat up a
propellant and providing thrust by expanding the resulting hot gas through a conventional rocket
nozzle. Therefore, the light is collected by parabolic reflectors and focused into a black-body
cavity. Inside the cavity the high temperatures in the focal area are radiated to its walls where the
heat is absorbed and transferred to the propellant flowing around the cavity. The propellant heats
up to temperatures above 2000 K and is expanded through the nozzle, thereby generating the

thrust. The best propulsive performance can be achieved with hydrogen (lowest molar mass)
preferably stored in the liquid phase.
Fig: 1 Solar thermal thruster
3. COMPONENTS OF AN STP SPACE CRAFT
3.1 SOLAR CONCENTRATORS:
Solar concentrators for use in space have received growing attention in the past few years
in view of their many potential applications. Among those, perhaps the most important ones are
space power generation and solar thermal propulsion. In the former, the concentrator is used to
focus solar radiation on a conversion device, e.g, a photovoltaic array or the high temperature
and of a dynamic engine; in the latter, concentrated solar radiation is used to heat a low
molecular weight gas, thereby providing thrust to a solar rocket.
In this propulsion scheme, solar energy is reflected by the large parabolic reflectors
towards the rocket body, where hydrogen fuel is heated to a very high temperature and exhausted
through a nozzle. Another application of space borne solar concentrators is for power generation.
Future mission in space will require abundant power for use on satellites. While conventional
photovoltaic have been used in the past and provide a reliable source of power, they do have
several drawbacks. Their low efficiencies make it necessary to use large areas of cells, requiring
extendible hard structures for support. These large structures make for a complex deployment
scheme as well as a high system weight. Another drawback is that the large area required for the
low efficiency cells will create significant drag for satellites, especially in low earth orbit. Solar
dynamic power systems [SDPS] offer a viable alternative to photovoltaic, with lower system
weight
and drag area. These power systems typically consist of large parabolic reflectors that focus solar
radiation into a receiver where high intensity heat is collected. This heat is then used to generate
mechanical power using a Brayton, Rankine, or Stirling cycle engine. The lower system weight
and area is mainly due to the higher efficiency of dynamic power systems; for a given area of
collector surface more energy is generated with the dynamic power system than with
photovoltaic.
A solar concentrator uses lenses called Fresnel lenses, which take a large area of sunlight
and directs it towards a specific spot by bending the rays of light and focusing them. Fresnel
lenses uses like a dart board, with concentric rings of prisms around a lens that’s a magnifying
glass. All these features let them focus scattered light from the sun in to a tight beam. Solar
concentrators put one of these lenses on top of every solar cell. This makes much focused light
come to e ach solar cell, making the cells vastly more efficient.
Two concentrator designs, rigid or inflatable were originally being evaluated under two
different contracts. However, these two different programs have since been merged, with the
inflatable concentrator design taking lead as the primary technology. An inflatable solar
concentrator offers significant advantages in comparison to state-of-the-art rigid panel
concentrators, including low weight, low stowage volume, and simple gas deployment.
3.2 TORUS AND SUPPORT STRUCTURE:
The reflector is mounted on the torus and support structure such that the mirror focuses
solar radiation into the receiver to the solar energy absorber. An inflatable torus and support
structure can be fabricated with kevlar-weave teflon laminate materials. Solar radiation exposure
heats the inflatable torus, causing pyrolitic deposition of nickel metal on the inside of the
inflatable, rigidizing it to produce load-heaving capacity, high-rigidity and high pointing
accuracy.

3.3 GIMBALING RECEIVER ASSEMBLY:
The gimbaling receiver-assembly is made of the receiver housing, the reflector mounting
ring rotation systems, and the rotation system that mates from the receiver housing to the
spacecraft. The receiver mechanically points the reflectors to maintain solar energy focus on the
solar energy absorber.
3.4 SOLAR ENERGY ABSORBER
The solar energy absorber produces superheated hydrogen with the heat from the
absorption of focused solar energy. Small capillary metal-matrix heat transfer elements may be
useful in the construction of solar energy absorbers. In the operation of a solar thermal engine,
the absorber configuration as a heat exchanger. Transport of high intensity solar flux from the
concentrator to the solar receiver via optical fiber cable the solar receiver core is made of
graphite cylinder because of high solar absorbtivity [.7-.9] ,excellent thermal mechanical stability
and ease of fabrication The gas was injected tangentially in to the graphite cylinder and flows out
through the molybdenum tube. The graphite core is surrounded by the molybdenum radiation
shields. Achievement of high temperature via radiative heat transfer.
3.5 POINTING AND NAVIGATION SYSTEM
In order for the reflectors to remain focused on the solar energy absorber at all times, the
navigation and sun sensing and pointing systems must be integrated in real-time. Upon change in
attitude to the sun the receiver mechanism will make suitable adjustments to maintain solar
radiation pointing accuracy

4. SOLAR THERMAL PROPULSION CONCEPTS
Two system level approaches for STP are currently being explored. Direct gain approach
and thermal storage concept. That determines the amount of rotation required from the
concentrator pointing mechanism.
DIRECT GAIN CONCEPT
In the direct gain concept the concentrator continuously tracks the sun during the burn
while the space craft remain pointed along the desired orbital trajectory. This requires that the
concentrator be able to rotate up to 180 degrees while the space craft rolls 180 degrees. The
direct gain concept will eventually require that the concentrator be mounted on a turn-table
capable of the large deflections. The absorber configuration is a windowless heat exchanger
having a delivered specific impulse of 800-960 seconds. Volumetric absorber concepts can
potentially provide performance levels approaches 1100 seconds.
THERMAL STORAGE CONCEPT
The second design approach involves the incorporation of a thermal storage medium in
which solar energy is required and stored during the coast period of the orbit and when a
propulsive burn is required, propellant flows through the thermal storage medium to provide
thrust. The storage of solar energy enables a higher thrust than the direct gain concept with
smaller concentrators. For efficient operation, the burns of this engine concept should be
performed in the eclipse portion of the orbit. This greatly simplifies the sun tracking and thrust
orientation compared with the direct gain concept since the system does not have to be "on sun"
during the burn. In the current design concept, which uses rhenium coated graphite as the
thermal storage medium, a delivered specific impulse of 700 to 900 sec is predicted dependent
on the thermal storage temperature. Once the vehicle is in orbit, the concept can also provide on
orbit power using the concentrators and thermionic elements to generate electricity. To achieve

the desired long life for the power system, the concept typically incorporates a rigid
concentrator.
5. METHODS FOR HEATING PROPELLANT
There are two methods for heating the propellant. They are direct method and indirect
method.
DIRECT METHOD
In the direct method, the propellant flows through sandy material within the heat
exchange cavity. We put holes in the pipes or walls of the indirect heat exchanger so that the gas
flows directly into the heat cavity, which requires a window, as pictured below: Direct solar
radiation absorption (steam goes into windowed heating chamber In the direct concept, the
cylindrical heating chamber rotates so that the centrifugal force keeps the sand, or "seeds", along
the chamber wall, which is porous to let the gas in. The seeds are chosen for stability at high
temperature and heat transfer properties. (Tantalum carbide and hafnium carbide are
popular.)Heat transfer is more efficient in the direct concept, i.e., it's more compact, but clouding
of the window or eventual leakage around and other seals are serious concerns. The rotating
chamber is considerably more complex

Fig: 4. Direct propellant heating
IN DIRECT METHOD
Indirect solar radiation has the propellant flow through only pipes or passages in the wall
of a windowless heating cavity as shown below. Then this gas passes through a nozzle.

Fig: 5. Indirect propellant heating.
6. WORKING OF SOLAR THERMAL SPACE CRAFT
The concentrator and the absorber/thruster are optically coupled with the absorber located
at the concentrator focus. Due to large size inflated concentrators and non rigid support structure,
the optically coupled concentrator absorber configuration can be sensitive to structural
deformations caused by concentrator sub system rotation or acceleration. The optical wave guide
transmission line is the key component to integrate the concentrator system with the solar

thermal receiver. The cable inlet interfaces with the concentrator system and the outlet interfaces
with the solar thermal absorber. The propellant was injected tangentially in to the graphite core,
which contain channels for heating the propellant Hydrogen is expanded and produces thrust.
Fig:6. Deployed view
7. SOLAR THERMAL PROPULSION FOR A SMALL SPACE

CRAFT

Fig:7. The off axis inflated concentrator STP system
The Boeing Company is developing an innovative solar thermal propulsion system for
application to small solar thermal propulsion system for application to small space craft with
funding support by the Air Force Research Laboratory. In this system, as schematically
presented in Fig.7, solar radiation is collected by the concentrator which transfers the
concentrated solar radiation to the optical waveguide transmission line consisting of low-loss
optical fibers. The optical waveguide cable transmits the high intensity solar radiation to the
thermal receiver for efficient, high performance thrust generation. Part of the solar radiation can
be switched to attitude control thruster as necessary. The features of the proposed system are:
l. Highly concentrated solar radiation (I03 suns) can be transmitted via flexible optical
waveguide transmission line to the thruster’s absorber cavity;
2. The flexible optical waveguide linkage de-couples the thruster from the concentrator to
provide freedom from the constraints imposed on previous solar propulsion system designs;

3. The configuration of the solar receiver can be optimized for efficient heat transfer with
minimal re-radiation loss;
4. Aiming and tracking for the concentrator become significantly easier by moving the
termination of the optical fiber cable to follow the focal point of the primary concentrator
5. High intensity solar radiation can be switched to different receivers to deploy several
them1a1 thrusters as necessary.
Fig: 8. Solar thermal propulsion system for small space craft
The experimental facility consists of two solar tracking units each with two 50 cm
parabolic concentrators. The two concentrators are mounted on a rotating frame to track the sun.
The optical fiber cable placed at the focal point of the concentrator transmits the concentrated
solar radiation to the solar receiver located at the center of facility. The optical fiber cable (4 m
long) consists of’37 fused silica fibers (1.2-mm dia). The four optical fiber cables deliver about
200 W of solar power into the receiver.
The solar receiver is located at the center with four optical fiber cables connecting it to
four concentrators. The configuration of this experimental setup simulates the solar thermal
propulsion system described in Fig.8.

The hardware components that we developed in this program include: optical waveguide
transmission line; interface optical components; and the solar thermal receiver.
OPTICAL WAVEGUIDE TRANSMISSION LINE
The optical waveguide transmission line is the key component to integrate the
concentrator system with the solar thermal receiver. The cable inlet interfaces with the
concentrator system and the cable outlet interfaces with the solar thermal receiver. The cable
inlet design we used in this program is based on our heritage: the quartz secondary concentrator
collecting the solar radiation and injecting it to the optical fibers. Figure 9 shows the inlet portion
of the four optical fiber cables used for this program. All four cables are 4 m long and each
consists of 37 high numerical apertures. The fiber has an excellent off-axis transmission up to 25
degrees. The design of the cable outlet was developed for optimum interface with the high
temperature solar receiver. A photo of the fiber cable outlet is given in Fig. 10. The 37 optical
fibers transfer the solar radiation to the 10 mm quartz rod. The quartz rod, by the principle of
total internal reflection, transfers the solar radiation to the thermal receiver. The tip of the quartz
rod is placed close h the receiver high temperature heat exchanger in order to deliver the solar
power directly to the receiver.
Fig. 9: inlet of optical fiber cable

Fig 10: optical fiber cable out let made of quartz rod.
Solar receiver
One of the important objectives of this program was to demonstrate the basic solar
receiver heat transfer mechanisms:
 Transport of high intensity solar flux from the concentrator to the solar receiver via
optical fiber cable;
 Efficient delivery of high intensity solar flux to the solar receiver heating element;
 Achievement of high temperature via radiative heat transfer; and .
 Viability of optical components.
A schematic of the solar thermal receiver is given in Fig. 11.
The solar receiver core is made of graphite cylinder (diameter = 1.75 cm; height = 2.54
cm), because of (i) high solar absorptivity (a= 0.7-0.9), (ii) excellent thermal-mechanical
stability, and (iii) ease of fabrication. The gas was injected tangentia1ly into the graphite cylinder
and flows out through the molybdenum tube. The graphite core is surrounded by the
molybdenum radiation shields. Solar power (200 W) was delivered to the graphite core by four
quartz rods (dia. = I cm).
The solar receiver housing with four optical fiber cables is shown in Fig.11. The
construction of this housing was similar to the materials processing experiment conducted in the
previous NASA Program. The propellant gas flows from the bottom of the housing, flows
through the heat exchanger, and flows out of the housing.

FIG:11; SOLAR RECEIVER
8. SPECIFICATIONS OF STP SPACE CRAFT

The SOTV Space Experiment will be a turn-of-the-century demonstration of the
operation and performance of an advanced solar thermal propulsion and power engine. The
SOTV engine offers the potential for a revolutionary increase in specific impulse at moderate
thrust levels that allow operation of LEO-to-GEO transfers in 30 days or less. The technologies
being developed for the SOTV in this AFRL program have a wide range of applications
including improved payload performance on expendable boosters and reusable launch vehicles,
power systems for high-power satellites, satellite servicing and repositioning, and planetary
injection for NASA probes. Ultimately, this technology can enable a fully reusable orbit transfer
vehicle capable of making routine a wide range of space operations at substantially lower cost
than current systems. SOTV is the direct successor of another AFRL program, the Integrated
Solar Upper Stage (ISUS) Engine Ground Demonstration (EGD) which was carried out in a
large vacuum facility at NASA-Lewis Research Center in the summer of 1997. EGD validated

system level feasibility for the SOTV solar thermal propulsion mode. The Space Experiment is
the next logical step towards fielding an operational SOTV.
Space Experiment Operational Vehicle

. Propulsion Mode LH2 LH2 and/or storable
Max. Temperature up to 2300K up to 2400K
Chamber Pressure: 20-25 psia 20-50 psia
Nozzle Area Ratio: 100:1 fixed 100:1 - 200:1 fixed
Thrust: 1.6 lbf 10-50 lbf
Specific Impulse: 750 sec 800 sec+
Power Mode Space Experiment Operational Vehicle
Electric Power: 50 We 500 We to 50 KWe
Voltage: ~ 1 Vdc 28 to 70 Vdc
Mission Life : ~ 1 year 5 to 15 years

9. BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS
BENEFITS OF SOLAR THERMAL PROPULSION
 High efficiency at potentially low cost

 Higher payload fraction than chemical
 Solar derived electric power
 Concentrator & high-gain antenna or aero assist system
 Higher Isp (> 700 s) than chemical options (300 -500 s)
 Higher thrust-to-weight ratios than electric systems
 Space solar power
 Synthetic Aperture radar
 Sunshield for space telescopes
 High temperature materials
LIMITATIONS OF SOLAR THERMAL PROPULSION
 It would not be very useful where places of intensity of sunlight is low

 This propulsion system generates relatively low thrust necessitating 20-30 days to travel
from LEO TO GEO
 Difficulty of ground level testing

10. CONCLUSION
In the distant future, low cost propulsion will be needed for interplanetary travel and
unmanned exploration. NASA forces solar thermal propulsion as a way to boost future payloads
from a low earth orbit to a geosynchronous earth or high orbit. For more distant travel, a solar
thermal engine using this propulsion would acts like a simple, efficient tugboat in space. Solar
thermal propulsion systems would be less expensive, much simpler and more efficient than
today’s rocket engines. A large liquid hydrogen tank with a innovative feed system was tested at
Marshall to simulate a 30 day solar thermal mission. Data gathered from the tests would have
applications for missions to the moon and mars, as well as boosting payloads to higher orbits.
Solar absorber, thruster, and inflated concentrator technology development have continued to be
advanced under Air force research laboratory [AFRL] over the last 2 years. Small scale hardware
has been designed and fabricated AFRL for ground level evaluation. Therefore solar thermal
propulsion can be literally defined as the future of space explorations

11. REFERENCE
 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/solar_thermal_rocket
 www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=7112464
 www.vectorsite.net/trarokt2.html
 www.inspacepropulsion.com/tech/solar_therm.html
 www.highway2space.com
 www.grc.nasa.gov/www/RT2001/5000/5490wong2./html
 Jet and Rocket Propulsion , ML Madhur and RP Sharma

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SOLAR THERMAL PROPULSION 2011

3. COMPONENTS OF AN STP SPACE CRAFT

4. SOLAR THERMAL PROPULSION CONCEPTS

5. METHODS FOR HEATING PROPELLANT

6. WORKING OF SOLAR THERMAL SPACE CRAFT

7. SOLAR THERMAL PROPULSION FOR A SMALL SPACE CRAFT

8. SPECIFICATIONS OF STP SPACE CRAFT

9. BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS

BTLIT Mechanical Page 1