KM and Learning Tools and Techniques

Knowledge management and learning tools and techniques
Prepared by: R. Samii

Version no. 3
March 2007
Table of contents
Introduction__________________________________________________ 1
Knowledge management in a nutshell ________________________________ 1
Implementing the knowledge management strategy: Tools and
techniques___________________________________________________ 3
A. Strategy development ___________________________________________ 4
1. Knowledge audits ____________________________________________________ 4
2. Social network analysis (SNA) __________________________________________ 6
3. Most significant change (MSC) __________________________________________ 8
4. Outcome mapping __________________________________________________ 13
5. Process-based knowledge mapping _____________________________________ 15
6. Reframing matrix ___________________________________________________ 17
B. Collaboration mechanisms______________________________________ 18
7. Communities of practice (CoP) _________________________________________ 18
8. Action learning sets _________________________________________________ 21
9. Six thinking hats ____________________________________________________ 24
10. Social technologies_________________________________________________ 26
C. Knowledge sharing and learning tools ____________________________ 28
11. Stories___________________________________________________________ 28
12. Peer assists ______________________________________________________ 32
13. Challenge sessions_________________________________________________ 35
14. After action reviews and retrospects (AAR) ______________________________ 37
D. Capturing and storing knowledge ________________________________ 41
15. Knowledge harvesting ______________________________________________ 41
16. Integrated approaches to capturing learning _____________________________ 44
17. Exit interviews_____________________________________________________ 48
18. Identifying and sharing best practices___________________________________ 50
19. White pages or experts’ directories_____________________________________ 53
20. Blogs____________________________________________________________ 56
Sources ____________________________________________________ 58
Introduction
The purpose of this “KM toolkit” is to provide an overview of 20 tools and
techniques which are widely used in knowledge management programmes by
international financial institutions, UN agencies, NGOs and other development
institutions.
It is recommended that the tools and techniques in this document be used:

• at headquarters to foster knowledge sharing and learning
• as guidance for developing knowledge management strategies at
country level
• by IFAD projects and programmes
Knowledge management in a nutshell

Knowledge management is about:
• people and how they create, share and use knowledge
• facilitating the processes by which knowledge is created, shared and
used
The transfer of knowledge requires commitment and entails continuous

efforts. It needs to be embedded in all processes and not considered as add-
on and/or a one-time event. Learning and sharing is a dynamic process, in
which existing knowledge, which is being shared and reused, creates new
knowledge, allowing people to be competitive and to innovate.
At the same time, knowledge management programmes should have both a

“collecting” and a “connecting” dimension.
The collecting dimension involves linking people with information. It relates

to the capturing and disseminating of explicit knowledge through information
and communication technologies aimed at codifying, storing and retrieving
content, which in principle is continuously updated through computer
networks. Through such collections of content, what is learned is made
readily accessible to future users.
The connecting dimension involves linking people with people - specifically

people who need to know with those who do know, and so enhancing tacit
knowledge flow through better human interaction, so that knowledge is
widely disseminated and not just held in the heads of a few. Connecting is
necessary because knowledge is embodied in people and in relationships.
Most knowledge management programmes aim at an integrated approach to

managing knowledge, by combining both the collecting and connecting
dimensions.
The objective of IFAD strategy for knowledge management is to improve
knowledge sharing and learning both within IFAD and with its
partners. This will happen only if knowledge sharing and learning occurs
collectively and systematically. The strategy will achieve its objective by:
• Aligning the knowledge management focus with IFAD’s new strategic
framework
• Developing robust knowledge management processes and enabling
tools
• Fostering partnerships to stimulate broader knowledge-sharing and
learning
• Developing knowledge management competencies
IFAD considers access to rural poverty information and knowledge as a

central driver for development. Therefore, the main purpose of IFAD’s
knowledge management tools and services are to:
• connect people with knowledge they need
• collect what needs to be learnt
IFAD believes that effective knowledge management, most importantly

knowledge-sharing and learning, is essential for improving its development
effectiveness as it leads to:
• better use of IFAD’s experience and knowledge internally and
externally
• serves to leverage the knowledge of IFAD’s partners and stakeholders,
including rural poor people
• triggers and supports innovation
• promotes the scaling up of development experience through replication
and through support for better evidence-based policies.
Knowledge management IFAD

and learning tools 2 March 2007: version 3
Implementing the knowledge management strategy: Tools
and techniques
IFAD has adopted a pragmatic and incremental approach to implementing the

knowledge management strategy, thus it will not only introduce new tools
and techniques but also build on existing tools, techniques and processes.
In implementing the knowledge management strategy IFAD will be putting in

place a more supportive infrastructure to achieve its knowledge management
objectives. The strategy aims at bringing organizational activities back on
track by correcting and improving current practices. At the same time, the
strategy aims to increase the organization’s capacity to think critically and
creatively and act innovatively.
Para 34 of the knowledge management strategy provided a preview of some

knowledge management tools and techniques. The purpose of this “toolkit” is
to provide an overview of 20 tools and techniques which are widely used in
knowledge management programmes by international financial institutions,
UN agencies, NGOs and other development institutions.
IFAD is currently using some of these tools. For example:

• thematic groups are similar to communities of practice
• TRC, the pilot QE and OSC processes can be considered as a form of
peer assist
• learning events or mid-term and completion evaluations can be
considered as after action reviews.
The tools are divided into four categories:

• Strategy development
• Collaboration mechanisms
• Knowledge sharing and learning processes
• Knowledge capture and storage
The toolkit is a living document. It will be amended and expanded based on

comments and feedback received. Future versions will include examples of
how these tools were utilized. To this end, colleagues are requested to
document and record their impressions, experience and learning using one of
the 20 tools and techniques described in the toolkit.
If you have any queries, please contact Roxanna Samii (r.samii@ifad.org) on

extension 2375.

A. Strategy development
The tools listed below provide an overview on how to look at knowledge and
learning in a strategic manner. The tools presented provide different
frameworks which can be used to plan, monitor and evaluate knowledge and
learning initiatives.
1. Knowledge audits
The knowledge audit provides an evidence-based assessment of where to
focus its knowledge management efforts. It reveals knowledge management
needs, strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats and risks. This involves
getting to know what people and teams need in order to meet their goals and
objectives.
A knowledge audit is a
systematic process to
identify knowledge
needs, resources and
flows, as a basis for
understanding where
and how better
knowledge
management can add
value. Typically this
process is carried out
through face-to-face
interviews;
workshops; focus
groups and e-
discussions. Below is a
check-list of questions
that may be explored:
Knowledge
• What are the
core tasks and
processes
carried out by different groups and people?
• What constitutes useful, applicable knowledge for the execution of
these tasks and processes?
• How is this knowledge generated, identified, shared, stored and applied
in core operations?
• How might improved generation, sharing, storing and application of
knowledge be monitored?

Relationships and processes
• What existing and planned systems and processes can support the
knowledge sharing and learning strategy, and how should they be
deployed?
• What existing and planned initiatives might influence and support the
generation, sharing, storing and application of knowledge?
• What is the nature of key relationships within the organization? How
formal/informal are these relationships? How do they impact upon
issues of knowledge and learning?
Organizational contexts
• How can human resources, information technology, information
management and other support functions be better integrated to
support the knowledge and learning ‘vision’?
• How might existing structures support the KM strategy?
• How might leadership and governance support the KM strategy?
• What are the perceived costs and benefits of improved knowledge and
learning?
External factors
• How does the principle of ‘horizontal coordination’ work in practice and
how can it be strengthened?
• How might the political, economic, and cultural contexts in which the
country and/or project/programme operates impact upon the
development and implementation of an effective knowledge and
learning strategy?

2. Social network analysis (SNA)
Social network analysis is about mapping relationships between people,
groups and organizations to understand how these relationships facilitate or
impede knowledge flows. It is about whom people seek information and
knowledge from, whom they share their information and knowledge with. In
contrast to an organization chart which shows formal relationships, an SNA
chart shows informal relationships - who knows whom and who shares
information and knowledge with whom. It therefore allows visualizing and
understanding the relationships that can either facilitate or impede
knowledge creation and sharing. SNA shows the real networks that operate
underneath the surface a formal structure.
Once social relationships and knowledge flows have been identified, these
need to be evaluated and measured. The results of social network analysis
can be used to:
• Identify those (individuals and/or groups) playing central roles (opinion
leaders, thought leaders, key knowledge brokers, experts)
• identify bottlenecks and isolated teams and individuals
• identify opportunities to improve knowledge flows
• target opportunities where increased knowledge flow will have the most
impact
• raise awareness of the importance of informal networks
How to go about it?

Using questionnaires and/or interviews:
• Identify the network(s) of people (team, group, department)

• Gather background information - interviewing managers and key staff
to understand the specific needs and problems
• Formulate hypotheses and questions
• Develop the survey methodology and designing the questionnaire

• Survey the individuals in the network to identify the relationships and
knowledge flows between them
• Map out the network visually
• Review the map and the problems and opportunities highlighted using
interviews and/or workshops
• Design and implement actions to bring about desired changes
• Map the network again after a suitable period of time
Key points/practical tips

It is important that SNA involves knowing what information to gather in the
first place. As a result, it is vital to put a great deal of thought into the design
of the survey and questionnaire. Effective questions typically focus on a
variety of factors, such as:
• Who knows whom and how well?
• How well do people know each others’ knowledge and skills?
• Who or what gives people information about a specific
theme/relationship/process?
• What resources do people use to find information, get
feedback/ideas/advice about a specific theme/relationship/process?
• What resources do people use to share information about
theme/relationship/process?

3. Most significant change (MSC)
The Most Significant Change (MSC) technique is a form of participatory
monitoring and evaluation. It is participatory because many project
stakeholders are involved both in deciding the sorts of change to be recorded
and in analyzing the data.
It involves project stakeholders in deciding what kind of change need to be

recorded. It is a form of monitoring as it occurs throughout the programme
cycle and provides information to help people manage it. MSC contributes to
evaluation because it provides data on impact and outcomes which can be
used to help assess the performance of the programme as a whole.
MSC does not make use of predefined indicators, especially ones which have
to be counted and measured. It resorts to a ‘story approach’. That is the
answers to the central question about change
are often in the form of stories of who did what,
when and why, and the reasons the event was
important.
The process involves the systematic selection

and collection of significant change (SC) stories
at field level. The designated staff and
stakeholders need to ‘search’ for project impact.
Once changes have been captured, various
people sit down together, read the stories and
have regular and often in-depth discussions
about the value of the reported changes. When
this technique is successfully implemented, the team begins to focus on the
programme impact.
Many organizations have found MSC monitoring a useful knowledge

management tool for the following reasons:
• It is a good means of identifying unexpected changes
• It is a good way to clearly identify the values that prevail in an
organization and to have a practical discussion about which of those
values are the most important. This happens when people think
through and discuss which of the significant changes (SCs) is the most
significant. This can happen at all levels of the organization
• It is a participatory form of monitoring that requires no special
professional skills. Compared to other monitoring approaches, it is easy
to communicate across cultures. There is no need to explain what an
indicator is. Everyone can tell stories about events they think were
important
• It encourages analysis as well as data collection because people have
to explain why they believe one change is more important than another
• It can build staff capacity in analyzing data and conceptualizing impact

• It can deliver a rich picture of what is happening, rather than an overly
simplified picture where organizational, social and economic
developments are reduced to a single number
• It can be used to monitor and evaluate bottom-up initiatives that do
not have predefined outcomes against which to evaluate
Detailed description of the process

1. Raise interest by introducing concept of MSC to range of stakeholders
2. Define the domains of change. This involves selected stakeholders

identifying broad domains which are not necessarily defined as
performance indicators but are to be defined by the actual user. For
example ‘changes in people’s lives’
3. Define the reporting period. Decide how frequently to monitor

changes taking place in the identified domains
4. Collect significant change (SC) stories from those most directly

involved, such as field staff or project/programme participants. Stories
are collected by asking simple questions such as: ‘during the last
month, in your opinion, what was the most significant change that took
place for participants in the programme?’ Allow respondents to allocate
a domain category to their stories and encourage respondents to report
why they consider a particular change to be the most significant.
Information to be documented should include:

• Information about who collected the story and when the events
occurred
• Description of the story itself – what happened
• Significance (to the storyteller) of events described in the story.
Documenting who collected the story and when helps the reader put
the story in context and enables any follow-up inquiries to be made
about the story, if needed. The SC story itself should be documented as
it is told. The description of the change identified as the most
significant should include factual information that makes it clear who
was involved, what happened, where and when. Where possible, a
story should be written as a simple narrative describing the sequence
of events that took place.
5. Select the most significant of the stories. The MSC approach uses
a hierarchy of selection processes. People discuss SCs within their area
of expertise and submit the most significant of these to the level above.
This level selects the most significant of all the SCs and passes this on
to the next level. The iterative process of selecting and then pooling SC
stories helps reduce a large volume of locally important stories down to
a small number of more widely valued stories. The use of multiple

levels of selection enables this to happen without burdening any
individual or group with too much work. The process has been called
‘summary by selection’. (See figure 1)
Figure 1 – Flow of stories and feedback in MSC
6. Feed back the results of the selection process. Feedback is

important in all monitoring, evaluation and learning-oriented systems.
Every time stories are selected, the criteria used to select them are
recorded and fed back to all those who provided the SC stories. The
feedback should explain which SC was selected and why. It should also
provide information on how the selection process was organized.
Knowing that a particular type of change is valued can lead to further
searches for similar changes in specific areas. Feedback about why a
selection was made can expand or challenge participants’ views of what
is significant. The information about which SC stories were selected
helps participants’ searches for SCs in the next reporting period.
7. Verify the stories. Verification is useful in order to ensure that the

reported changes correctly reflect what has happened. A reported
change may be more important than is initially evident from the way in
which the change was documented. Important details and wider
implications may lie hidden until further investigation of the reported
event. When participants know that there are procedures for verifying
SC stories, they are more likely to be careful about the way they
document their SCs and this can help improve the overall quality of the
SCs. The existence of a verification process may also give external
parties more confidence in the significance of the findings of the MSC
approach. On the other hand, undertaking some verification of SC
stories may have negative consequences if not managed properly.
Participants may feel they are not trusted, and may be discouraged
from reporting anything other than what they think is expected.
The selected stories can be verified by visiting the sites where the
described events took place. The purpose of this is twofold: to check
that stories have been reported accurately and to provide an

opportunity to gather more detailed information about events seen as
especially significant. If conducted some time after the event, a visit
also offers a chance to see what has happened since the event was first
documented.
Verification may be unnecessary in some instances. When stories are

selected, they are vetted to some degree for accuracy by those who
selected them. Where most of the people selecting the stories have
background knowledge of the events described in the stories, it may be
sufficient to accept their ‘vetting’ as verification.
It is in the interests of whoever selects a SC story as the most

significant to make sure they feel confident with the accuracy of both
the SC story and the interpretations made of it. Their judgments will
normally be included in the documentation of the SC story and made
visible to other participants in the process and to users of the results.
Both the description and interpretation aspects of MSC stories can

benefit from verification. With the descriptive part of a story, it is useful
to consider whether any information is missing and to ask how accurate
the facts are. Is there enough information to enable an independent
third party to find out what happened, when and where, and who was
involved? It is likely that most stories will contain some errors of fact.
The question is the extent to which these errors affect the significance
given to the events by the people involved or the observer reporting
the event.
It may be useful to describe follow-up inquiries as ‘exploration’ or

another less-threatening term. Using the newspaper metaphor to
explain the MSC approach; follow-up inquiries can be explained in
terms of doing a ‘feature article’ on the most significant news story of
the week (month, quarter).
8. Quantify. MSC places a strong emphasis on qualitative reporting of

change, using stories rather than numbers to communicate what is
happening. Within MSC, there are three ways in which quantitative
information can be collected and analyzed:
• As with any news story indicate how many people were involved,
how many activities took place and to quantify effects of different
kinds.
• Ask participants for information about all other instances of similar
changes that they are aware of. This one-off inquiry does not need
to be repeated during subsequent reporting periods.
• Examine the full set of collected SC stories, including those not
selected at higher levels and counting the number of times a specific
type of change is noted.

9. Secondary analysis and meta-monitoring. Secondary analysis
consists of:
• Thematic coding
• Analyzing stories for positive and negative SCs
• Analyzing the changes mentioned in MSC stories against a logic
model
• Analyzing the genre
• Analyzing differences between selected stories and those not
selected
• Analyzing the activities or groups mentioned in stories
• Analyzing the length of time participants were engaged in the
project
• Analyzing the selection criteria
Meta-monitoring is relatively simple. It does not require expert

knowledge. There are four main types of measures that can be
monitored:
• The total number of SC stories written in each reporting period and
how this changes over time
• Who is writing stories and who is not, and how the membership of
these groups changes over time
• Whose stories are being selected and whose are not
• What has happened to those SC stories
10. Revise the system. Almost all organizations that use MSC
change the implementation in some way, both during and after the
introductory phase. This suggests that some organizational learning is
taking place. Not having any revisions is worrying as it suggests that
MSC is being used in a ritualistic and unreflective way. Many of the
changes made arise from day-to-day reflection about the practice.
The most common changes are:

• in the names of the domains of change being used: for example,
adding domains that capture negative changes, or ‘lessons
learned’
• in the frequency of reporting: for example, from fortnightly to
monthly or from monthly to three monthly in CCDB
• in the types of participants: for example, allowing middle
management to submit their own SC stories
• in the structure of meetings called to select the most significant
stories

4. Outcome mapping
Development is essentially about people relating to each other and their
environment. The focus of Outcome Mapping is on people. The originality of
the methodology is its shift away from assessing the development impact of
a programme (defined as changes in state: for example, policy relevance,
poverty alleviation, or reduced conflict) and toward changes in the
behaviours, relationships, actions or activities of the people, groups and
organizations with which a development programme works directly. This shift
significantly alters the way a programme understands its goals and assesses
its performance and results. Outcome mapping establishes a vision of the
human, social and environmental improvement to which the programme
hopes to contribute and then focuses monitoring and evaluation on factors
and actors within that programme’s direct sphere of influence. The
programme’s contributions to development are planned and assessed based
on its influence on the partners with whom it is working to effect change. The
central concept of outcome mapping is that development is accomplished by,
and for, people. Outcome mapping does not belittle the importance of
changes in state (such as cleaner water or a stronger economy) but instead
argues that for each change in state there are correlating changes in
behaviour.
Outcome Mapping focuses on:

• Behavioural change: Outcomes are defined as changes in the
behaviour, relationships, activities, or actions of the people, groups and
organizations with which a programme works directly. These outcomes
can be logically linked to a programme’s activities, although they are
not necessarily directly caused by them.
• Boundary partners: Those individuals, groups and organizations with
which the programme interacts directly and with which the programme
anticipates opportunities for influence. Most activities will involve
multiple outcomes because they have multiple boundary partners.
• Contributions: By using outcome mapping, a programme is not
claiming the achievement of development impacts; rather, the focus is
on its contributions to outcomes. These outcomes, in turn, enhance the
possibility of development impacts – but the relationship is not
necessarily a direct one of cause and effect.

Intentional Design helps a programme establish consensus on the macro-
level changes it will help to bring about and plan the strategies it will use. It
helps answer four questions: Why? (What is the vision to which the
programme wants to contribute?); Who? (Who are the programme’s
boundary partners?); What? (What are the changes that are being sought?);
and How? (How will the programme contribute to the change process?).

Outcome and Performance Monitoring provides a framework for the
ongoing monitoring of the programme’s actions and the boundary partners’
progress toward the achievement of outcomes. It is based largely on
systematized self-assessment. It provides the following data collection tools
for elements identified in the Intentional Design stage: an Outcome Journal
(progress markers); a Strategy Journal (strategy maps); and a Performance
Journal (organisational practices).
Evaluation Planning helps the programme identify evaluation priorities and

develop an evaluation plan.
Figure 2 – Three stages of Outcome Mapping
Outcome mapping is based on principles of participation and should include

those implementing the programme in the design and data collection so as to
encourage ownership and use of findings. It is intended to be used as a
consciousness-raising, consensus-building and empowerment tool for those
working directly in the programme. Outcome mapping introduces monitoring
and evaluation considerations at the planning stage of a programme. It
actively engages groups and teams in the design of a learning-oriented plan,
with self-reflection as a core principle.

5. Process-based knowledge mapping
A process-based knowledge map is a map or diagram that visually displays
knowledge within the context of a business process. The map shows how
knowledge should be used within the process and sources of this knowledge.
The overview of the business process is prepared before the knowledge and
the sources are mapped to this process.
Knowledge mapping can be used to effectively plan the implementation of a

knowledge management strategy. The mapping technique has several
advantages. The mapping methodology forces participants to identify key
knowledge areas that are most strategic and/or critical to their business. The
analysis of the knowledge map generates ideas for sharing and leveraging
knowledge that are most suited to the organization and the programme
context.
Figure 3 – Process-based knowledge map
Any type of knowledge that drives the process or results from execution of
the process can be mapped. This could include tacit knowledge (knowledge in
people such as know-how, experience, and intuition) and explicit knowledge
(codified knowledge such as that in documents); beneficiary knowledge;
knowledge in processes; etc.
Five-ten people collaborate in preparing the map carrying out the following
activities in three phases:
• Mapping phase. Create the knowledge map by mapping knowledge
and sources of knowledge to the business process.
• Analysis phase. Analyze the map in response to probing questions,
such as:
o What knowledge is most critical to the business?

o What knowledge is missing?
o What knowledge adds value to the business?
• Application phase. Apply the map to:
o Planning programs, projects or sets of activities
o Developing KM processes or improving knowledge flows
o Providing a framework for efforts such as a knowledge audit,
technology design, after-action review, competency development
program, etc.

6. Reframing matrix
Reframing matrix is a simple technique that helps look at organizational
problems from a number of different viewpoints. It expands the range of
creative solutions that can be generated.
The approach relies on the fact that different people with different experience
approach problems in different ways. This technique helps you to do is to put
yourself into the minds of different people and imagine the solutions they
would come up with.

Put the question to be asked in the middle of a grid. Use boxes around the
grid for the different perspectives. This is simply an easy way of laying out
the problem. Two different approaches to the reframing matrix are
demonstrated here, but it is important to note that many different techniques
can be utilized. The first approach, which is called the Four Ps, relies on
looking at a problem by following the different perspectives that may exist
within an organization. The 4 Ps approach looks at problems from the
following viewpoints:
• Programme perspective: Are there any issues with the programme
or service we are delivering?
• Planning perspective: Are our business plans or communication
plans appropriate?
• Potential perspective: Is it scalable and replicable?
• People perspective: What do the different people involved think?
Another approach to using a reframing matrix is to look at the problem from

the viewpoints of different specialists. For example, the way an irrigation
engineer looks at a problem would be different from a fundraiser’s
perspective.
Figure 4 – Reframing matrix example: a new programme not

fundraising effectively

B. Collaboration mechanisms
When working together with others often there is not enough attention paid
to facilitating effective collaborative practices. The tools in this section aim to
help strengthen relationships and develop shared thinking.
7. Communities of practice (CoP)

A community of practice (CoP) is a network of people who share a common
interest in a specific area of knowledge or competence and are willing to work
and learn together over a period of time to develop and share that
knowledge.
Communities of practice differ from the usual notion of a team or work

groups in a number of fundamental ways:
• Voluntary membership. Whereas teams and work groups are formed

by management, membership of a community of practice is voluntary
• Specific focus. Teams and work groups are formed to focus on a
specific objective or activity, while communities of practice are not
necessarily; they may have some stated goals, but they are more
general and fluid
• No expectation of tangible results. Teams and work groups are
required to deliver tangible results, whereas communities of practice
are not necessarily
• Existence defined by group members. Teams and work groups are
disbanded or reorganized once they have achieved their goals, while
communities of practice last as long as their members want them to
last.
Salient features of communities of practice:
• provide a valuable vehicle for developing, sharing and managing

specialist knowledge
• avoid reinventing the wheel
• cut across departmental boundaries and formal reporting lines
• can be more flexible than traditional reporting units
• generate new knowledge in response to problems and opportunities
• provide early warning of potential opportunities and threats
• can be vehicle for cultural change (creating a knowledge sharing
culture)
• are largely self-organizing

Phase 1: Birth
Communities of practice emerge in an organic fashion and cannot be
managed into existence. They can, however, be fostered, by identifying areas
where knowledge might be better shared and used. Once this has been
identified, a number of questions should be addressed:
• What is the knowledge focus of the community? Is it based on a
professional discipline, or does it focus on some specific issue or
opportunity?
• Who can contribute to the community? Who are the experts, the
facilitators, the movers and shakers? Should invitation be open or by
invitation?
• What are the common needs and interests of the group? What is the
group interested in? What benefits do they expect through joining the
community?
• What is the purpose of the community? What needs or problems
need to be addressed? What does community want to achieve? How
will the community benefit the organization? What are its values and
ways of working? How will it be structured and organized? How will it
obtain resources? Can terms of reference be developed?
Communities are often best launched with a meeting or workshop to enable

face-to-face contact and the initiation of relationships within the context of
the new community. This also provides an opportunity to work through the
detail associated with the questions above and to clarify objectives and the
terms of reference.
Phase 2: Development and growth

There is a need to ensure that, after the initial excitement, the CoP maintains
interest and commitment. The community coordinator should be seeking to
maintain the life of the community by ensuring face-to-face meetings,
arranging social events, rewarding contributions, introducing new and
challenging perspectives, and getting external perspectives. Member turnover
will always be an issue, and ongoing recruitment will be required to maintain
the energy. Roles and responsibilities should be rotated between members
over time. There is also a need to ensure that there is support for
participation in the network from the wider organisation, which should be
achieved by aligning goals of the CoP with the wider organizational goals.
Support should be in terms of both freeing up time and recognizng the
contributions of the community.
At the development and growth stage, the CoP should be taking a greater
role in managing knowledge that is at the heart of the community. This
includes creating knowledge maps, identifying knowledge gaps, and so on.
The key at this stage is not to stifle social relationships at the heart of the
network by the imposition of too strong a managerial imperative. This brings
about the real challenge – to develop the community and the practice

simultaneously. Community development requires strengthening the
coordinator (who is the spokesperson and organizes, coordinates), facilitator
(who facilitates interactions within the community) and knowledge manager
(who is entrusted with explicit knowledge resources management). Training
and support for this may be required.
Phase 3: Closure
Communities and networks can come to an end naturally as its members
come to an end-point of the purpose. In other cases, the community may
fragment into multiple smaller communities based around particular specialist
subjects. When a community fades, it is important to celebrate its life and
achievements, and to ensure that the relevant body of knowledge is captured
and transferred.

Below is a summary of good practices:
• Starting-up a network:
o Have you double-checked your reasons for starting a
community/network?
o When should this network become active?
o What type of network will yours be?
o What kind of facilitation will your network need?
o What kinds of behaviours and activities are appropriate to a
facilitator?
o What tools and channels of communication can you use for
facilitating a network?
• How to involve external participants in networks:
o Be clear what the network is for before involving external
participants.
o Who exactly are the external participants going to be?
o Who hosts the network?
• Sustaining a network:
o What resource has the network got?
o What makes your network valuable to its members?
o How could you revive a faltering network?
o Handing over the role of facilitator.
• What will happen when your network has done its job?

8. Action learning sets
Action learning is a
structured
mechanism for
working in small
groups to address
complicated issues.
Action Learning
Sets are made up
of between six and
eight people who
meet together
regularly over a
reasonable time
period and ‘present’
and collectively
work on problems
faced in ongoing
practice. The group
will then help the ‘presenter’ work on that problem through supportive but
challenging questioning: encouraging a deeper understanding of the issues
involved, a reflective reassessment of the ‘problem’, and an exploration of
ways forward.
The most common applications fall into two categories:

• A work-based project in which action learning set members are
involved and are able to influence the outcomes by their actions
• An issue that concerns how specific action learning set members
operate in the work context (e.g. creating partnerships), and one which
they wish to improve and which could benefit from the support and
challenging of the other set members.
Figure 5 – Action learning set process

Mark learning, draw Start -Present
conclusions, define your challenge,
learning from experience. problem, issue
Integrate new knowledge or your question.
into your practice.
Set members question you

constructively to challenge
views and understanding,
Bring results perceptions, assumptions.
back to set- Others share knowledge-
what invited by presenter of issue.
worked/what
didn’t? Why?
Test out taking Insight? New

action in the understanding, ideas
workplace. on taking action?
The figure above shows how action learning process is a cyclical one. Starting
at the top of the diagram and moving round systematically, it gives each
member the opportunity to present a problem and comment on others.

• Action learning sets are most effective when the commitment is
voluntary
• Action learning sets should focus on real-life practice-related problems,
ones which are more open ended in nature and which do not have a
right or wrong answer
• The ground rules for action learning sets should include:
o Being honest with oneself and others
o Respecting others and their viewpoint
o Taking responsibility for our own actions

9. Six thinking hats
This tool enables groups to look at decisions from a number of important
perspectives. This forces groups and individuals to move outside their
habitual thinking style, and helps to get a more holistic view of a situation.
You can use this methodology in meetings or on your own. In meetings it has
the benefit of blocking the confrontations that happen when people with
different thinking styles discuss the same problem.
Each 'Thinking Hat' is a different style of thinking. These are explained below:
White hat:
With this thinking
hat you focus on
the data
available. Look at
the information
you have, and see
what you can
learn from it. Look for gaps in your knowledge, and either try to fill them or
take account of them.
This is where you analyze past trends, and try to extrapolate from historical
data.
Red hat:
'Wearing' the red hat, you look at problems using intuition, gut reaction, and
emotion. Also try to think how other people will react emotionally. Try to
understand the responses of people who do not fully know your reasoning.
Black hat:
Using black hat thinking, look at all the bad points of the decision. Look at it
cautiously and defensively. Try to see why it might not work. This is
important because it highlights the weak points in a plan. It allows you to
eliminate them, alter them, or prepare contingency plans to counter them.
Black hat thinking helps to make your plans 'tougher' and more resilient. It
can also help you to spot fatal flaws and risks before you embark on a course
of action. Black Hat thinking is one of the real benefits of this technique, as
many successful people get so used to thinking positively that often they
cannot see problems in advance. This leaves them under-prepared for
difficulties.
Yellow hat:
The yellow hat helps you to think positively. It is the optimistic viewpoint that

helps you to see all the benefits of the decision and the value in it. Yellow Hat
thinking helps you to keep going when everything looks gloomy and difficult.
Green hat:
The green hat stands for creativity. This is where you can develop creative
solutions to a problem. It is a freewheeling way of thinking, in which there is
little criticism of ideas. A whole range of creativity tools can help you here.
Blue hat:
Thinking about thinking. The blue thinker’s role is to keep an overview of
what thinking is necessary to scout the subject. The blue thinker is
responsible for giving summaries, surveys and conclusions. The blue thinker
keeps the discipline and brings the discussions back on to the right track. The
blue hat stands for process control. This is the hat worn by people chairing
meetings. When running into difficulties because ideas are running dry, they
may direct activity into green hat thinking. When contingency plans are
needed, they will ask for black hat thinking, etc.

Six Thinking Hats is a good technique for looking at the effects of a decision
from a number of different points of view.
It allows necessary emotion and skepticism to be brought into what would

otherwise be purely rational decisions. It opens up the opportunity for
creativity within decision making. The technique also helps, for example,
persistently pessimistic people to be positive and creative.
Plans developed using the '6 Thinking Hats' technique will be sounder and
more resilient than would otherwise be the case. It may also help you to
avoid public relations mistakes, and spot good reasons not to follow a course
of action before you have committed to it.

10. Social technologies
There are
an ever
increasing
number of
tools that
are
described
by the
term social
technologie
s. All of
these have
one thing
in
common: the use of technology to try and build collaboration and sharing of
tacit knowledge. The term is often used to describe new tools based on the
internet; however, we should not forget other equally important tools which
do not require a web-platform: mobile telephone communications, radio
services and other face-to-face socializing methods.
Detailed description of the processes

E-dialoguing and e-conferencing enables the easy sharing of ideas,
information and news. These communications can be synchronized by date
and time, or can take place over days and even months. These
communications are facilitated by email and web technologies. Email
discussions, or lists, can use email to discuss issues. These are either of a
hub-and-spoke model whereby daily messages to a moderator are
compacted into a single daily message, or they are a free-for-all, whereby all
messages are seen by all members of the list. Some email discussions take
the form of e-conferences, which are planned around component discussions
and pre-prepared short papers on themes and topics. Discussions may be run
using both the web and email. Conferences can have a home page which
participants visit and post their contributions, and subsequently receive an
email detailing either all or a summary of the messages posted.
Internet messaging services provide users with a virtual ‘chat-room’

where people can talk in groups or on a one-to-one basis. Chats could be
seen as voluntary unmoderated discussions; although they can be
moderated, this is only done rarely. IM services provide privacy options that
allow users to share information more freely than in chat rooms or e-
conferencing. Internet messaging services have now evolved into a more
complete application, providing video and voice communication to its users
thus significantly reducing communication cost.

Virtual workspaces use a wide variety of tools such as email and the web-
based tools such as weblogs and wikis to create a virtual common area for
distributed project teams to work together. This enables the team to
communicate, collaborate, and share information, regardless of their
geographic location.
Wiki is a website where any user has the right to create, edit and delete
content. System abuses are avoided by a revision control system that tracks
changes, enabling reverting to previous versions. The potential of Wikis as
open knowledge exchange systems is illustrated by the rise of Wikipaedia.
The usefulness of the Wiki relies on its ability to aggregate knowledge from
the users themselves. Wikis can be used to develop and update information
that is useful for many users who, individually, only hold parts of it.
A weblog is a web-based publication consisting primarily of periodic articles,

usually in reverse chronological order. Early weblogs were simply manually
updated components of common websites. However, the evolution of tools to
facilitate the production and maintenance of web articles posted in a
chronological fashion made the publishing process accessible to a much
larger, less technical, population. Ultimately, this resulted in the distinct class
of online publishing that produces blogs we recognize today. See weblog
tools for more details.
Social network services are online spaces that allow different groups of
people to come together under shared interests or causes. Most social
network services include some of the other social technologies to enhance
connectivity and promote peer-to-peer communications. Their usefulness to
research and policy influence relate to their ability to develop and sustain
social and professional networks, share knowledge between members and
provide access or entry points to key individuals and spaces. These spaces
provide a range of social networking tools that allow users to expand their
social networks to those of their colleagues; as well as to search through the
network’s space for individuals with similar interests. The network provides
access to personal blogs of the members, specialized libraries and a clearing
house for relevant links and external services.
E-learning is a web-based (as opposed to computer-based) application for

long distance and on-demand learning and includes the use of other
communication technologies such as email, internet forums, collaborative
software, and classroom management software. E-learning for international
development allows individuals to gain access to technical and professional
education. It reduces the traditional costs (printed materials) and outreach
limitations of distance learning. In most cases, e-learning sessions are
designed to fit professionals and are therefore accessible on an on-demand
basis – allowing users to engage in their own time.

C. Knowledge sharing and learning tools
Effective knowledge and learning is about simple and effective two-way
communication building on past experiences in order to improve activities in
the future. The tools in the section can be applied to achieve this objective.
11. Stories
Storytelling is simply
using stories in
organizations as a
communication tool
to share knowledge.
Storytelling has
existed for thousands
of years as a means
of exchanging
information and
generating
understanding. Similarly, it has always existed in organizations – otherwise
known as “the grapevine”. However, as a deliberate tool for sharing
knowledge it is quite recent but growing very rapidly, to the extent that it is
becoming a favoured technique.
Storytelling offers a number of advantages:
• Stories communicate ideas holistically, conveying a rich yet clear

message, and so they are an excellent way of communicating
complicated ideas and concepts in an easy-to-understand form. Stories
therefore allow people to convey tacit knowledge that might otherwise
be difficult to articulate; in addition, because stories are told with
feeling, they can allow people to communicate more than they realize
they know
• Storytelling provides the context in which knowledge arises as well as
the knowledge itself, and hence can increase the likelihood of accurate
and meaningful knowledge transfer
• Stories are an excellent vehicle for learning, as true learning requires
interest, which abstract principles and impersonal procedures rarely
provide
• Stories are memorable - their messages tend to “stick” and they get
passed on
• Stories can provide a “living, breathing” example of how to do
something and why it works rather than telling people what to do,
hence people are more open to their lessons
• Stories therefore often lead to direct action - they can help to close the
“knowing-doing gap” (the difference between knowing how to do
something and actually doing it)

• Storytelling can help to make communication more “human” – not only
do they use natural day-to-day language, but they also elicit an
emotional response as well as thoughts and actions
• Stories can nurture a sense of community and help to build
relationships
• People enjoy sharing stories – stories enliven and entertain.
Stories can be used for all manner of purposes. Different purposes will tend
to require different kinds of stories. Below are 8 possible purposes for using
storytelling:
• Storytelling to ignite organizational change. Experience has shown

that storytelling can be highly effective as a change agent, even in
change-resistant organisations. Telling an appropriate story can
stimulate people to think actively about the implications of change and
to projecting themselves into visions of the future, enabling them to
better understand what it will be like to be doing things in a different
way, rather than being given vague, abstract concepts about it
• Storytelling for communications. Storytelling is based on an
interactive view of communication. Because the listener imaginatively
recreates the story in his or her own mind, the story is not perceived as
coming from outside, but rather as something that is part of the
listener’s own identity. The idea becomes the listener’s own
• Storytelling to capture tacit knowledge. Tacit knowledge can be a
multi-layered and multi-dimensional thing and as such it is often
difficult to articulate. Stories can provide a way of allowing people to
express and share tacit knowledge in rich and meaningful ways, rather
then being forced to articulate it in more “structured” ways that can
detract from its value
• Storytelling to embody and transfer knowledge. Similarly, a
simple story can communicate a complex multi-dimensioned idea, not
simply by transmitting information as a message, but by actively
involving the listeners in co-creating that idea. Furthermore, as a story
is told and retold, it changes, and so the knowledge embodied in it is
constantly being developed and built upon
• Use of stories for innovation. The use of storytelling in innovation
and knowledge creation can encourage people to move away from
linear thinking towards a more multi-dimensional view, to see new
connections between things, and also to marry scientific logic with a
more creative or intuitive approach
• Storytelling to build community. There is something about stories
that brings people together and fosters a sense of community.
Storytelling is non-hierarchical, it unlocks feelings and emotions as well
as thought processes, and hence it helps to build relationships and
trust
• Storytelling to enhance technology. People often find it difficult to
communicate about technology. Users can have trouble articulating

their needs and expectations, while experts can have difficulty “talking
in plain English”. Wherever there is a gap in language and
understanding, storytelling can provide a bridge, by communicating the
real essence of what each party is trying to get across
• Storytelling for individual growth. Storytelling is a skill, and one
that draws on a number of other key skills, mostly relating to
interpersonal communication. The development of these skills is an
important component of most knowledge management programmes
Potential applications of narratives are:
• Team or community-building exercises

• Breaking down barriers between multidisciplinary or multi-cultural
teams
• Workshop warm-ups
• Trip debriefs
• Personal project reviews
• Monitoring systems (see Most Significant Change)

The story template format below has been used in a range of settings
globally.
• Title of story
• Name of original teller
• Name of listener/understander
• Landscape: set the scene in time and space
• Dwelling place: precise location where action occurred
• Characters: cast list, descriptive attributes and roles in story
• Challenge: problem or task that triggered the action
• Action: sequence of events before, during and after your turning point
• Turning point: the moment when the change happens
• Resolution: ending, including moral, lesson learned or message
• Key visual hooks: memory aids to assist partner retelling the story

The story:
• Needs to be simple and powerful
• Should be in response to demand, and timed with specific opportunities
• Should provide a solution to both immediate and broader problems
• Should be targeted at people with the power to make decisions and
change things
• Should play to what is already in people’s minds

12. Peer assists
A peer assist is
simply a process
where a team of
people who are
working on a
project or
activity call a
meeting or
workshop to
seek knowledge
and insights
from people in
other teams.
Peer assist is a
tool which supports ‘learning before doing’ processes. Using the same
principles as scientific peer review, it begins with the premise that, for any
given activity, someone else has done something that is at least broadly
similar. In order to use the peer assists, a team or group first needs to
identify the right group of people, and then uses a systematic method to
benefit from their insights/experience. If conducted effectively, peer assists
can promote learning, and be used to strengthen mutual learning between
people and groups.

There is no single right way of holding peer assist. Below is a check list. The
text that follows provides some insights about the process.
• Clarify your purpose
• Has the problem already been solve?
• Get a facilitator
• Timing is important
• Select the participants
• Get cear about the deliverables
• Allow time for socializing
• Define the purpose and set the ground rules
• Start by sharing information and context
• Encourage the visitors to ask questions and give feedback
• Analyze what you have heard
• Present the feedback and agree actions
Develop a clear definition of the problem to be addressed. It may be

worthwhile doing some background research on whether similar issues have
been, or are being, faced elsewhere. The definition should include a set of

hoped-for outcomes from the peer assist process. Step 1 will help focus the
peer assist meeting, and will also provide a long list of potential participants.
Enlist participants. Participation can be generated either through open

invitation or selection. In general, it is worth getting a good mix of people
playing a range of roles across different locations, and from different
positions in the organizational hierarchy, with the proviso that peer assist
work best when there is some common ground, and scope for open honest
interactions. Consider including people from outside, but only if this will not
disrupt internal sharing. It may be worth bringing in outside experts after the
internal process has been completed.
Time the meeting carefully. The peer assist meeting should take place
early enough to ensure that: i) the required participants are given enough
notice and are available, and ii) the lessons can be applied effectively by the
team calling the peer assist.
Run the peer assist meeting. Effective peer assist meetings comprise six
parts.
• Part 1 – the learning team presents context, history and ideas
regarding the task or issue at hand. This should occur in an open and
flexible manner to enable redefinition in the session
• Part 2 should allow the participants to consider the problem, and
discuss issues of interest – namely, what has been covered, and what
hasn’t been covered
• Part 3 should be a session in which participants consider what the
learning team might need to know to address the problem and where
might they find that knowledge
• Part 4 of the meeting should be for the participants to reflect on what
has been learned from the others and to examine options. Again, the
learning team should not be the focus here
• In Part 5 of the meeting, the participants should present feedback to
the learning team and answer specific questions. This should be
informal, and deal with what has been learned, what options there are
and experiences elsewhere. Begin with the positive and then move on
to options to do things differently. When presenting what has worked
elsewhere, participants should be encouraged to describe rather than
prescribe
• In Part 6, the team who called the peer assist should acknowledge the
contribution of the participants. There should be a commitment to a
timeline for delivery of an action list of key lessons learned, and what
the learning team are going to do differently as a result. Finally, all the
participants should be invited to reflect on what they learned, and how
they might apply it going forward
Develop a set of lessons and related options to shape the learning team’s
decision-making process and provide pointers to future actions. This

document should be shared with the peer assist participants for final
comments and suggestions, and posted on the intranet.

• Ensure everyone is clear about the purpose of the peer assist and their
roles:
o Learning team listens in order to understand and learn
o Participants share knowledge and experience to help resolve the
challenge without adding to the workload
• Participants should be given briefing materials in advance so they have
time to prepare
• As well as the participants themselves, an external facilitator and note-
taker are essential. In particular, the facilitator should be from outside
the teams concerned, in order to make sure the diverse needs of the
participants are met
• Allow time for the teams to socialize. Rapport is essential for open
learning
• Although the peer assist process is designed to provide input for a
specific purpose or project, consider who else might benefit from the
lessons learned. Always look out for opportunities to share and reuse
knowledge and learning

13. Challenge sessions
It is well established that groups and individuals think by recognizing and

reacting to patterns, with most reactions emerging as a result of building on
past experiences in a logical and linear fashion. In other words, the
underlying assumption is that the future will correlate with the past. Although
such thinking is a necessity in certain situations, individuals and groups often
get stuck in such modes of thinking, and do not attempt to think beyond
them. When a different or new challenge is posed, the manner in which
people are conditioned to think means it is difficult to adjust.
As with other lateral thinking techniques, use of challenge sessions helps

generate new ideas and concepts. The key is effective facilitation of the
group through creative thinking process.

The basis of a challenge session, is to generate a series of challenge
statements, defined as deliberately provocative statements about a particular
situation. These are usually generated by taking accepted wisdoms – things
which are taken for granted about a particular situation – and treating them
as though they were not true. This initially calls for a suspension of
judgment, and the uncritical use of specific challenge statements to generate
ideas about solving the problem. This logical ‘reversal’ helps individuals and
groups to move away from conventional modes of thinking, and provides a
starting point for original, creative thinking.
As an example, we could make a statement that modern organizations should

not have a physical library. This leads one to think of an organization with
distributed collections on bookshelves which means that staff have to walk
around the building, potentially talking to others as they go. This could
contribute to strengthening informal interactions, which are at the heart of
effective knowledge and learning within an organization. With this particular
example, there are potential issues, namely, security and stock maintenance,
which would also need to be addressed if this challenge statement were to
become reality. The process for a challenge session is as follows:

• Identify the problem: This should ideally be a well defined problem
or issue faced by a team or organization
• Brainstorm a series of challenge statements: This may be done by
the whole group or subgroups
• Use the challenge statements to generate new ideas: Address the
following checklist:
o What are the consequences of the statement?
o What are the possible benefits?
o What special circumstances would be required to make it a
sensible solution?
o What are the principles needed to support it and make it work?
o How it would work as a step-by-step process?
o What would happen if a sequence of events was changed?
• Prioritize the best ideas. Use pilots to test them out in the live
environment
• Rollout more widely

14. After action reviews and retrospects (AAR)
An after action review (AAR) is a discussion of a project or an activity that
enables the individuals involved to learn for themselves what happened, why
it happened, what went well, what needs improvement and what lessons can
be learned from the experience. The spirit of an AAR is one of openness and
learning - it is not about problem fixing or allocating blame. Lessons learned
are not only tacitly shared on the spot by the individuals involved, but can be
explicitly documented and shared with a wider audience.
What makes after action reviews so powerful is that they can be applied
across a wide spectrum of activities, from two individuals conducting a five
minute AAR at the end of a short meeting to a day-long AAR held by a
project team at the end of a large project. Activities suitable for AARs simply
need to have a beginning and an end, an identifiable purpose and some basis
on which performance can be assessed.

There are many different ways to conduct AARs. The simplicity at the heart of
the tool means there is much potential to experiment with the process and
find the right ways that will work best with the group and the work item
under review. The whole process should be kept as simple and as easy to
remember as possible. The essence of the AAR is, however, to bring together
the relevant group to think about a project, activity, event or task, and pose
the following simple questions.
AARs can be grouped into three types: formal, informal and personal.
Although the fundamental approach involved in each is essentially the same,
there is some variation in how they are conducted.
Formal AARs tend to be conducted at the end of a major project or event

(learning after doing). They require some preparation and planning, but are
not difficult as they take the form of a simple meeting. This meeting may
take place over a couple of hours or a couple of days, depending on the scale
of the project. Steps and tips for successful formal AARs include:
• Call the meeting as soon as possible and invite the right people
• Create the right climate
• Appoint a facilitator
• Revisit the objectives and deliverables of the project
• Ask “what went well?” Find out why, and share learning advice for the
future
• Ask “what could have gone better?” Find out what the problems were
and share learning advice for the future
• Ensure that everyone feels fully head before leaving the meeting
• Record the AAR
• Share the learning

Informal AARs tend to be conducted after smaller events such as meetings
or presentations (learning after doing) or following a specific event during a
wider project or activity (learning while doing). They require less preparation
and planning and can often be done on the spur of the moment. In an open
and honest meeting, usually no longer than half an hour, each participant in
the event answers four simple questions:
• What was supposed to happen?
• What actually happened?
• Why were there differences?
• What did we learn?
Personal AARs are a simple matter of personal reflection. Take a few

minutes to reflect on something you did yesterday. Ask yourself the above
four AAR questions.
Table 1: After action review questions

Question Purpose
What was supposed to happen? These questions establish a
What actually happened? common understanding of the
Why were there differences? work item under review. The
facilitator should encourage and
promote discussion around these
questions. In particular,
divergences from the plan should
be explored.
What worked? These questions generate
What didn’t? reflection about the successes
Why? and failures during the course of
the project, activity, event or
task. The question ‘Why?’
generates understanding of the
root causes of these successes
and failures.
What would you do differently This question is intended to help
next time? identify specific actionable
recommendations. The facilitator
asks the team members for crisp
and clear, achievable and future-
oriented recommendations.

• Post the questions up on flipchart sheets prior to the session, with
answers then written on the sheet as the session progresses. The
completed sheets can then be stuck up around the room to serve as a
reminder of the progress
• Participants are participants, not a passive audience. The facilitator
should prepare leading questions and may have to ask it of several

people. The questions can be asked on an individual or a team basis.
The team mechanism is ideal, but if suggestions are slow coming, the
facilitator could go around the room asking each individual to express
one thing that worked and one thing that did not
• If there are issues with either openness or time, it may be worthwhile
to gather ideas first and then facilitate the discussion in the group
environment
• Ideally, an uninvolved note-taker should be asked to minute the
session. This will enable better capture of the learning
• The actionable recommendations should be as specific as possible. For
example, an AAR following a workshop could have the following
recommendation: ‘Make more time to understand the audience.’ A
better AAR would be ‘Make contact with the organizing body
representative and ask about the range of participants before planning
the workshop’
• Participants of an AAR should include all members of the team. A
facilitator should be appointed to help create an open environment,
promote discussion and draw out lessons learned
• AARs should be carried out immediately, while the team is still available
and memories are fresh. It is recommended that AARs be incorporated
at key points during a project, activity, event or task in the early
planning stage, although they are often completed at the end
• AARs can be conducted almost anywhere, and will vary in length. For
example, a 15-minute AAR can be conducted after a one-day
workshop, or a much longer meeting could be held to reflect on the
strategy development process throughout a large organization

A Retrospect follows the AAR format, but involves asking the following more
detailed questions:
• What did you set out to achieve?

• What was your plan to achieve this?
• How did this change as you progressed?
• What went well and why?
• What could have gone better?
• What advice would you give yourself if you were to go back to where
you were at the start of the project?
• What were the two or three key lessons you would share with others?
• What next for you in terms of this project?
• Can you think of a story that summarizes your experience of work on
this project?
• What should we have learned from this project a year from now?
• Are there any lessons for you personally?

D. Capturing and storing knowledge
To make sure that essential knowledge is retained a range of techniques can
be applied. This section provides some tools and techniques on how to
capture and store knowledge.
15. Knowledge harvesting

Knowledge harvesting is an approach that allows the tacit knowledge or
know-how to be captured and documented. This know-how can then be made
available to others in various ways such as through training programmes,
manuals, best practices and websites. Knowledge in organizations exists in
two forms: explicit knowledge, which is easily captured and shared; and tacit
knowledge, which is more experiential and intuitive, and so is less easy to
articulate. Knowledge harvesting is about trying to make some of the tacit
knowledge more explicit. Its aim is to help make better and wider use of their
existing knowledge by extracting it from the heads of a few key people and
making it available to a much wider range of people.
The ultimate goal of knowledge harvesting is to capture an expert’s decision-

making processes with enough clarity that someone else could repeat the
same processes and get the same results. Knowledge harvesting can be
effectively used in a range of situations such as:
• When an organization wants to “know what it knows”
• When knowledge and information are needed for a specific, clearly
defined, purpose.
• To capture the knowledge of employees who are leaving the
organization or department
• To gather knowledge to support a process of change or improvement
• To kick-start a knowledge management programme by quickly
generating a body of expert knowledge about a subject and making it
available across the organization
• As an ongoing practice, as part of a wider knowledge management
strategy
The benefits of knowledge harvesting include:

• The knowledge of a few key individuals is made readily available to
others who need it
• Individuals can access experts’ knowledge when and where they need
it, without being dependent on the availability of that expert
• Vital knowledge is not lost to the organization when people leave
• The learning curve of new people joining the organization is shortened
• The tangible knowledge assets of the organization can be increased
• Productivity and efficiency can be improved, as people can use existing
expertise rather than having to go through their own trial-and-error
experiences
• It can be done relatively quickly and inexpensively

While there is no set formula for knowledge harvesting, there are some
general guidelines that facilitate the process. These can be broken down into
a number of steps.
• Focus: Decide on what specific knowledge and expertise you want to
capture, and be clear about what the benefits will be. It is neither
possible nor desirable to capture everything that everyone knows
• Understand your target audience. It is important to understand who
will be using the knowledge that you are capturing before you start to
capture it. This will help you ensure you capture the right knowledge at
the right level, and make it available in the most appropriate ways
• Find your experts. Identify the experts - the people who have the
knowledge and know-how you are seeking to capture. If you have a
white pages that includes details people’s skills and knowledge then
this is a good place to start
• Choose your harvesters. An effective harvester (interviewer) is
crucial. Much of the success of knowledge harvesting relies on the
ability of the interviewer to elicit the right knowledge from experts.
Making tacit knowledge explicit can be difficult – people often don’t
“know what they know” and so helping people to talk about what they
know, and then capturing that effectively, is a key skill. It is generally
recommended that you use a trained harvester – whether you hire an
external consultant, or develop and train someone in-house. In the
latter case, consider people with strong communication, interpersonal
and interviewing skills.
• Harvest: interview your experts. The best way to capture tacit
knowledge is using one-to-one, face-to-face interviews with your
experts. The interviews will involve asking them to talk about what
they do and to describe specific situations in which they have applied
specific know-how. Interviews need to be well prepared in advance,
including drafting a topic guide or a list of questions. Examples of
questions might include:
o Describe a time when…?
o What’s the first thing you do?
o How do you know to do that?
o How do you know when to do it?
o What do you do next? Why?
o What usually happens?
o What happens if something else is done?
o What would happen if…?
o Who else is involved?
o What are some common mistakes or misconceptions?
o What is the most important thing to remember when you’re doing
this?
o Describe how you currently help others learn how to do this?
o What are the main obstacles that prevent them from achieving
the same results as you?

o What are examples of support materials, documents, procedures,
manuals, research evidence, check-lists that are relevant?
o What would make this process easier to understand?
o What would make this process easier to achieve?
• Organize, package and share. Once the knowledge has been

gathered it can then be edited, organized and presented (or
“packaged”) into a form that meets the needs of its users
• Apply, evaluate and adapt. It is important to ensure that the
knowledge you have captured is being accessed and applied and that
users are getting value from it. You will also need to consider its value
over time: knowledge harvesting can result in relatively static
documents that will, at some point, become out-of-date and so they
will need to be continually refreshed if they are to retain their value.

16. Integrated approaches to capturing learning
When an organization actively records and shares its success stories and
failures, everyone learns and benefits.
One way to do this is by using a variety of media to capture, document and

archive learning that occurs during the life of a development initiative in ways
that are thorough and meaningful. The learning is subsequently fed back into
the project cycle and stored in the organization’s learning and sharing
repository, thus making it available both internally and externally.
This approach can mean combining use of text, video and photography, to
gather information and document learning as it occurs over time. This also
results in ‘live’ impact monitoring.
By employing different media, information can be gathered through individual

interviews and testimonials, through observation of meetings, events and
processes, as well as by recording the ongoing impressions and experiences
of individual participants.
Throughout the process, the recorded impressions and experiences of

individuals evolve into stories that illustrate change and impact.
An advantage of this approach is its versatility. The material gathered can be

packaged in a range of formats, including the combination of several into
multimedia presentations or disseminated individually through a range of
communication channels, such as print publications, websites, video and
radio.

As a knowledge management tool, integrated media approaches can be
combined with a systematic approach to capturing learning and can be
complemented by knowledge management techniques such knowledge
harvesting, storytelling, Most Significant Change (MSC) and others described
in this document.
The information, experiences and stories gathered and elaborated can be

particularly useful when opportunities arise to share information about impact
with broader audiences at regional and international meetings and events,
and through the media.

• One approach to information gathering already tested in an IFAD-
supported project is use of themes as a means of capturing the
project’s pre-existing conditions, its processes, its outcomes and its
lessons learned. As an example, the themes used in the IFAD project
were:
o overall conditions
o geographic, economic and cultural context
o learning and its impact on livelihoods of rural poor people
o responsiveness to community demand and the tension between
different project design styles. Are solutions imposed by
outsiders, or developed through community participation?
• Prepare a communication plan for the duration of the project, which
can be continuously updated as new opportunities arise to share the
emerging learning
• Conduct a diagnosis of the pre-existing existing situation in the project
area in relation to the thematic areas you have identified
• Identify the people, communities, organizations that you wish to
monitor. These may change during the life of the project, as individual
cases emerge where useful stories are evolving
• Use written text, photography and video as primary methods of
capturing information
• Gather information through individual interviews and testimonials,
observation of meetings, events and processes, as well as recording
the ongoing impression and experiences of individual participants
• Use knowledge management techniques such as MSC, story-telling and
knowledge harvesting to support a systematic approach to capturing
learning
• At the end of each information-gathering mission, and as a way of
sharing ongoing learning and progress with others, package multimedia
products documenting the progress and impact of the programme by
combining the use of a video component (approximately 4 to 6
minutes), and fact sheets with stories and photographs. These
materials should be shared with the programme participants, and
placed on the organization’s web site for the external audience. Within
the institution, it is recommended that learning events be organized

• In close collaboration with programme participants, in an effort to build
local capacity, repeat this process – assess the impact of the
programme by interviewing your sample group - on an annual basis for
the duration of the programme.
• At the end of the programme, further distil all the material and
summarize the overall experience, highlighting its successes and
failures

• Prepare a communication plan for the duration of the programme and
revisit it on a regular basis
• Prepare a realistic budget for the activity, based on the advice of
communication professionals
• Ensure you mount integrated missions: ‘the reporter’, photographer,
video producers
• Utilize on-the-ground expertise in video production and photography as
part of the process. In cases where this expertise cannot be found,
some capacity building would be incorporated
• Always go back to the identified sample group. If you have to drop a
previously identified sample group, document the rationale
• If you pick new sample groups, document the rationale and context
Case study
This IFAD methodology was utilized to document emerging lessons and
impact of the First Mile Project. http://www.ifad.org/rural/firstmile/index.htm

17. Exit interviews
Exit Interviews are usually
thought of as a rather formal
interview between a
manager and staff member
leaving an organization,
focusing on the latter’s
reasons for leaving.
However, exit interviews are
a learning process
emphasizing the importance
of capturing and storing
know-how. Obviously, it is impossible to capture all of the knowledge of any
individual, but exit interviews are designed to minimize the loss of useful
knowledge through staff turnover and ease the learning curve of new staff. If
conducted appropriately, they can benefit both the organization and the
leaving staff. The organization captures the leaver’s useful knowledge,
hopefully in an accessible form. The leaver gets to reflect on their role, and
hopefully leave on the positive note. Conducting exit interviews can also be
highly therapeutic.

The ideal focus of the learning-based exit interview is on knowledge that is
most useful to the next person, or for others doing similar jobs. Because
face-to-face interactions are central to such exit interviews, ideally between
the leaver and potential learners, the management of the exit interview
process must be initiated as early as possible after it is known that the
person is leaving.
• Identify who in the organization might benefit from the leaver’s

knowledge and what they will need to know from that person
• Consider who currently accesses the person’s knowledge and what they
need to know from the replacement staff. Think about documented
explicit knowledge (in files, documents and emails) as well as tacit
knowledge (know-how), which needs to be explained
• Develop a plan in a participatory way to ensure knowledge can be
captured and documented during the leaver’s notice period. This
requires a review of key tasks, drawing from a ToR in consultation with
the leaving staff. A Process-based Knowledge Mapping (See above)
could prove useful, providing a framework for conversations about how
key tasks are undertaken, what inputs and outputs are involved,
obstacles and bottlenecks, etc. Internal and external networks and
other sources of knowledge should also be discussed. For explicit
knowledge, the leaver should move relevant files – hard and electronic
– into shared folders or a document library. Ideally, they should be

clean up and organize all files and draw up a related set of notes for
their successor

• Get the leaver involved from the outset. Ask them for their inputs on
how the organization might best benefit from their knowledge,
experience, contacts prior to departure
• While HR need to be involved in the process, it may be best that
knowledge-focused interviews are undertaken by a relevant peer or
subject expert, as long as they are appropriately skilled and trained
• If at all possible, there should be an overlap period between the leaver
and their successor so that a ‘live’ handover can be done; this may
need to be in the form of a temporary member of staff who acts as a
‘bridgehead’
• Exit interviews are usually only appropriate for employees who resign
voluntarily or retire, rather that those who are fired or made redundant
• There is a real need to be clear about who will use the knowledge
gathered and how it will be used, before you begin to gather it; the
purpose of the interview is not to gather knowledge per se but to
gather useful knowledge that will actually be used
• The less knowledge the organization captures on a regular basis, the
more it will need to capture at exit. It is possible to capture this on an
ongoing basis, through tools such as Social Network Analysis, Process-
based Knowledge Mapping and Identifying and Sharing Best Practices

18. Identifying and sharing best practices
The sharing of practices is often one of the first things to be carried out in a
knowledge management initiative. This often begins with common practices
such as instruction manuals or “how to” guidelines. The next step from there
is to identify and share best practices.
A best or good practice is simply a process or a methodology that represents

the most effective way of achieving a specific objective. Best or good
practices are practices that have proven to work well and produce good
results, and are therefore recommended as a model.
Much of best practice knowledge is tacit - held in people’s heads and not
always easy to document. Most best practice programmes combine two key
elements: explicit knowledge such as a best practices database (connecting
people with information), and methods for sharing tacit knowledge such as
communities of practice (connecting people with people). These two
approaches are complementary. A database can provide enough information
for a potential user of the best practice to find it and decide if it is worth
pursuing further. However, the best way of sharing best practices is “on the
job” and so communities and personal contact with others who have used the
best practice is key.
The essence of identifying and sharing best practices is to learn from others
and to re-use knowledge. Effective sharing of best practices can help
organizations to:
• identify and replace poor practices
• raise the performance of poor performers closer to that of the best
• avoid reinventing the wheel
• minimize re-work caused by use of poor methods
• save costs through better productivity and efficiency

The following 6-step approach is recommended to identify and share best
practices. The overall approach is aimed at documenting the essential
features of a best practice, giving pointers to relevant experts in that
practice, deducing general guidelines, diffusing basic knowledge, and using
subject matter experts to apply and adapt the practices in a new context.
• Identify users’ requirements: This step may sound obvious, but it is

not uncommon for someone given the task of capturing best practices
to start by designing a database, when clearly this is a case of putting
the cart before the horse. Start by considering where you can really
add value. Look at what areas of the organization need attention
because of poor performance or difficult challenges. Who can most
benefit from better knowledge and understanding of best practices?
How will they access and use them?

• Discover good practices: There are various methods of identifying
best practices. One approach is to look at who is producing excellent
results and is therefore likely to be using good practices. Having
discovered these people, you will then need to discern which parts of
their overall approach or methods being used are relevant practices
such as subject matter experts, internal auditors, consultants and
peers. You may use the following knowledge management tools and
approaches to identify best practices:
o communities of practice
o after action reviews
o knowledge harvesting
o exit interviews
Don’t necessarily limit your search to only include practices within the
organization; much can be learned from the practices of other
organizations
• Document good practices: Best practice descriptions are usually kept
in a database in a standard format. A typical template might include
the following sections:
o Title: short, descriptive title; this can be accompanied by a short
abstract.
o Profile: several short sections outlining processes, function,
author, keywords, etc.
o Context: where is this applicable? What problems does it solve?
o Resources: what resources and skills are needed to carry out
the best practice?
o Description: what are the processes and steps involved?
o Improvement measures: are there performance measures
associated with this practice?
o Lessons learned: what proves difficult? What would the
originators of the practice do differently if they were to do it
again?
o Links to resources: experts contact details, workbooks, video
clips, articles, transcripts of review meetings, tools and
techniques used.
The aim at this stage is not to describe the practice in great detail, but
to give enough information to allow users of the database to decide
whether it matches their needs and where they can find further
information. A key consideration is how the information is organized
and classified so that users can readily find what they need.
• Validate best practices: A practice is only “good” or “best” if there is
a demonstrable link between what is practiced and the end result. In
most organizations and especially in areas where practices are
constantly evolving, rigorous cause-and-effect analysis is impracticable.
Hence a degree of subjective judgment is needed as to what
constitutes “best”. A common approach is to have a panel of reviewers
compromising internal and external subject experts and peers, who
evaluate a potential best practice against their knowledge of existing

practice. It is equally important to ensure that you seek input and
feedback from customers (i.e. the ultimate beneficiaries, such as
patients) of the best practices.
• Disseminate and apply. While a database of best practices is a useful
starting point, most organizations find it essential to complement this
with face-to-face knowledge sharing about those best practices. This is
where the real value is added. Not only does it help the recipient dig
beneath the explicit knowledge and gain more in depth insights, but it
can also provide a two-benefit in that dialogue between the conveyor of
best practice knowledge and the recipient can enrich the knowledge of
both.
Common ways of sharing best practice knowledge include:
communities of practice; improvement groups or quality circles in
which teams within an organization meet regularly to discuss ways of
improving a process; visits to other departments or organizations with
good performance; organized learning events such as share fairs or
knowledge cafés, that bring people together to share specific
knowledge and experience; job secondments or exchanges
• Develop a supporting infrastructure: To successfully implement a
best practice programme, you need to ensure you have the required
infrastructure in place. This infrastructure is often developed as part of
a wider knowledge management strategy. Typically, several generic
aspects need attention:
o The people to facilitate and drive the process through its initial
stages, until it becomes embedded in the organization’s ways of
working (e.g. a best practices team, or a network of best
practices coordinators)
o The technical infrastructure sharing
o The content management infrastructure to ensure that best
practices are documented and classified in a way that makes
them easy to find

Best practices will only work when people share their experiences in an open
fashion, so targeting knowledge that is a clear source of internal status or
power could lead to a poor resource.
Not all know-how can be captured, and some believe that knowledge
collection through tools such as ‘how to guides’ is far less useful than a well
connected internal network. In reality, a balance must be sought between the
‘collection’ and ‘connection’ approaches.

19. White pages or experts’ directories
White pages is a tool to help people to find others in their organization that
have the knowledge and expertise they need for a particular task or project.
It is like a staff directory, but rather than simply listing people’s names, job
titles, departments and contact details, it includes details about their
knowledge, skills, experience and interests. “White pages” are electronic
rather than paper-based, so that users can search it in a variety of ways, just
like they might perform a search on the Internet.
For this reason, they are often used as the cornerstone point of systematic
knowledge and learning initiatives in development organizations. White pages
have the potential to facilitate connections that might otherwise happen only
randomly, leading to valuable new collaboration opportunities. On a day-to-
day level, effective white pages enable and improve the brief, fluid
connections across the organization that are at the heart of the learning
organization.
“White pages” are also known as experts’ directories, expertise directories,

skills directories or capabilities catalogues.

• Identify user perspectives: Find out how the different teams and
individuals might use the system, for what reasons, and when. A
particular need is to consider the multiple uses to which the system
may be put, as well as potential differences between intended and
actual uses.
• Determine the appropriate level of participation and control: It
is essential to establish from the outset whether inclusion on the
system should be compulsory or voluntary, and whether to create and
manage entries centrally or allow individuals to create and update their
own. Most successful pages are based on the voluntary and
decentralized approach, allowing staff to personalize their entries.
Some systems aim for a halfway house between centralized and
decentralized approaches, by providing a core set of data, which
expands on the basic concept of the staff directory, but leaving users
free to add details as they see fit
• Create a template for the information: When creating a template
for the system it is important to consider ease of data entry, data
amendment and data retrieval
• Broadening the scope: Staff pages should be easily linked to other
components of the KM system, for example, collaborative working
tools, back-to-office report systems, project databases or email
systems, to allow easy access to electronic information of the
organization. They might also be expanded to include details of
communities, teams, external partners, and so on

• Develop guidelines and provide training: Data protection policy
and guidelines mean that staff pages must comply with relevant
requirements. A clear policy on the correct use of the system is crucial.
These policies and guidelines should be provided to staff in the form of
manuals and training courses, so that current and new staff are able to
understand the system and are encouraged add their entry. Leavers
should also be reminded to update their entry accordingly, subject to
their own preferences for contact after moving on.
• Launch the tool and gain ‘buy-in’: There is a need for internal
marketing of any white pages system, to encourage participation and
use. Useful initial mechanisms include launches at staff meetings,
putting up posters and nominating champions to promote the system in
different areas of the organization. Another useful tool is to ensure
senior management is involved with the rollout, thus leading the rest of
the organization by example. As with all knowledge and learning tools,
the benefits must be made apparent at every stage
• Monitoring ongoing use and promotion of the tool: There is the
need and the potential to track the ongoing use of electronic pages,
and the reporting requirements for this should be considered as early
as possible. Effective measuring can help promote the tool across the
organization, and help strengthen internal networks. Gathering and
sharing the best success stories of using the system can help build
participation on an ongoing basis
• Maintenance: Owing to the continual changes in staff composition and
location, and additions to personal knowledge and skills, updating the
system regularly is particularly important. Links to other systems (such
as HR sytems and project information systems) should allow data such
as job details, contact information and current work to be updated
automatically. Where individuals create their own entries, it may be
necessary to send regular reminder emails about updating the system,
with a reporting mechanism to highlight those who are lagging behind.

White pages template
• Name
• Job title
• Department or team
• Contact information
• A brief job description
• Current and previous projects
• Back-to-office reports
• Areas of current knowledge and expertise (selected from a pre-defined
• list of subjects / terms; people may also rank their knowledge, e.g.
from ‘extensive’ to ‘basic’)
• Areas of interest
• Countries of interest
• Key contacts – both internal and external, e.g. key donors, valuable
partners, etc.
• Membership of internal and external communities of practice or other
networks
• Relevant professional qualifications
• Personal profile: hobbies and interests, holidays, etc.

20. Blogs
A Weblog (also known as a web log or a ‘blog’) is a web application on which
dated entries are posted on a webpage on a particular topic. Weblogs enable
users to publish short comments and ideas instantly for other people to read.
Blogging can be an effective communications tool for small groups of people
to keep in touch with each other. Weblogs can vary in form from sites
maintained by one individual to multiple contributor weblogs where
information is posted by approved contributors after editor approval: many
weblogs allow the creation of a community of interest based on the particular
topic of the blog. A ‘blogstorm’ or ‘blog swarm’ happens when there is an
explosion of interest, or posting of opinions and information around a
particular subject.

Before setting up a weblog, consider what form is appropriate for your needs:
according to Wikipedia there are 16 types of weblog, including the following:
• Personal blog: online diary or journal posts written by friends
connected
• Thoughtful blog: an individual’s (or small group’s) thoughts on a topic
• Topical blog: concentrate on a particular specialized topic
• News blog: a news compendium on a particular subject
• Collaborative/collective/group blog: involves multiple contributors
on a particular topic, although can be a selected group or open to
anyone
• Political blog: includes the watch blog in which an author(s) critiques
what he/she/they see as consistent errors or bias in an online
newspaper or news site
• Legal blog: often referred to as blawgs, these sites discuss law and
legal affairs

• Directory blog: often collect numerous websites with interesting
content on a topic
• Corporate blog: employees post official or semi-official blogs about
their work
• Advice blog: sites that provide expert technical advice.
• Format blogs: sites with a specialist form of presentation, such as
images or videos, or on a particular theme

Sources:
• Knowledge audit:
http://www.nelh.nhs.uk/knowledge_management/km2/audit_toolkit.as
p
• NHS National Library for Health, Specialist Library Knowledge
Management: Tools for Knowledge and Learning: ABC of Knowledge
Management:
http://www.library.nhs.uk/SpecialistLibrarySearch/Download.aspx?resI
D=126403
• Overseas Development Institute, Research and Policy in Development
Programme: Tools for knowledge and learning:
http://www.odi.org.uk/RAPID/publications/Documents/KM_toolkit_web.
pdf
• Rick Davies and Jess Dart: The ‘Most Significant Change’ (MSC)
Technique: A Guide to Its Use:
http://www.mande.co.uk/docs/MSCGuide.pdf
• World Bank Institute: Communities of practice
http://info.worldbank.org/etools/WBIKO/TGtoolkit/index.htm
• CIDA: Sharing knowledge for community development and
transformation
• Steve Denning: Story telling http://www.stevedenning.com
• IDRC: Outcome mapping: http://www.idrc.ca/openebooks/959-3/
• Process-based mapping:
http://www.destinationkm.com/articles/default.asp?ArticleID=1041
• Reframing matrix:
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newCT_05.htm
• Action learning: http://www.natpact.nhs.uk/cms/274.php
• Six thinking hats:
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTED_07.htm
• Peer assist:
http://www.nelh.nhs.uk/knowledge_management/km2/peer_assists_to
olkit.asp
• http://www.km4dev.org/index.php?module=uploads&func=download&f
ileId=352
• Flash presentation
English version:
http://www.saea.uottawa.ca/index.php?option=com_content&task=vie
w&id=682&Itemid=649
French version:
http://www.saea.uottawa.ca/index.php?option=com_content&task=vie
w&id=682&Itemid=649&lang=fr_FR
• After action review:
http://www.nelh.nhs.uk/knowledge_management/km2/aar_toolkit.asp


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Knowledge management and learning tools and techniques

Prepared by: R. Samii

It is recommended that the tools and techniques in this document be used:

Knowledge management in a nutshell

The transfer of knowledge requires commitment and entails continuous

At the same time, knowledge management programmes should have both a

The collecting dimension involves linking people with information. It relates

The connecting dimension involves linking people with people - specifically

Most knowledge management programmes aim at an integrated approach to

IFAD considers access to rural poverty information and knowledge as a

IFAD believes that effective knowledge management, most importantly

Knowledge management IFAD

IFAD has adopted a pragmatic and incremental approach to implementing the

In implementing the knowledge management strategy IFAD will be putting in

Para 34 of the knowledge management strategy provided a preview of some

IFAD is currently using some of these tools. For example:

The tools are divided into four categories:

The toolkit is a living document. It will be amended and expanded based on

If you have any queries, please contact Roxanna Samii (r.samii@ifad.org) on

Knowledge management IFAD

Knowledge management IFAD

Knowledge management IFAD

How to go about it?

• Identify the network(s) of people (team, group, department)

Knowledge management IFAD

Key points/practical tips

Knowledge management IFAD

It involves project stakeholders in deciding what kind of change need to be

The process involves the systematic selection

Many organizations have found MSC monitoring a useful knowledge

Knowledge management IFAD

Detailed description of the process

2. Define the domains of change. This involves selected stakeholders

3. Define the reporting period. Decide how frequently to monitor

4. Collect significant change (SC) stories from those most directly

Information to be documented should include:

Knowledge management IFAD

Figure 1 – Flow of stories and feedback in MSC

6. Feed back the results of the selection process. Feedback is

7. Verify the stories. Verification is useful in order to ensure that the

Knowledge management IFAD

Verification may be unnecessary in some instances. When stories are

It is in the interests of whoever selects a SC story as the most

Both the description and interpretation aspects of MSC stories can

It may be useful to describe follow-up inquiries as ‘exploration’ or

8. Quantify. MSC places a strong emphasis on qualitative reporting of

Knowledge management IFAD

Meta-monitoring is relatively simple. It does not require expert

The most common changes are:

Knowledge management IFAD

Outcome Mapping focuses on:

Detailed description of the process

Knowledge management IFAD

Evaluation Planning helps the programme identify evaluation priorities and

Figure 2 – Three stages of Outcome Mapping

Outcome mapping is based on principles of participation and should include

Knowledge management IFAD

Knowledge mapping can be used to effectively plan the implementation of a

Figure 3 – Process-based knowledge map

Knowledge management IFAD

Knowledge management IFAD

Detailed description of the process