While a great deal has been written on the theory and practice of commu-
nicative language teaching, there have been comparatively few studies of
actual communicative language practices. A classroom-based study of
communicative language practice revealed the persistence of non-commu-
nicative patterns of interaction. A follow-up study demonstrated that it is
possible for teachers to foster more communicative language use. These
studies demonstrate the importance of validating theory against what
actually happens in the classroom.
Introduction If one were to be guided solely by publications in the field, one would be led
to the conclusion that a revolution had swept through language classrooms
all round the world, and that very little remained of what might be called
'traditional' classroom activities. However, whether or not such publi-
cations reflect changes actually occurring at the classroom level is a matter
for empirical investigation rather than theoretical speculation.
In promoting the cause of classroom-centred research, Long suggests
that:
While still in its youth, if not infancy, classroom-centred research has
already accumulated a substantial body of knowledge about what actu-
ally goes on in ESL classrooms, as opposed to what is believed to go on,
and as distinct from what writers on TESL methods tell us ought to go
on. (Long 1983:422)
The paper investigates communicative language teaching as it is mani-
fested in the classroom. The purpose of the studies reported on in the body
of the paper was to determine the extent to which genuine communication
is evident in communicative language classes, and whether strategies can
be developed to encourage such communication.
136 ELTJournal Volant 4112 April 1987 C Oxford University Press 1987
The weak version, which has become more or less standard practice in
the last ten years, stresses the importance of providing learners with
opportunities to use their English for communicative purposes and,
characteristically, attempts to integrate such activities into a wider
programme of language teaching. (Howatt 1984:279)
Lattlewood (1981), a proponent of the 'weak* approach, attempts to recon-
cile non-communicative and communicative activities by suggesting that
such things as drill and controlled practice have a valid place in the
language class as pre-communicative activities which provide learners with
the necessary prerequisite skills for more communicative language work.
It is suggested that genuine communication is characterized by the
uneven distribution of information, the negotiation of meaning (through,
for example, clarification requests and confirmation checks), topic nomina-
tion and negotiation by more than one speaker, and the right of interlocu-
tors to decide whether to contribute to an interaction or not. In other words,
in genuine communication, decisions about who says what to whom and
when are up for grabs.
Thm study In order to investigate the degree to which features of genuine communi-
cation were present in language classes, five communicative language
lessons were recorded, transcribed, and analysed. The results of this analy-
sis are presented in this section.
All of the teachers taking part in the study were knowledgeable about
and committed to communicative language teaching. All were highly
qualified, with graduate diplomas in TESOL. Two of the teachers had
MAs in applied linguistics. Five of the teachers were highly experienced,
having taught for between seven and eighteen years, while the remaining
teacher had taught for two years.
All classes taking part in the study contained mixed nationalities and
language backgrounds, with studentsfromEurope, Southeast Asia and the
Middle East. Three of the classes had predominantly Asian students.
Language ability ranged from beginner through to intermediate.
The lessons themselves all exemplified 'communicative' language activi-
ties. These included an elaborate jigsaw listening task, a map-reading
exercise, a discussion class based on recordings of casual conversations,
simulated interviews in which students had to provide personal details, and
a comprehension class based on radio advertisements and magazine
pictures.
On the surface, the lessons appeared to conform to the sorts of commu-
nicative principles advocated in the literature. However, when the patterns
of interaction were examined more closely, they resembled traditional
patterns of classroom interaction rather than genuine interaction. Thus,
the most commonly occurring pattern of interaction was identical with the
basic exchange structure found in mother-tongue classes (Sinclair and
Coulthard 1975) and adult EFL classes (Dinsmore 1985). The structure
consists of the following turns:
Teacher initiation
Learner response
Teacher follow-up.
The pattern is exemplified in the following exchange.
T: The question will be on different. . . ? What? Different. . . ?
Stimulating In order to test this notion, a small follow-up experiment was conducted. A
schematic teacher working in the same programme as the five already studied was
knowledge asked to teach a short lesson, using a sequence of pictures about an
accident. The teacher was experienced and qualified. The class was a group
of near zero-proficiency beginners.
The initial activity chosen by the teacher was a picture-sequencing task
in which learners working in small groups were required to place the
pictures in order. This was followed by a teacher-fronted discussion. Here,
the patterns of interaction were similar to those already documented. All of
the questions asked were 'display' questions (questions to which the
teacher already knew the answer), and the typical pattern of interaction
was teacher initiation/learner response/teacher follow-up. Responses were
monosyllables or short phrases. The following extract is typical.
T: What's the name of this? What's the name? Not in Chinese.
144 DamdNwum
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tion of textual relationships in second language David Nunan is Director of the National Curriculum
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Nunan, D. 1986. 'Communicative Language Teach- Education Program. He has had extensive experience
ing: The Learner's View.' Paper presented at the in ESL/EFL teaching and teacher training in
RELC Regional Seminar, Singapore, 21-25 April Australia, Europe, and Southeast Asia. He holds a
1986. PhD in applied linguistics, and his research interests
Pica, T. and M. Long. 1986. "The linguistic and con- include teacher-based curriculum development and
versational performance of experienced teachers' in classroom-centred research.