Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Mobile Communications
Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Wen-Shen Wuen

Trans. Wireless Technology Laboratory

National Chiao Tung University

WS Wuen Mobile Communications 1

Outline Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Outline
1 Radio Wave Propagation
2 Transmit and Receive Signal Models
3 Free Space Propagation Model
4 Ray Tracing Path Loss Models
Reflection
Diffraction
Scattering
5 Empirical Path Loss Models
Outdoor Propagation Models
Indoor Propagation Models
6 Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model
Link Budget Analysis
Simplified Path Loss Model
Log-normal Shadow Fading
Percentage of Cell Coverage Area

WS Wuen Mobile Communications 2

 Radio Wave Propagation Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Radio Wave Propagation

Radio Wave Propagation
Reflection, diffraction and scattering
Line-of-sight (LOS) path : direct path between a transmitter
(TX) and a receiver (RX)

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Radio Wave Propagation Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Radio Wave Propagation, cont’d

Propagation channel properties

Noise, interference, and other channel impediments
Channel impediments change over time
Random and unpredictable due to user movement ⇒ Limits the
reliability and performance of wireless communications and
requires channel models to characterize
Propagation Models
Large-scale models predict the mean signal strength for an
arbitrary TX-RX separation distance (∼100 to ∼1000 m)
Small-scale/fading models characterize the rapid fluctuation of
the received signal strength over very short travel distances (∼
wave lengths) or short time duration (∼ seconds)

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 Radio Wave Propagation Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Propagation Effects

Propagation Effects
Path Loss: caused by dissipation of power radiated by the TX
as well as effects of channels
Shadowing: caused by obstacles between the TX and RX that
attenuate signal power through absorption, reflection,
scattering and diffraction
Multipath Fading
The received signal of a mobile moving over very small distances
is a sum of many contributions coming from different directions.
The received signal powera may vary by as much as three or four
orders of magnitude (30 or 40 dB) when the receiver is moving by
only a fraction of a wave length.
a Measurement of local received signal power: Average signal power

measurements over a measurement track of 5λ to 40λ. e.g. fc = 1 ∼ 2 GHz,

λ = c/fc = 0.3 ∼ 1.5m ⇒ measuring the local average received power over movements
of 1m to 10m.

WS Wuen Mobile Communications 6

Radio Wave Propagation Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Relation of Path Loss, Shadowing and Multipath

WS Wuen Mobile Communications 7

 Transmit and Receive Signal Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Transmit and Receive Signal Model

Noise
Transmitted n(t) Received
Signal Signal
s(t) Channel, h(t) + r(t)

Transmitted signal: s(t) = Re s̃(t)ej2πfc t

© ª

Received signal: r(t) = Re r̃(t)ej2πfc t + n(t)

© ª

For time-invariant channels: r̃(t) = s̃(t) ∗ h(t)

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Transmit and Receive Signal Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Representation of Bandpass Signals

A bandpass signal s(t) at carrier frequency fc :

n o
s(t) = A(t) cos 2πfc t + φ(t) = Re A(t)ejφ(t) ej2πfc t
¡ ¢
(1)

Let
A(t)ejφ(t) , sI (t) + jsQ (t) (2)

q
envelope: A(t) = sI2 (t) + sQ2
(t) (3)

−1 sQ (t)
µ ¶
phase: φ(t) = tan (4)
sI (t)

The information can be carried in the envelope A(t) and/or

phase φ(t) of a carrier.

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 Transmit and Receive Signal Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Representation of Bandpass Signals

Complex lowpass representation of s(t)

s(t) = sI (t) cos(2πfc t) − sQ (t) sin(2πfc t) (5)

sI (t) and sQ (t) are real lowpass (baseband) signals with

bandwidth B ¿ fc and also called in-phase and quadrature
components of s(t).
©¡ ¢¡ ¢ª
s(t) = Re sI (t) + jsQ (t) cos(2πfc t) + j sin(2πfc t) (6)
= Re {s̃(t)} cos(2πfc t) − Im {s̃(t)} sin(2πfc t) (7)
n o
j2πfc t
= Re s̃(t)e (8)

s̃(t) , sI (t) + jsQ (t) is the equivalent lowpass signal for s(t) or
its complex envelope.

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Free Space Propagation Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Free Space Propagation Model

TX and RX have a clear, unobstructed LOS path in between

Examples: satellite communication systems and microwave
LOS radio links

Friis Free Space Equation

Pt Gt Gr λ2
Pr (d) = (9)
(4π)2 d2 L
Pt : transmitted power,
Pr (d): received power at T-R separation distance d meters,
Gt : transmitter antenna gain,
Gr : receiver antenna gain,
λ: wave length in meters,
L: system loss factor not related to propagation (L ≥ 1).

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 Free Space Propagation Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Free Space Propagation Model, cont’d

System Loss Factor: L(L ≥ 1), usually due to transmission line

attenuation, filter losses and antenna losses; L = 1 ⇒ no loss in
the system hardware
1
Received Power: Pr ∝ d2
⇒20 dB/decade
Isotropic Radiator ⇒ an ideal antenna which radiates power
with unit gain uniformly in all directions.
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power, EIRP = Pt Gt ⇒ the
maximum radiated power available from a transmitter in the
direction of maximum antenna gain, as compared to an
isotropic radiator
Effective Radiated Power, ERP ⇒ as compared to a
half-wave dipole antenna.
dBi vs dBd: dipole antenna has a gain of 1.64 (2.15 dB above
an isotrope) ⇒ EIRP [dB] = 2.15 + ERP [dB]

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Free Space Propagation Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Power Flux Density

Power flux density Pd (W/m2 ) in free space

EIRP Pt Gt E2 E2 |E|2 |E|2
Pd = = = = = = W/m2 (10)
4πd 2 4πd 2 Rfs η 120πΩ 377Ω
Rfs : the intrinsic impedance of free space; |E|: the magnitude of the
radiating portion of the electric field in the far field

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 Free Space Propagation Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Received Power

Received Power
|E|2 Pt Gt Gr λ2 |E|2 Gr λ2
Pr (d) = Pd Ae = Ae = = W (11)
120π (4π)2 d2 480π2
Gant λ2
where Ae = 4π is effective aperture of the antenna.

Received Power

d0 2
µ ¶
Pr (d) = Pr (d0 ) , d ≥ d0 ≥ df (12)
d
Pr (d0 ) d0
µ ¶ µ ¶
Pr (d) [dBm] = 10 log + 20 log (13)
0.001W d

d0 is the reference distance and typically chosen to be 1m (indoor)

or 100m∼1Km (outdoor).

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Free Space Propagation Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Equivalent Received Voltage at Receiver Input

Equivalent Received Voltage at Receiver Input

2 2
Vrx (Vant /2)2 Vant
Pr (d) = = =
Rant Rant 4Rant
p
⇒ Vrx = Rant Pr (d) (14)

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 Free Space Propagation Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Example 1
Transmitter power, Pt = 50 W; Carrier frequency, fc = 900 MHz;
Transmitter antenna gain, Gt = 1; Receiver antenna gain, Gr = 2;
Receiver antenna resistance Rant = 50 Ω; Transmitter and receiver
distance, d = 10 km; Find (a) the power at the receiver, (b)
magnitude of E-field at receiver antenna, (c) the rms voltage
applied to the receiver input assuming that the receiver antenna is
matched to the receiver.
Solution:
Pt Gt Gr λ2 50×1×2×(1/3)2
³ ´ ³ ´
(a) Pr (d) = 10 log = 10 log (4π)2 ×100002 = −61.5 dBm
q (4π)2 d2 q
q
Pr (d)120π Pr (d)120π 7×10−10 ×120π
(b) |E| = Ae = G λ2 /4π = 2×0.332 /(4π)
= 0.0039 V/m
p pr
(c) Vrms = Pr (d)Rant = 7 × 10−10 × 50 = 0.187 mV

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Free Space Propagation Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Path Loss

Path Loss in Free Space

Pt Gt Gr λ2
µ ¶
PL [dB] = 10 log = 10 log (15)
Pr (4π)2 d2
valid for d in the far-field (d ≥ d0 ≥ df )a of the transmitter antenna.
2
a Far Field (Fraunhofer Region):df = 2D
λ
, df À D, df À λ, where D is the largest
physical linear dimension of the antenna.

Example 2
Find the far field distance for an antenna with maximum dimension
of 1m and operating frequency of 900MHz.
Solution:
2 2D2 2(1)2
far field distance ⇒ df = 2D
λ = c/f = 3×108
= 21 = 6m
3
900×106

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 Free Space Propagation Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Free-Space LOS Received Signal

Free-Space LOS Received Signal
(p d )
Gt Gr λe−j2π λ
r(t) = Re s̃(t)ej2πfc t (16)
4πd

Example 3
If a transmitter produces 50W of power, express the transmit power
in (a) dBm (b) dBW. If 50W is applied to a unit gain antenna with a
900MHz carrier frequency, (c) find the received power in dBm at a
free space distance of 100m from the antenna. (d) What is
Pr (10km)? Assume Gr = 1.
Solution:
(a) Pt (dBm) = 10 log (Pt (mW)/1mW) = 10 log(50 × 103 ) = 47dBm
(b) Pt (dBW) = 10 log (Pt (W)/1W) = 10 log(50×) = 17dBW
Pt Gt Gr λ2 50(1)(1)(1/3)2
(c) Pr (d) = (4π)2 d2 L
= (4π)2 (100)2 (1)
= 3.5 × 10−6 W = 3.5 × 10−3 mW
Pr (dBm) = 10 log Pr (mW) = 10 log(3.5 × 10−3 mW) = −24.5dBm
¡ 100 ¢
(d) Pr (10km) = Pr (100m) + 20 log 10000 = −24.5 − 40 = −64.5dBm
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Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Ray Tracing Path Loss Models

Tracing radio ray propagation paths
Reflection
Diffraction
Scattering

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 Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Reflection of Radio Waves

When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges upon

another medium having different electrical properties ⇒ partially
reflected and partially transmitted.

Material of 2nd medium

Perfect Dielectric: partially transmitted into the 2nd medium
and partially reflected back to the 1st medium, and no loss of
energy.
Perfect Conductor: all energy is reflected back without loss of
energy.
Lossy Dielectric: absorbs power ⇒ complex dielectric constant:
σ
² = ²0 ²r − j²0 = ²0 ²r − j (17)
2πf

²0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m is the free space dielectric constant.

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Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Material Parameters at Various Frequencies

Material Relative Conductivity Frequency

Permittivity ²r σ (s/m) (MHz)
Poor Ground 4 0.001 100
Typical Ground 15 0.005 100
Good Ground 25 0.02 100
Sea Water 81 5.0 100
Fresh Water 81 0.001 100
Brick 4.44 0.001 4000
Limestone 7.51 0.028 4000
Glass, Corning 707 4 1.8 × 10−7 1
Glass, Corning 707 4 2.7 × 10−5 100
Glass, Corning 707 4 0.005 10000

Good conductor: ²r and σ are generally insensitive to operating

frequency
Lossy dielectric: ²r is constant with frequency, but σ may be
sensitive to operating frequency
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 Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Reflection from Dielectric

Laws of Reflection in Dielectric

θi = θr , Er = ΓEi , Et = Ei + Er = (1 + Γ) Ei (18)

Γ is either Γ∥ or Γ⊥ .

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Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Reflection Coefficients

Reflection Coefficients

Er η 2 sin θt − η 1 sin θi
Γ∥ = = (E-field in POI) (19)
Ei η 2 sin θt + η 1 sin θi
Er η 2 sin θi − η 1 sin θt
Γ⊥ = = (E-field ⊥ POI) (20)
Ei η 2 sin θi + η 1 sin θt

η = µ/² is the intrinsic impedance of the medium

p
p
ν = 1/ µ² is the velocity of an EM wave
POI: plane of incidence

Fresnel Reflection Coefficient, Γ

The ratio of the E-field intensity of the reflected to the
transmitted waves.
Depends on the material properties, wave polarization, incident
angle and frequency of the propagating wave.

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 Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Snell’s Law and Brewster Angle

Snell’s Law
p p
µ1 ²1 sin (90 − θi ) = µ2 ²2 sin (90 − θt ) (21)

Brewster Angle
the incident angle at which no reflection occurs in the medium
Condition: the incident angle θB is such that the reflection
coefficient Γ∥ is equal to zero.

²1
r
sin θB = (22)
²1 + ²2

Example: if the first medium is free space and the second medium
has a relative permittivity ²r
s
²r − 1
sin θB = (23)
²2r − 1

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Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Reflection from Various Materials

Reflection from Perfect Conductors

θi = θr , Ei = Er ⇒ Γ∥ = 1 (E-field in POI) (24)

θi = θr , Ei = −Er ⇒ Γ⊥ = −1 (E-field ⊥ POI) (25)

⇒ For a perfect conductor, |Γ| = 1, regardless of incident angle.

Reflection from Dielectric: 1st medium is free space and µ1 = µ2

p
−²r sin θi + ²r − cos2 θi
Γ∥ = p (26)
²r sin θi + ²r − cos2 θi
p
sin θi + ²r − cos2 θi
Γ⊥ = p (27)
sin θi + ²r − cos2 θi

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 Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Example 4
Demonstrate that if medium 1 is free space and medium 2 is a
dielectric both |Γ∥ | and |Γ⊥ | approach 1 as θi approach 0◦ regardless
of ²r .
Solution:
p
−²r sin 0 + ²r − cos2 0
Γ∥ = p = 1, (28)
²r sin 0 + ²r − cos2 0
p p
sin 0 − ²r − cos2 0 − ²r − 1
Γ⊥ = = p = −1 (29)
²
p
sin 0 + ²r − cos 02 r − 1
⇒ Ground may be modeled as a perfect reflector with |Γ| = 1 when
an incident wave grazes the earth, regardless of polarization or
ground dielectric properties.

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Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model

Reasonably accurate for predicting

the large-scale signal strength over long distances (∼ km) for
mobile systems that use tall towers (heights > 50 m)
line-of-sight microcell channels in urban environments
Free space propagation E-field:
E0 d0 d
µ µ ¶¶
E (d, t) = cos ωc t − d > d0 (30)
d c

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 Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Deriving Total Received E-field

E-field due to line-of-sight component
E0 d0 dL
µ µ ¶¶
EL (dL , t) = cos ωc t − (31)
dL c
E-field for the ground reflected wave
E0 d0 dR
µ µ ¶¶
ER (dR , t) = Γ cos ωc t − (32)
dR c
Total Received E-field
E0 d0 dL E0 d0 dR
µ µ ¶¶ µ µ ¶¶
ETOT (d, t) = cos ωc t − +Γ cos ωc t − (33)
dL c dR c

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Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Deriving Total Received E-field, cont’d

Consider grazing incidence

Small incident angle: θi → 0
Perfect horizontal E-field polarization
Ground reflection: Γ⊥ = −1 and Et = 0
Total E-field envelope: |ETOT | = |EL + ER |
E0 d0 dL E0 d0 dR
µ µ ¶¶ µ µ ¶¶
ETOT (d, t) = cos ωc t − + (−1) cos ωc t − (34)
dL c dR c

2ht hr
p p
Path difference: ∆ = dR − dL = (ht + hr )2 + d2 − (ht − hr )2 + d2 ≈ d
(d À ht + hr )
θ∆ θ∆
Time Delay: τd = ∆ 2π∆
c = ωc λ = ωc = 2πfc
∆ω
Phase difference: θ∆ = ωc τd = 2π∆
λ
= cc
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
¯E d ¯ ¯E d ¯ ¯E d ¯
Large distance: d À ht + hr ⇒ d ≈ dL ≈ dR ⇒ ¯ 0d 0 ¯ ≈ ¯ d0 0 ¯ ≈ ¯ d0 0 ¯
L R

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 Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Deriving Total Received E-field, cont’d

d
The received E-field evaluated at t = cR
dR E0 d0 dR − dL E0 d0
µ ¶ µ µ ¶¶
ETOT d, t = = cos ωc − cos 0◦
c dL c dR
E0 d0 E0 d0 E0 d0 ¡
cos θ∆ − cos θ∆ − 1
¢
= = (35)
dL dR d
E-field normal to the POI, horizontal polarization, Γ⊥ = −1
s
E0 d0 2 ¡ E0 d0 2
µ ¶ µ ¶
¢2
cos θ∆ − 1 + sin2 θ∆
¯ ¯
¯E (36)
TOT (d) (Γ⊥ =−1) =
¯
d d
E0 d0 p E0 d0 θ∆
= 2 − 2 cos θ∆ = 2 sin (37)
d d 2
E-field in the POI, vertical polarization, Γ∥ = −1
E0 d0 p E0 d0 θ∆
2 + 2 cos θ∆ = 2
¯ ¯
¯E cos (38)
TOT (d) (Γ∥ =1) =
¯
d d 2

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Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Deriving Total Received E-field, cont’d

θ θ θ 2πht hr
For 2∆ < 0.3 rad ⇒ sin 2∆ ≈ 2∆ = λd
< 0.3

Approximation of the received E-field at large distance d

20πht hr 20ht hr
d> ≈ (39)
3λ λ
2E0 d0 2πht hr 1
⇒ ETOT (d) ≈ ∝ 2 (40)
d λd d

p
Received Power at T-R distance d À ht hr

h2 h2r 1
Pr = Pt Gt Gr t 4 ∝ 4 (41)
d d
Received power is independent of frequency!

Path Loss for Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model

PLdB = 40 log d − (10 log Gt + 10 log Gr + 20 log ht + 20 log hr ) (42)

Path loss is independent of frequency!

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 Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Received Signal for Two-Ray Model

Received Signal for Two-Ray Model

·p
λ (Gt Gr )L
½
dL
r2ray (t) = Re s̃(t)e−j2π λ
4π dL
p
(Gt Gr )R
¸ ¾
dR
+Γ s̃(t − τd )ej2π λ ej2πfc t (43)
dR

where (Gt Gr )L is the transmit and receive antenna gain in the LOS
direction and (Gt Gr )R is the transmit and receive antenna gain
corresponding to the reflected ray.

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Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Example 5
T-R distance: 5km, E-field at a distance of 1km from the TX is
10−3 V/m, frequency is 900MHz. The RX uses a vertical λ/4 monopole
antenna with gain of 2.55dB. Find (a) the length and the effective
aperture of the RX antenna. (b) find the received power using
two-ray model assuming ht is 50m and hr is 1.5m.
Solution:
(a) L = λ/4 = 0.333/4 = 0.0833m = 8.33cm
2
rλ
2
Ae = G4π = 1.8(0.333)
4πp = 0.016 m2
p
(b) d = 50km À ht hr = 50 × 1.5³ = 8.66m ´
t hr 2×10−3 ×103
⇒ Er (d) ≈ 2Ed0 d0 2πh
λd = 5×103
2π×50×1.5
0.333×5×103
= 113.1 × 10−6 V/m
|E|2 Ae (113.1×10−6 )2 (0.016)
⇒ Pr (d) = 120π = 377 = 5.42 × 10−13 W = −92.68dBm

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 Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Diffraction

Causes: the propagation of secondary wavelets into a

shadowed (obstructed) region; explained by Huygen’s
Principle1 .
Locations: curved surface of the earth, hilly or irregular terrain,
building edges or obstructions blocking the LOS path between
TX and RX.
Model: the Fresnel knife-edge diffraction model.
1 Huygen’s Principle: all points on a wavefront can be consider as point sources for

the production of secondary wavelets and these wavelets combine to produce a new
wavefront in the direction of propagation.
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Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Fresnel Knife-Edge Diffraction Model

Excess path length (∆d longer than LOS path)

h2 d1 + d2
∆d = (d10 + d20 ) − (d1 + d2 ) ≈ (44)
2 d1 d2

Phase difference (∆φ)

2π∆d 2π h2 d1 + d2 π 2
∆φ = ≈ = ν (45)
λ λ 2 d1 d2 2

Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter (ν)

∵ tan α ≈ α = β + γ ≈ tan(β) + tan(γ) (46)

d1 + d2
¶ µ
∴α≈h (47)
d1 d2
s s
2(d1 + d2 ) 2d1 d2
ν=h =α (48)
λd1 d2 λ(d1 + d2 )

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 Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Fresnel Zones

The loss due to knife-edge diffraction is a function of ν and can

be explained by Fresnel zones.2
nth Fresnel zone radius (rn )
s
nλd1 d2
rn = valid for d1 , d2 À rn (49)
d1 + d2
Fresnel zones will have maximum radii if the knife-edge
obstacle is midway between TX and RX
p
nλd
rn = (d1 = d2 = d2 ) (50)
2
2 Fresnel zone: successive regions where secondary waves have an excess path

length equal to nλ
2 , n ∈ N.
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Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Knife-Edge Diffraction Loss Model

The diffraction loss occurs from the blockage of secondary
waves ⇒ only a portion of the energy is diffracted around an
obstacle.
Ideally, for an 80%-free Fresnel zone, no significant signal loss
presents. Keep at least 60% of the zone free, or the link will be
unreliable, poor or may never work.
Diffraction loss is Ld (ν) = 20 log |F(ν)|, where F(ν) is the complex
2
Ed 1+j R ∞ −jπt
Fresnel integral ( F(ν) ≡ E = 2 ν e 2 dt ) (relative to LOS
0
path)

Lee’s Approximation for Ld (ν)



 0 ν ≤ −1
−1 ≤ ν < 0

 20 log (0.5 − 0.62ν)



20 log ³0.5e−0.95ν 0≤ν<1
¡ ¢
Ld (ν) [dB] = p ´ (51)
2 1 ≤ ν < 2.4




 20 log 0.4 − 0.1184 − (0.38 − 0.1ν)
20 log 0.225 ν > 2.4

 ¡ ¢
ν
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 Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

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Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Received Signal for Knife-Edge Diffraction Model

Received Signal for Knife-Edge Diffraction Model

( )
λ Ld (ν) (Gr Gt )d
p
r(t) = Re s̃(t − τ)e−j2πdD /λ ej2πfc t (52)
4π dD
where (Gr Gt )d is the TX and RX antenna gain product in the
diffracted ray direction; τ = ∆d
c is the delay associated with the
diffracted ray relative to LOS path and dD = d10 + d20 is the traveled
path of the diffracted ray .

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 Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Example 6
If an obstacle is 10km away from a TX antenna and 2km away from
RX antenna, find (a) the 1st Fresnel zone boundary, and (b) the
boundary for 80% clearance for transmitting 900MHz signal.
Solution: r
3×108
(2×103 )(10×103 )
q
λd1 d2 900×106
(a) r1 = d +d = 12×103
= 23.57m (b) 0.8r1 = 18.86m
1 2

Example 7
Continue the above example. If the TX antenna height is 50m and
RX antenna height is 25m, determine the loss due to knife-edge
diffraction. Assume the obstacle height is 100m.
Solution:
β = tan−1 100−50 γ −1 100−25
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
10000 = 0.005, = tan 2000 = 0.0375,
q
2×10000×2000
α = β + γ = 0.0425 ⇒ ν = 0.0425 (1/3)×(10000+2000) = 4.25
Gd (4.25) = 20 log(0.225/4.25) = −25.52dB.

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Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Scattering

When a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the reflected

energy is spread out in all directions.
Rayleigh criterion hc : determines surface roughness by defining
λ
a critical height hc = 8 sin θ i
Smooth surface: maximum to minimum protuberance h ≤ hc
Rough surface: h > hc
Scatter loss factor ρ s : Γrough = ρ s Γflat
· ³ ´ ¸
πσh sin θi 2
Ament’s: ρ s = exp −8 λ
· ³ ´ ¸ · ³ ´ ¸
πσh sin θi 2 πσh sin θi 2
Boithias’s: ρ s = exp −8 λ
I0 8 λ
where σh is the standard deviation of the surface height about
the mean surface height, I0 is the Bessel function of the first kind
and zero order.
WS Wuen Mobile Communications 44
 Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Radar Cross Section Model

Radar cross section σRCS : the ratio of the power density of the
signal scattered in the direction of RX to the power density of
the radio wave incident upon the scattering object, in unit of
dB · m2 .
Received power:

Pr [dBm] = Pt [dBm] + Gt [dBi] + 20 log(λ) + σRCS [dB·m2 ]

−30 log(4π) − 20 log d − 20 log d0 (53)

where d and d0 are the distance from the scattering objects to

TX and RX
Useful for predicting receiver power which scatters off large
objects such as buildings.

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Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Received Signal Due to a Scattered Ray

Bistatic Radar Equation

½ p
λ (Gt Gr )s σRCS
¾
−j2π(d+d0 )/λ j2πfc t
r(t) = Re s̃(t − τ)e e (54)
(4π)3/2 dd0
where τ = (d + d0 − dL )/c is the delay associated with the scattered
ray; σRCS is the radar cross-section of the scattering objects,
depending the roughness, size and shape of the scattering objects.

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 Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Ray Tracing Model

Totoal received signal for a LOS path, Nr reflected, Nd diffracted and

Ns scattered rays:

Ray Tracing Model

·p
λ Gt Gr
½
r(t) = Re s̃(t)e−j2πdL /λ
4π dL
Nr Γ
p
i (Gt Gr )R,i
s̃(t − τi )e−j2πdR,i /λ
X
+
i=1 dR,i
Nd L (ν) (G G )
p
d t r D,j
s̃(t − τj )e−j2πdD,j /λ
X
+
j=1 dD,j
# )
Ns (Gt Gr )S,k σRCS,k
p
0
s̃(t − τk )e−j2π(dk +dk )/λ ej2πfc t (55)
X
+ p
k=1 4πdk dk0

WS Wuen Mobile Communications 47

Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Empirical Path Loss Models

Why: Practical mobile wireless environments cannot be

accurately modeled by free-space path loss or ray tracing.
What: Empirical models are based on measurements over a
given distance in a given frequency range for a particular
geographical area or building. path loss defined.
How: Empirical measurements of Pr /Pt as a function of distance
include the effects of path loss, shadowing, and multipath
effects.
In order to remove multipath effects ⇒ average the received
power measurements and corresponding path loss at a given
distance over several wavelengths.
Local Mean Attenuation (LMA): average path loss at distance d
(∼ nλ)
Summary: empirical path loss PL (d) for a given environments:
the average of LMA measurements at distance d over all
available measurements in the given environment.

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 Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Okumura Model

Area: large urban macrocells

Distance: 1-100 km
Frequency: 150-1500 MHz
PL(d) [dB] = L(fc , d) + Aµ (fc , d) − G(ht ) − G(hr ) − GAREA (56)

L(fc , d): free-space path loss at distance d at carrier frequency fc

Aµ (fc , d): the median attenuation in addition to free-space path loss
GAREA : gain due to the type of environment.
G(ht ): the base station antenna height gain factor

G(ht ) = 20 log(ht /200) 30m < ht < 100m (57)

G(hr ): the mobile antenna height gain factor

½
10 log(hr /3) hr ≤ 100m
G(hr ) = (58)
20 log(hr /3) 3m < hr < 10m

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Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Okumura Model, cont’d

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 Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Hata Model

Area: large urban macrocells

Distance: 1-100 km
Frequency: 150-1500 MHz

PLurban (d) [dB] = 69.55 + 26.16 log(fc ) − 13.82 log(ht ) − a(hr )

¡ ¢
+ 44.9 − 6.55 log(ht ) log(d) (59)

a(hr ): correction factor based on the coverage area

small to medium-sized cities:
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
a(hr ) = 1.1 log(fc ) − 0.7 hr − 1.56 log(fc ) − 0.8 (60)

large cities:
¡ ¢2
a(hr ) = 8.29 log(1.54hr ) − 1.1 fc ≤ 300 MHz
¡ ¢2
a(hr ) = 3.2 log(11.75hr ) − 4.97 fc > 300 MHz (61)

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Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Hata Model, cont’d

¡ ¢2
PLsuburban (d) [dB] = PLurban (d) − 2 log(fc /28) − 5.4 (62)
¡ ¢2
PLrural (d) [dB] = PLurban (d) − 4.78 log fc + 18.33 log fc − K

K ranges from 35.94 (countryside) to 40.94 (desert)

Hata model approximates Okumura model for distance d >1 km.
well suited for large cells on the order of 1 km radius.

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 Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

COST-231 Extension to Hata Model

Extension to Hata model by European Cooperative for Scientific

and Technical Research
Frequency: 1.5 GHz to 2 GHz

PLurban [dB] = 46.3 + 33.9 log(fc ) − 13.82 log(ht ) − a(hr )

¡ ¢
+ 44.9 − 6.55 log(ht ) log(d) + CM (63)

CM = 0 dB for medium sized city and suburband areas

CM = 3 dB for metropolitan centers
Range of parameters:
30m ≤ ht ≤ 200m
1m ≤ hr ≤ 10m
1km ≤ d ≤ 10km

WS Wuen Mobile Communications 54

Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Walfisch and Bertoni Model

Consider the impact of rooftops and building height by using
diffraction to predict average signal strength at street level
Path loss S:
S = P0 Q 2 P1 (64)
³ ´2
λ
P0 free space path loss between isotropic antennae, P0 = 4πR
Q2 the reduction in the rooftop signal due to the row of buildings
which immediately shadow the receiver at the street level
P1 the signal loss from rooftop to the street
S [dB] = L0 + Lrts + Lms (65)

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 Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Wideband PCS Microcell Model

extensive measurements in line-of-sight (LOS) and obstructed
(OBS) environments at 1900 MHz
→ a two-ray ground reflection model is a good estimated for
path loss in LOS microcells
→ a simple log-distance path loss model holds well for OBS
microcells
average path loss for LOS cases
½
10n1 log(d) + p1 for 1 < d < df
PL(d) [dB] =
10n2 log(d/df ) + 10n1 log df + p1 for d > df

where P1 = PL(d0 ), d0 = 1m, n1 and n2 are path loss exponents,

df the distance at which the first Fresnel zone obstructed by
ground3
average path loss for OBS cases

PL(d) [dB] = 10n log(d) + p1 (66)

q
4
3d 1
16h2t h2r − λ2 h2t + h2r + λ16
¡ ¢
f =λ
WS Wuen Mobile Communications 56

Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Indoor Propagation Models

Indoor radio channel differs from mobile radio channel in two
aspects
distance covered are much smaller than outdoor environment
variability of the environment is much greater for a much
smaller range of T-R separation distances
Indoor propagation are strongly influenced by
layout of building
construction material
building type
Measurements across a wide range of building indicate
the attenuation per floor is greatest for the first floor that is
passed through
the attenuation per floor decreases with each subsequent floor
penetrated
eg. at 900 MHz 10-20 dB when TX and RX are separated by a
single floor, while subsequent attenuation is 6-10 dB per floor
for the next three floors
WS Wuen Mobile Communications 57
 Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Radio Path Loss Obstructed by Common Building

Material

WS Wuen Mobile Communications 58

Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Radio Path Loss Obstructed by Common Building

Material, cont’d

WS Wuen Mobile Communications 59

 Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Indoor Attenuation Factor Model

Seidel:
Np
d
¶ µ
X
PL(d) [dB] = PL(d0 ) + 10nsf log + FAF + PAFi (67)
d0 i

nsf : the exponent value for the same floor measurement.

FAF: floor attenuation factor for a specified number of building
floors.
PAF: partition attenuation factor .
¶ Np
d
µ
X
PL(d) [dB] = PL(d0 ) + 10nmf log + PAFi (68)
d0 i

Devasirvatham et al.: in-building path loss obeys free space loss

plus an additional loss factor.
Np
d
¶ µ
+ αd + FAF + PAFi
X
PL(d) [dB] = PL(d0 ) + 20 log (69)
d0 i

α is the attenuation constant for the channel (dB/m)

WS Wuen Mobile Communications 60

Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Floor Attenuation Factors (FAF)

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 Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Floor Attenuation Factors (FAF), cont’d

WS Wuen Mobile Communications 62

Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Indoor Path Loss Exponents and Standard Deviation

WS Wuen Mobile Communications 63

 Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Indoor Path Loss Exponents and Standard Deviation

WS Wuen Mobile Communications 64

Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Scatter Plot for Path Loss in Office Building 1

WS Wuen Mobile Communications 65

 Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Scatter Plot for Path Loss in Office Building 2

WS Wuen Mobile Communications 66

Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Free Space Plus Linear Path Attenuation Model

WS Wuen Mobile Communications 67

 Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Noise Limited System

Thermal Noise
The power spectral density of thermal noise depends on the
environment temperature Te that antenna “sees". The
temperature of the Earth Te is typically 300K
Noise power N0

N0 = kB Te = −174[dBm/Hz] (70)

where kB is Boltzmann’s constant, kB = 1.38 × 10−23 Joules/Kelvin

Noise power Pn

Pn = N0 B = kB Te B = −174 + 10 log (B) [dBm] (71)

where B is the RX bandwidth in Hz.

WS Wuen Mobile Communications 69

Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Noise Limited System, cont’d

Man-made Noise
Spurious emissions
Other intentional emission sources

Receiver Noise
SNRin F2 − 1 F3 − 1
F, = F1 + + +... (72)
SNRout G1 G1 G2

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 Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Link Budget
Example 8
Consider the downlink of a GSM system. fc is 950 MHz and the RX
sensitivity is −102 dBm. The output power of the TX amplifier is
30 W. The TX antenna gain is 10 dB, the losses in connectors,
combiners, etc. are 5 dB. The fading margin is 12 dB.
³ Assume for
´ −n
d < dbreak , Pr ∝ d−2 and for d > dbreak , Pr (d) = Pr (dbreak ) d d where
break
n = 3.5 and dbreak = 100m. What is the distance can be covered?
Solution:

TX side RX side
Pt : 30 W 45 dBm Pmin -102 dBm
Gt : 10 10 dB Fading margin 12 dB
Loss: -5 dB Median RX power -90 dBm
EIRP 50 dBm Ovreall path loss 140 dB

Path loss at dbreak = 100 m: 72 dB; Path loss d > dbreak , ∝ d−3.5 : 68 dB
⇒ d = 100 · 1068/(10n) = 8.8km
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Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Simplified Path Loss Model

Log-Distance Path Loss Model
¶n
d
µ
PL(d) [dB] = PL(d0 ) (73)
d0
d
µ ¶
PL [dB] = PL(d0 ) + 10n log (74)
d0

Typical path loss exponents

Environment Path Loss Exponent, n
Free space 2
Urban cellular 2.7-3.5
Shadowed urban cellular 3-5
In building LOS 1.6-1.8
Office buildings (same floor) 1.6-3.5
Office buildings (multiple floors) 2-6
Obstructed in factory 1.6-3.3
Obstructed in building 4-6

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 Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Example 9
Four RX power measurements were taken at distances of 100m, 200m, 1km and 3km
from a TX and the measured RX power levels are 0dBm, -20dBm, -35dBm and
-70dBm, respectively. Assume the path loss obeys the log-distance model. Find the
path loss exponent n that minimizes mean square error (MSE) between measured
and modeled values.
Solution:

k
(pi − p̂i )2
X
J(n) =
i=1
¡ ¢
p̂i = pi (d0 ) − 10n log di /d0
The value of n which minimize J(n) can be obtained by letting dJ(n)
dn
= 0 and solving for
n.

J(n) = (0 − 0)2 + (−20 − (−3n))2 + (−35 − (−10n))2 + (−70 − (−14.77n))2

J(n) = 6525 − 2887.8n + 327.153n2
dJ(n)
= 654.306n − 2887.8
dn
dJ(n)
= 0 ⇒ n = 4.4
dn

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Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Log-normal Shadow Fading

Consider the random variation of surrounding environment due

to blockage from objects
Measurements have shown at any value of d, the path loss PL (d)
at a particular location is random and distributed log-normally
(normal in dB) about the distance-dependent mean.

d
µ ¶
PL(d) [dB] = PL(d) + Xσ = PL(d0 ) + 10n log + Xσ (75)
d0

Xσ is a zero-mean Gaussian distributed random variable (in dB)

with standard deviation σ (in dB).
Received Power Pr (d)

Pr (d) [dBm] = Pt [dBm] − PL(d) [dBm] (76)

Log-normal shadowing implies measured signal levels at a

specific T-R separation distance have a Gaussian (normal)
distribution.
WS Wuen Mobile Communications 74
 Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Example 10
Find the standard deviation and variance σ2 of Example 9. Estimate
the received power at distance 2km.
Solution:

1X 4 1
2
σ = (pi − p̂i )2 = J(n)
4 i=1 4

J(n) = (0 + 0) + (−20 + 13.2)2 + (−35 + 44)2 + (−70 + 64.988)2 = 152.36

σ2 = 152.36/4 = 38.09 dB2

p
σ = 38.09 = 6.17 dB

p̂(d = 2 km) = 0 − 10(4.4) log(2000/100) = −57.24 dBm (77)

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Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Outage Probability under Path Loss and Shadowing

A target minimum received power level Pmin is required for

wireless systems performance.
For received signal power below Pmin performance becomes
unacceptable

Definition
Outage probability Pout (Pmin , d) under path loss and shadowing: the
probability that the received power at a given distance d, Pr (d) falls
below Pmin
Pout (Pmin , d) , p(Pr (d) < Pmin ) (78)

à ! à !
Pmin − Pr (d) Pr (d) − Pmin
p(Pr (d) ≤ Pmin ) = 1 − Q =Q (79)
σ σ

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 Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Review: Gaussian Distribution

Gaussian distribution for a random variable X is defined in
terms of its mean µX and variance σ2X as
(x−µX )2
1 −
2σ2
pX (x) = p e X (80)
2πσX

also called the normal distribution, denoted as N(µX , σ2X ).

Probability of X ≤ x for Gaussian distribution can be expressed
in terms of Gaussian Q-function
x − µX
µ ¶
p(X ≤ x) = 1 − Q (81)
σX
Gaussian Q-function is the probability that a Gaussian random
variable X with mean 0 and variance 1 is larger than x:
Z ∞
1 y2
Q(x) = p(X ≥ x) , p e 2 dy (82)
x 2π
where Q(x) = 1 − Q(−x)
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Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Review: Error Function

Error function erf (x) can be related to the Q-function by

2
Z x 2 p
erf (x) , p e−y dy = 1 − 2Q( 2x) (83)
π 0

x
µ µ ¶¶
1
⇒ Q(x) = 1 − erf p (84)
2 2
Complementary error function erfc(x)
p p
erfc(x) = 1 − erf (x) = 1 − (1 − 2Q( 2x)) = 2Q( 2x) (85)

x
µ ¶
1
Q(x) = erfc p (86)
2 2

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 Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Example 11
Predict the probability that the received signal level at 2 km will be
greater than -60 dBm.
Solution:

à !
Pmin − Pr (d)
p(Pr (d) > −60 dBm) = Q
σ
µ ¶
−60 + 57.24
= Q
6.17
= Q(−0.447)
= 1 − Q(0.447) = 67.4% (87)

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Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Percentage of Cell Coverage Area

Percentage of useful service area, U(Pmin ): percentage of area with

a received signal level Pr (r) ≥ Pmin

1
Z
U (Pmin ) = p (Pr (r) > Pmin ) dA (88)
πR2 cell area
Z 2π Z R
1
= p (Pr (r) > Pmin ) rdrdθ (89)
πR2 0 0

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 Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Percentage of Cell Coverage Area, cont’d

à ! à !
Pmin − Pr (r) 1 1 Pmin − Pr (r)
p(Pr (r) > Pmin ) = Q = − erf p (90)
σ 2 2 σ 2
³ ³ ´´ 
Pmin − Pt − PL(d0 ) + 10n log dr0

1 1
= − erf  p 
2 2 σ 2

referenced to the cell boundary (r = R):

³ ³ ´ ¡ r ¢´ 
R

1 1 P min − P t − PL(d0 ) + 10n log d0 + 10n log R
p(Pr (r) > Pmin ) = − erf  p 
2 2 σ 2
(91)
1 1 ³ r´
p(Pr (r) > Pmin ) = − erf a + b ln (92)
2 2 R
³ ³ ´´
Pmin − Pt −PL(d0 )+10n log dR Pmin −Pr (R) 10n log e
0
where a = p = p , b= p
σ 2 σ 2 σ 2

WS Wuen Mobile Communications 81

Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Percentage of Cell Coverage Area, cont’d

Z 2π Z R µ
r´
¶
1 1 1 ³
U(Pmin ) = − erf a + b ln rdrdθ (93)
πR2 0 0 2 2 R
1 1 R r´
Z ³
= − 2 erf a + b ln rdr (94)
2 R 0 R
1 − ab
· µ ¶µ µ ¶¶¸
1 1 − 2ab
= 1 − erf (a) + exp 1 − erf (95)
2 b2 b
p p 1 − ab
· µ ¶ µ µ ¶¶¸
1 1 − 2ab
= 2Q( 2a) + exp 2Q 2 (96)
2 b2 b

If Pmin = Pr (R) ⇒ a = 0
· µ ¶µ µ ¶¶¸ " µ ¶ à p !#
1 1 1 1 1 2
U(Pmin ) = 1 + exp 2 1 − erf = 1 + exp 2 2Q
2 b b 2 b b
(97)

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 Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Fractional Coverage of Total Cell Area

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Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects

Example 12
Predict the percentage of area within a 2 km radius cell that
receives signals greater than -60 dBm given in Example 9-10.
Solution:

Pmin − Pr (R) −60 − (−57.24)

a= p = p = −0.3163
σ 2 6.17 2
10n log e 10 · 4.4 log e
p b= = p = 2.18966
σ 2 6.17 · 2
³ ³ p ´ h ³ p ´i´
U(Pmin ) = 0.5 2Q −0.3163 × 2 + e0.4974 2Q 0.7729 × 2 ' 88%

WS Wuen Mobile Communications 84