Preventing Sex Trafficking

and Re-Trafficking of Women

in Ukraine and Thailand

Name of Student: Angie Ng

Student Number: 12468162
Title of Course: MA International Community Development
Date of Submission: 24 August 2010

This Dissertation is submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of

MA International Community Development.

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 The Research

This research is about the trafficking of women for the purpose of sexual

exploitation, which is also known as sexual slavery. It aims to explore the

factors which shape women's choices and how they enter the trafficking

situation in order to contribute to the current knowledge base on how to prevent

sex trafficking and re-trafficking.

According to Kathleen Berry, a famous activist and author, 'pimping' is 'the

oldest profession and not prostitution' (Banerjee, 2003: 194). Popular discourse

has it that those working in the sex industry are there by choice, but as people

go through our day-to-day routines, sex trafficking is resulting in 'years of

bondage, violent abuse and sometimes even death' (UNDP, 2009: 102) for

countless women around the world. What is sex trafficking? It is 'the buying,

selling, and movement of persons within or between countries through a

range of means such as coercion and deception, for the express purpose

of exploiting them' (Gallagher, 2006: 142) for sexual purposes. It is the largest

specific sub-category of international slavery (U.S. Dept. of State, 2007).

According to the Trafficking Victims Protection Act (ibid: 27), sex trafficking is a

severe form of trafficking in which a person is induced by 'force, fraud or

coercion' to engage in a commercial sex act and/or in which that person has not

reached the age of 18. It is considered the most dangerous form of trafficking

as women are constantly exposed to many forms of abuse and Human

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Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) (Sulaimanova, 2003). It is a restriction of human

freedom and a violation basic human rights (UNDP, 2009); most women are

never free, and they suffer various forms of abuse meant to force them into

compliance (Zimmerman, 2006). While traffickers are able to launder the

money made from exploiting these women, the women themselves usually end

up with nothing (Pyshchulina, 2002). Not only is sex trafficking a serious crime,

it is also a development problem (Laczko and Danailova-Trainor, 2009). Too

many victims have to deal with the results of trafficking on their own, with many

of them being trafficked again (Armstrong, 2008).

This dissertation uses a theoretical framework based on a combination of the

traditional explanation for recruitment as presented in Zimmerman's

“Recruitment Equation” (2006), the Routine Activities Theory used in

Criminology (Siegel, 2003, as quoted in Broderick, 2005) and the causes of

trafficking according to Padre Cesare as quoted in Bastone (2007: 188). On the

following page is a visual representation of this combined framework:

Figure 1.1: Framework for this study

SUPPLY DEMAND
Absence of
capable
guardians
+
Push+Pull Deciding Accepting of
Factors: + Factor: → Offer
vulnerabilitie credibility (suitable
s, hopes, of offer victims)
strengths

+
Motivated
Offenders

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 (traffickers,
pimps)
↓
Predatory + Customers → Sex
Crime (johns) Trafficking
(supplied
brothels)

(sources of content: Zimmerman,2006; Siegel, 2003, as quoted in Broderick,2005;

Bastone, 2007: 188)

This framework represents that larger picture in which this dissertation's

research questions take place. Traffickers take advantage of the vulnerabilities,

hopes and strengths of these women, making them false offers in order to lure

them into their traps. This does not occur in a situation without guardians, such

as parents or law enforcement, but sometimes these “guardians” are not

capable in protecting these women for whatever reasons. This leads to the

women being brought to these “brothels” - this is the supply side. On the

demand side, there are the customers/johns who are willing to pay for 'sex

work'. Without demand, there would be no market for criminals to supply;

without demand, there would be no “brothels” and no sex trafficking.

Within this framework, the research looks at the topic of sex trafficking of

women in Ukraine and Thailand, two very different countries facing the same

problem, and explores the key factors in both locations to see what the

similarities are and what the differences are. These two countries were chosen,

because they represent two different groups of women who are well-known for

being trafficking victims. However, while Thailand has been known as a centre

of sexual tourism for decades, prostitution is a new issue in Ukraine; only after

the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991 did the trafficking of women to the

West appear here (Sulaimanova, 2003). This research tries to answer the

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following research questions:

1. How can sex trafficking and re-trafficking be prevented at the grassroots

level?

a. What is the typical background of woman sex trafficking victim?

b. What are the stories behind the women? Do these match the

typical backgrounds according to current literature?

2. What are the opinions of these women on how sex trafficking can be

prevented? Do these match current literature?

a. What are their specific needs?

b. What are their recommendations?

So the push and pull factors along with the deciding factors which lead to the

acceptance of an offer are looked at. Throughout the research, it is kept in mind

that there is also re-trafficking, when victims return but end up being trafficked

again.

1.2 Structure of the Research

The structure of the dissertation is as follows: after this chapter, there is the

Literature Review chapter, which briefly puts the issue in a global context,

discusses the current knowledge and then talks about the situation in Ukraine

and Thailand separately. The next chapter is the Methodology and Methods

chapter, which covers the methodology, the original intentions behind the

research design, the difficulties that have been faced and the research that was

actually carried out including limitations. This chapter is followed by the

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Results: Presentation and Discussion chapter, which contains a reflection on the

expert interviews, a presentation of what was captured in the focus group and

then a discussion on how these findings compare with each other. After this is

the Conclusion chapter, which summarizes the key findings along with

recommendations.

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3. METHODOLOGY AND METHODS

3.1 Methodology

The epistemological position in this research followed that of 'subtle realism',

the belief that the external world is complicated and our having different

perceptions of this world reflects this complex, shared objective mind (Snape

and Spencer, 2003:16). According to Banfield (2004), this position lies between

the extremes of naïve realism, which is also known as positivism, and

relativism; it accepts the ontological claim of realism, that the existence of

phenomena is independent of knowledge of them (ibid), but also emphasises

the fallibility of human knowledge. Smith (1998) believes 'subtle realism', along

with similar positions such as critical realism, should be called 'critical

pragmatism', which values practical wisdom and reflexivity and should also

display transparency; this stance rejects generating knowledge for the sake of

generating knowledge and embraces a normative purpose behind research

(ibid). In line with this 'critical pragmatism', this research is interested in

bringing theory and practice together in order to assist social change towards a

more egalitarian society (Whipps, 2010).

This research also takes the position of Feminism, which hold theoretical and

methodological views similar to that of pragmatists (ibid), and is based on the

belief in empowering women and gaining knowledge in order to help bring about

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changes and improve the situation of women (Wadsworth, 2001). The

preference here is for qualitative methods as they help us understand

'complex behaviours, needs, systems and cultures' (Richie and Spencer, 1994:

173). This preference is also to allow the women to give voice to their

experience, using the telling of their own stories to start critical consciousness,

which may one day lead to collective action (Ledwith, 2005).

This study is a cross-sectional one with the aim of obtaining a picture of the

issue at a certain point in time, obtaining from this picture the social

backgrounds of trafficking victims and the reasons they were vulnerable to

traffickers in order to identify the needs of the community (Kumar, 2005); this is

for the purpose of preventing the trafficking of new victims and re-trafficking of

re-integrated victims.

It was always the dissertation's intention that sampling be small and the results

not be statistically significant; while this would represent a problem in 'naive

realism'/positivism, it is not an issue in the views of subtle realism and feminism.

Starting from the opinion that there are unmet needs which lead to people's

becoming vulnerable to trafficking, this small-scale, qualitative research was

carried out. Based on the results, suggestions were made in hopes that they

will be presented to those who could potentially take action, such as

organisations involved with the fight against trafficking. These groups included

the organisation in Thailand which participated in the study, another

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organisation in Thailand working in prevention, an organisation working with

Ukrainian migrants in the United Kingdom and an organisation working with

migrants in general in the United Kingdom; this information was provided in the

form of an information sheet, and as the Ukrainian translation is still in progress

before being sent to the organisation in Ukraine who participated in the

research, only the English version is included as Appendix 5.

3.2 Previous Studies

Some studies used interviews with victims to carry out research, such as Farley,

M. et al, who carried out research in nine countries (2003); Zimmerman, who

studied seven different countries (2006); and Lisborg, who carried out studies in

two countries (2009). Other studies, such as Brunovskis and Surtees’ used

interviews of key informants along with trafficking victims (2007). Kiryan and van

der Linden (2005) used the mixed-methods approach in Ukraine, utilising a

survey, interviews with experts and focus groups of selected groups.

Other studies did not require the participation of victims, such as Pukdeetanakul

(2007), who used literature reviews and consultations with government officials.

Another such study was Yamada’s (2007), which only used a literature review.

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3.3 Original Intentions

Both the specified methods used and the sampling were determined by the

organisations that gave access and the participants who volunteered for this

research within these organisations. Originally, both an organisation in Kiev

and an organisation in Bangkok had agreed to locate volunteers for focus

groups within their communities of trafficking victims. The organisation in Kiev

also offered for the researcher to tour one of their rehabilitation facilities. Two

experts, one from the same organisation in Kiev and another from a different

organisation in Bangkok, also agreed to be interviewed.

3.4 Difficulties

The first difficulty faced was the unexplained, gradual withdrawing of

participation from the first organisation in Bangkok. When the contact person

started writing that there would not be enough time for the women to take part in

focus groups, it was suggested by the researcher that a questionnaire be used

for this group instead even though it would mean mixing quantitative and

qualitative methods. The survey was also meant to be small-scale and not

statistically significant, serving more as a way of triangulating. In the end, the

organisation in Bangkok withdrew completely from the study. Perhaps due to

the sensitive nature of the research, it was not possible to find another group in

Bangkok to participate within the time-line.

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The second difficulty appeared immediately before the researcher was due to

fly to Kiev. Although able to endure the flights with health issues and, with the

help of the organisation, able to attend the focus group and expert interview, the

researcher was physically unable to go for a tour of the rehabilitation facility.

The next difficulty encountered had to do with access again - the organisation in

Ukraine had mentioned they would help carrying out a survey for this research,

but after the researcher's return to Switzerland, communication ceased. So

although a questionnaire was composed using suggestions from the focus

group in Kiev and then translated into both Thai and Ukrainian, it was not used;

the questions do, however, appear in this dissertation as Appendix 3.

The fourth difficulty encountered was one of political nature. The “red shirt”

protests in Bangkok coincided with the timing of the researcher's availability in

Asia, and hence, the expert interview had to be conducted via email.

3.5 Actual Methods Used

3.5.1 Data Collection

Due to the sensitive nature of this topic, extra care had to be taken to ensure

that the research was ethical – in addition to requiring approval from the

University's ethical committee in the form of a letter, which is included in the

Appendices, this research necessitated a Participant Information sheet and

Consent form to be translated into the local languages. The original English

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version is included in the appendices along with the Ukrainian and Thai

versions.

As mentioned previously, access was also limited as sex slavery is a sensitive

topic. Sampling was determined by whether or not organisations wanted to

participate and which people the researcher would get to talk to within those

organisations.

In this study, a focus group was carried out with a group in Kiev. The focus

group explored the perceptions, experiences and understandings of this group

(Kumar, 2005). The intention was to use an illustrated interview schedule as a

tool to allow the participants to talk about their experiences and opinions in the

first part of the focus group; however, the women only required the researcher's

asking about their childhoods for them to tell their stories. They were also

asked if they had recommendations to the organisation and/or other women. In

the second part of this interview, the participants were asked to brainstorm and

assist in the writing of the questionnaire to be used in a survey. The focus

group was conducted with the aid of a professional interpreter recommended by

the organisation.

After this, the questionnaire was composed and translated into both languages.

It included an artistic activity that asked participants to express their self-views

by drawing a flower representing themselves. The pictures were not to be

analysed in any way, such as the way professional art therapists analyse patient

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drawings – instead, this activity was meant to allow the women to have an

alternate form of self-expression while providing pictures to decorate the

information sheet containing the research's findings, which could visually remind

the women that they were not alone. Unfortunately, as mentioned in section 3.4

above, although the translated interviews were mailed out, the researcher was

not able to survey the women in these groups. The survey was not meant to be

statistically significant –rather, the results were to be used to triangulate. As

mentioned in the Difficulties section, the questionnaire is included in the

appendices in English, Ukrainian and Thai.

The interviews of a key expert in Bangkok and a key expert in Kiev, were also

be used for the purpose of triangulation. The expert interview in Kiev was

conducted in-person after the focus group was finished, through the same

interpreter, and it was an unstructured interview requiring little to no prompting

from the interviewer. The expert interview in Bangkok was changed to an email

interview due to unforeseen political circumstances in the city at this time, as

stated among the difficulties faced; as such, the interview was conducted as a

structured interview in English.

3.5.2 Analysis

Analysis of the qualitative data will be carried out using the method named

Framework Analysis, which was developed in the 1980s at Britain's National

Centre for Social Research (Ritchie and Spencer, 1994, as quoted in Ritchie et

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al., 2003) in the context of applied policy research, which aims to provide

specific information and provide recommendations (Lacey and Luff, 2007). It is

a matrix-based method of analysis which facilitates transparent data

management (Richie et al., 2003), with transparency being necessary in 'critical

pragmatism'. This method is grounded in the collected data, and it enables

easy access to the original material and also allows both inter- and intra-case

analysis (Richie and Spencer, 1994). This method has five key stages, and

these are the following: familiarisation; identifying a thematic framework;

indexing; charting and mapping and interpretation (Lacey and Luff, 2007). For

the Focus Group and Interview in Ukraine, thematic charts were constructed as

part of this process, from which summary tables were created in order to

organise and display results; afterwards, descriptive analysis was carried out

with the use of tables to illustrate the variety of responses. As the Thailand

interview was quite brief and structured, however, its analysis has been

shortened so that the charting was limited to the organisation of one that

showed the descriptive analysis.

3.5.3 Limitations

Disregarding the difficulties described above, there were other factors which

limited the research. It would have been helpful if in-depth interviews could

have been carried out with the women in Ukraine individually, after the focus

group. That would have allowed for more time and privacy for each woman to

more fully voice her story and opinions. However, this would not have been

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possible due to time constraints.

It would also have been helpful if the expert interview in Thailand were less

structured so that there could be more room for the expert to share

experiences, opinions and thoughts on related topics. Although follow-up

questions were asked via email, upon reflection, it may also have been better to

use a more real-time method of communication, such as instant messaging,

Skype or the telephone in order to generate a more dynamic conversation

between the interviewer and interviewee. Perhaps in a future study, an

unstructured or semi-structured interview could be conducted with this same

expert in person.

The strength of this research was the way in which the participants interacted

during the focus group, prompting the sharing of stories, opinions and feelings

without the need for much prompting. The generous sharing of knowledge by

the expert in Kiev was also helpful. Next is a presentation and discussion on

the findings from the expert interviews and focus group.

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... 5
Abstract ............................................................................................................................. 6
1. INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................... 7
1.1 The Research .................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Structure of the Research ................................................................................ 11
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................... 12
2. 1 Global Policies ............................................................................................... 12
2.2 Current Knowledge ........................................................................................ 13
2.2.1 Sex Trafficking ....................................................................................13
2.2.2 The Causes of Trafficking and Re-Trafficking ....................................14
2.2.2.1 Supply – the women................................................................ 15
2.2.2.2 Demand – the ‘johns’/customers ........................................... 18
2.2.2.3 Slave Traders – the traffickers ................................................ 19
2.2.3 Prevention: A Development Issue .......................................................21
2.3 Thailand ........................................................................................................... 23
2.4 Ukraine ............................................................................................................ 25
3. METHODOLOGY AND METHODS ........................................................................ 30
3.1 Methodology ................................................................................................... 30
3.2 Previous Studies .............................................................................................. 32
3.3 Original Intentions ........................................................................................... 33
3.4 Difficulties ....................................................................................................... 33
3.5 Actual Methods Used ...................................................................................... 34
3.5.1 Data Collection ....................................................................................34
3.5.2 Analysis................................................................................................36
3.5.3 Limitations ...........................................................................................37
4. RESULTS: PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION ................................................... 39
4.1 Expert Interviews ........................................................................................... 39
4.1.1 Ukraine Expert Interview ....................................................................39
4.1.2 Thailand Expert Interview ...................................................................44
4.2 Focus Group .................................................................................................... 47
4.2.1 Life History..........................................................................................53
4.2.2 Trafficking ...........................................................................................56
4.1.2.3 How an Organisation Can Help .......................................................61
4.3 Comparing Expert Interviews with Focus Group............................................ 64
5. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................... 67
Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………71

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Index of Tables and Figures
Figure 1.1: Framework for this study .................................................................. 9
Table 4.1: Descriptive Analysis of Expert Interview in Ukraine ......................... 40
Table 4.2: Descriptive Analysis of Expert Interview in Thailand ....................... 44
Table 4.3: Summary Chart for Focus Group in Ukraine .................................... 47
Table 4.4: Descriptive Analysis for Focus Group in Ukraine ............................. 50
Figure 4.1: Childhoods of Women in Focus Group ......................................... ..53
Figure 4.2: Feedback Relationship between Marital Disruption and Economic Situation56
Figure 4.3: Entering the Trafficking Situation .................................................... 57
Table 4.5: Feelings of Victims ........................................................................... 58
Table 4.6: Post-Rehabilitation Feelings ........................................................... 61
Table 4.6: Recommendations by the Women ................................................... 62

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Appendices

Appendix 1. Letter of Permission from University's Ethics Committee..........i

Appendix 2. Participation Information Sheet and Consent Form..................ii
2.1 English............................................................................ii
2.2 Ukrainian.........................................................................iv
2.3 Thai.................................................................................vi
Appendix 3. Questionnaire Questions.........................................................viii
3.1 English..........................................................................viii
3.2 Ukrainian........................................................................ix
3.3 Thai.................................................................................x
Appendix 4. Thematic Charts from the Ukraine Focus Group.....................xi
4.1 Life History.....................................................................xi
4.2 Trafficking......................................................................xii
4.3 How Organisations Can Help.......................................xiii
Appendix 5. Thematic Charts from the Ukraine Focus Group...................xiv
5.1 Life History....................................................................xiv
5.2 Trafficking......................................................................xv
5.3 How Organisations Can Help.......................................xvi
Appendix 6: Information Sheet for Organisations.......................................xvii

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Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank her supervisor, Professor Gary Craig from

Durham University, for being an inspiring teacher and generously sharing his

experience, knowledge and time. She would also like to thank Professor

Roland Stahl from the Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts for his

guidance and encouragement throughout the course of the research. In

addition, she would also like to thank the organisations that took part in this

study and the brave women who agreed to participate. A special thank you

must be extended to Doctor Meli for sponsoring the research. Last but not

least, she would like to thank her 2-year-old son, Leonard (Leo), for his patience

throughout the course of this research.

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Abstract

This study explored the factors that make women vulnerable to sex trafficking

and re-trafficking and aims to contribute to the current literature on prevention.

In Ukraine, victims participated in a focus group, and an expert was interviewed.

An expert in Thailand was also interviewed. While other factors may be more

important in other geographical areas, findings from this exploratory research in

Thailand and Ukraine suggest that the current literature is correct. In Ukraine,

the lack of access to jobs, not necessarily a lack of education, made women

vulnerable to trafficking; insecurity due to global economic development and a

transition to a free market in the absence of a social safety net also contributed;

and marital disruption leading to single parenting was also a major factor. There

is also a need for awareness raising campaigns letting women know where to

get help in case they become victims.

This dissertation was submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the MA in

International Community Development, jointly delivered by the University of

Westminster and the Lucerne University of Applied Sciences and Arts and it was

posted on http://forcedmigration.org.

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