Anatomy of the Plant Cell

Like other eukaryotes, the plant cell is enclosed by a plasma membrane, which forms a
selective barrier allowing nutrients to enter and waste products to leave. Unlike other
eukaryotes, however, plant cells have retained a significant feature of their prokaryote
ancestry, a rigid cell wall surrounding the plasma membrane. The cytoplasm contains
specialized organelles, each of which is surrounded by a membrane. Plant cells differ
from animal cells in that they lack centrioles and organelles for locomotion (cilia and
flagella), but they do have additional specialized organelles. Chloroplasts convert light to
chemical energy, a single large vacuole acts as a water reservoir, and plasmodesmata
allow cytoplasmic substances to pass directly from one cell to another. There is only one
nucleus and it contains all the genetic information necessary for cell growth and
reproduction. The other organelles occur in multiple copies and carry out the various
functions of the cell, allowing it to survive and participate in the functioning of the larger
organism.

Thought to have evolved from the green algae, plants have been around since the early
Paleozoic era, more than 500 million years ago. The earliest fossil evidence of land
plants dates to the Ordovician Period (505 to 438 million years ago). By the
Carboniferous Period, about 355 million years ago, most of the Earth was covered by
forests of primitive vascular plants, such as lycopods (scale trees) and gymnosperms

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(pine trees, ginkgos). Angiosperms, the flowering plants, didn't develop until the end of
the Cretaceous Period, about 65 million years ago—just as the dinosaurs became
extinct.

• Cell Wall - Like their prokaryotic ancestors, plant cells have a rigid wall
surrounding the plasma membrane. It is a far more complex structure, however,
and serves a variety of functions, from protecting the cell to regulating the life
cycle of the plant organism.

Plant Cell Wall

One of the most important distinguishing features of plant cells is the presence of a cell
wall. The relative rigidity of the cell wall renders plants sedentary, unlike animals, whose
lack of this type of structure allows their cells more flexibility, which is necessary for
locomotion. The plant cell wall serves a variety of functions. Along with protecting the
intracellular contents, the structure bestows rigidity to the plant, provides a porous
medium for the circulation and distribution of water, minerals, and other nutrients, and
houses specialized molecules that regulate growth and protect the plant from disease.

Cell walls are significantly thicker than plasma membranes and were visible even to early
microscopists, including Robert Hooke, who originally identified the structures in a
sample of cork, and then coined the term cells in the 1660s. The thickness, as well as the
composition and organization, of cell walls can vary significantly. Many plant cells have
both a primary cell wall, which accommodates the cell as it grows, and a secondary cell
wall they develop inside the primary wall after the cell has stopped growing. The primary
cell wall is thinner and more pliant than the secondary cell wall, and is sometimes
retained in an unchanged or slightly modified state without the addition of the secondary
wall, even after the growth process has ended.

The main chemical components of the primary plant cell wall include cellulose (in the
form of organized microfibrils; see Figure 1), a complex carbohydrate made up of
several thousand glucose molecules linked end to end. In addition, the cell wall contains

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two groups of branched polysaccharides, the pectins and cross-linking glycans.
Organized into a network with the cellulose microfibrils, the cross-linking glycans
increase the tensile strength of the cellulose, whereas the coextensive network of pectins
provides the cell wall with the ability to resist compression. In addition to these networks,
a small amount of protein can be found in all plant primary cell walls. Some of this
protein is thought to increase mechanical strength and part of it consists of enzymes,
which initiate reactions that form, remodel, or breakdown the structural networks of the
wall. Such changes in the cell wall directed by enzymes are particularly important for
fruit to ripen and leaves to fall in autumn.

The secondary plant cell wall, which is often deposited inside the primary cell wall as a
cell matures, sometimes has a composition nearly identical to that of the earlier-
developed wall. More commonly, however, additional substances, especially lignin, are
found in the secondary wall. Lignin is the general name for a group of polymers of
aromatic alcohols that are hard and impart considerable strength to the structure of the
secondary wall. Lignin is what provides the favorable characteristics of wood to the fiber
cells of woody tissues and is also common in the secondary walls of xylem vessels,
which are central in providing structural support to plants. Lignin also makes plant cell
walls less vulnerable to attack by fungi or bacteria, as do cutin, suberin, and other waxy
materials that are sometimes found in plant cell walls.

A specialized region associated with the cell walls of plants, and sometimes considered
an additional component of them, is the middle lamella (see Figure 1). Rich in pectins,
the middle lamella is shared by neighboring cells and cements them firmly together.
Positioned in such a manner, cells are able to communicate with one another and share
their contents through special conduits. Termed plasmodesmata, these small passages
penetrate the middle lamella as well as the primary and secondary cell walls, providing
pathways for transporting cytoplasmic molecules from one cell to another.

• Chloroplasts - The most important characteristic of plants is their ability to

photosynthesize, in effect, to make their own food by converting light energy into
chemical energy. This process is carried out in specialized organelles called
chloroplasts.

Chloroplasts

One of the most widely recognized and important characteristics of plants are their ability
to conduct photosynthesis, in effect, to make their own food by converting light energy
into chemical energy. This process occurs in almost all plant species and is carried out in
specialized organelles known as chloroplasts. All of the green structures in plants,
including stems and unripened fruit, contain chloroplasts, but the majority of
photosynthesis activity in most plants occurs in the leaves. On the average, the
chloroplast density on the surface of a leaf is about one-half million per square
millimeter.

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Chloroplasts are one of several different types of plastids, plant cell organelles that are
involved in energy storage and the synthesis of metabolic materials. The colorless
leucoplasts, for instance, are involved in the synthesis of starch, oils, and proteins.
Yellow-to-red colored chromoplasts manufacture carotenoids, and the green colored
chloroplasts contain the pigments chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, which are able to
absorb the light energy needed for photosynthesis to occur. All plastids develop from tiny
organelles found in the immature cells of plant meristems (undifferentiated plant tissue)
termed proplastids, and those of a particular plant species all contain copies of the same
circular genome. The disparities between the various types of plastids are based upon the
needs of the differentiated cells they are contained in, which may be influenced by
environmental conditions, such as whether light or darkness surrounds a leaf as it grows.

The ellipsoid-shaped chloroplast is enclosed in a double membrane and the area between
the two layers that make up the membrane is called the intermembrane space. The outer
layer of the double membrane is much more permeable than the inner layer, which
features a number of embedded membrane transport proteins. Enclosed by the chloroplast
membrane is the stroma, a semi-fluid material that contains dissolved enzymes and
comprises most of the chloroplast's volume. Since, like mitochondria, chloroplasts
possess their own genomes (DNA), the stroma contains chloroplast DNA and special
ribosomes and RNAs as well. In higher plants, lamellae, internal membranes with stacks
(each termed a granum) of closed hollow disks called thylakoids, are also usually
dispersed throughout the stroma. The numerous thylakoids in each stack are thought to be
connected via their lumens (internal spaces).

Light travels as packets of energy called photons and is absorbed in this form by light-
absorbing chlorophyll molecules embedded in the thylakoid disks. When these
chlorophyll molecules absorb the photons, they emit electrons, which they obtain from

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water (a process that results in the release of oxygen as a byproduct). The movement of
the electrons causes hydrogen ions to be propelled across the membrane surrounding the
thylakoid stack, which consequently initiates the formation of an electrochemical
gradient that drives the stroma's production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the
chemical energy "currency" of the cell that powers the cell's metabolic activities. In the
stroma, the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis, which involve carbon fixation,
occur, and low-energy carbon dioxide is transformed into a high-energy compound like
glucose.

Plant cells are remarkable in that they have two organelles specialized for energy
production: chloroplasts, which create energy via photosynthesis, and mitochondria,
which generate energy through respiration, a particularly important process when light is
unavailable. Like the mitochondrion, the chloroplast is different from most other
organelles because it has its own DNA and reproduces independently of the cell in which
it is found; an apparent case of endosymbiosis. Scientists hypothesize that millions of
years ago small, free-living prokaryotes were engulfed, but not consumed, by larger
prokaryotes, perhaps because they were able to resist the digestive enzymes of the
engulfing organism. According to DNA evidence, the eukaryotic organisms that later
became plants likely added the photosynthetic pathway in this way, by acquiring a
photosynthetic bacterium as an endosymbiont.

As suggested by this hypothesis, the two organisms developed a symbiotic relationship

over time, the larger organism providing the smaller with ample nutrients and the smaller
organism providing ATP molecules to the larger one. Eventually, the larger organism
developed into the eukaryotic cell, the smaller organism into the chloroplast.
Nonetheless, there are a number of prokaryotic traits that chloroplasts continue to exhibit.
Their DNA is circular, as it is in the prokaryotes, and their ribosomes and reproductive
methods (binary fission) are more like those of the prokaryotes.

• Endoplasmic Reticulum - The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of sacs that

manufactures, processes, and transports chemical compounds for use inside and
outside of the cell. It is connected to the double-layered nuclear envelope,
providing a pipeline between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. In plants, the
endoplasmic reticulum also connects between cells via the plasmodesmata.
• Golgi Apparatus - The Golgi apparatus is the distribution and shipping
department for the cell's chemical products. It modifies proteins and fats built in
the endoplasmic reticulum and prepares them for export as outside of the cell.
• Microfilaments - Microfilaments are solid rods made of globular proteins called
actin. These filaments are primarily structural in function and are an important
component of the cytoskeleton.
• Microtubules - These straight, hollow cylinders are found throughout the
cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells (prokaryotes don't have them) and carry out a
variety of functions, ranging from transport to structural support.
• Mitochondria - Mitochondria are oblong shaped organelles found in the
cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. In plant cells, they break down carbohydrate and

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 sugar molecules to provide energy, particularly when light isn't available for the
chloroplasts to produce energy.
• Nucleus - The nucleus is a highly specialized organelle that serves as the
information processing and administrative center of the cell. This organelle has
two major functions: it stores the cell's hereditary material, or DNA, and it
coordinates the cell's activities, which include growth, intermediary metabolism,
protein synthesis, and reproduction (cell division).
• Peroxisomes - Microbodies are a diverse group of organelles that are found in the
cytoplasm, roughly spherical and bound by a single membrane. There are several
types of microbodies but peroxisomes are the most common.
• Plasmodesmata - Plasmodesmata are small tubes that connect plant cells to each
other, providing living bridges between cells.

Plasmodesmata

Plasmodesmata (singular, plasmodesma) are small channels that directly connect the
cytoplasm of neighboring plant cells to each other, establishing living bridges between
cells. Similar to the gap junctions found in animal cells, the plasmodesmata, which
penetrate both the primary and secondary cell walls (see Figure 1), allow certain
molecules to pass directly from one cell to another and are important in cellular
communication.

The plasmodesmata is structured in an entirely different configuration than the animal

cell gap junction because of the thick cell wall. Due to the presence of plasmodesmata,
plant cells can be considered to form a synctium, or multinucleate mass with cytoplasmic
continuity. Accordingly, the tiny channels have caused a significant amount of debate
among scientists regarding cell theory, some suggesting that the cells of higher plants are
not really cells at all since they are not physically separated or structurally independent
from one another.

Somewhat cylindrical in shape, plasmodesmata are lined with the plasma membrane so
all connected cells are united through essentially one continuous cell membrane. A

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majority of plasmodesmata also contain a narrow tube-like structure called the
desmotubule, which is derived from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum of the connected
cells. The desmotubule does not completely fill the plasmodesma and, consequently, a
ring of shared cytoplasm is located between it and the inner surface of the membrane-
lined channel. Plasmodesmata typically form during cell division when parts of the
endoplasmic reticulum of the parent cell get trapped in the new cell wall that is produced
to create daughter cells. Thousands of plasmodesmata may be formed that connect the
daughter cells to one another.

It is widely thought that by constricting and dilating the openings at the ends of the
plasmodesmata, plants cells regulate the passage of small molecules, such as sugars, salts,
and amino acids, though this mechanism is not yet well understood. Yet, it is known that
in some cases the size restrictions on molecule passage between cells can be overcome.
By binding to parts of the plasmodesmata, special proteins and some viruses are able to
increase the diameter of the channels enough for unusually large molecules to pass
through.

• Plasma Membrane - All living cells have a plasma membrane that encloses their
contents. In prokaryotes and plants, the membrane is the inner layer of protection
surrounded by a rigid cell wall. These membranes also regulate the passage of
molecules in and out of the cells.
• Ribosomes - All living cells contain ribosomes, tiny organelles composed of
approximately 60 percent RNA and 40 percent protein. In eukaryotes, ribosomes
are made of four strands of RNA. In prokaryotes, they consist of three strands of
RNA.
• Vacuole - Each plant cell has a large, single vacuole that stores compounds, helps
in plant growth, and plays an important structural role for the plant.

Plant Cell Vacuoles

Vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs within the cytoplasm of a cell that function in several
different ways. In mature plant cells, vacuoles tend to be very large and are extremely
important in providing structural support, as well as serving functions such as storage,
waste disposal, protection, and growth. Many plant cells have a large, single central
vacuole that typically takes up most of the room in the cell (80 percent or more).
Vacuoles in animal cells, however, tend to be much smaller, and are more commonly
used to temporarily store materials or to transport substances.

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The central vacuole in plant cells (see Figure 1) is enclosed by a membrane termed the
tonoplast, an important and highly integrated component of the plant internal membrane
network (endomembrane) system. This large vacuole slowly develops as the cell
matures by fusion of smaller vacuoles derived from the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus. Because the central vacuole is highly selective in transporting materials
through its membrane, the chemical palette of the vacuole solution (termed the cell sap)
differs markedly from that of the surrounding cytoplasm. For instance, some vacuoles
contain pigments that give certain flowers their characteristic colors. The central vacuole
also contains plant wastes that taste bitter to insects and animals, while developing seed
cells use the central vacuole as a repository for protein storage.

Among its roles in plant cell function, the central vacuole stores salts, minerals, nutrients,
proteins, pigments, helps in plant growth, and plays an important structural role for the
plant. Under optimal conditions, the vacuoles are filled with water to the point that they
exert a significant pressure against the cell wall. This helps maintain the structural
integrity of the plant, along with the support from the cell wall, and enables the plant cell
to grow much larger without having to synthesize new cytoplasm. In most cases, the plant
cytoplasm is confined to a thin layer positioned between the plasma membrane and the
tonoplast, yielding a large ratio of membrane surface to cytoplasm.

The structural importance of the plant vacuole is related to its ability to control turgor
pressure. Turgor pressure dictates the rigidity of the cell and is associated with the
difference between the osmotic pressure inside and outside of the cell. Osmotic pressure
is the pressure required to prevent fluid diffusing through a semipermeable membrane
separating two solutions containing different concentrations of solute molecules. The
response of plant cells to water is a prime example of the significance of turgor pressure.
When a plant receives adequate amounts of water, the central vacuoles of its cells swell
as the liquid collects within them, creating a high level of turgor pressure, which helps
maintain the structural integrity of the plant, along with the support from the cell wall. In
the absence of enough water, however, central vacuoles shrink and turgor pressure is
reduced, compromising the plant's rigidity so that wilting takes place.

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Plant vacuoles are also important for their role in molecular degradation and storage.
Sometimes these functions are carried out by different vacuoles in the same cell, one
serving as a compartment for breaking down materials (similar to the lysosomes found in
animal cells), and another storing nutrients, waste products, or other substances. Several
of the materials commonly stored in plant vacuoles have been found to be useful for
humans, such as opium, rubber, and garlic flavoring, and are frequently harvested.
Vacuoles also often store the pigments that give certain flowers their colors, which aid
them in the attraction of bees and other pollinators, but also can release molecules that are
poisonous, odoriferous, or unpalatable to various insects and animals, thus discouraging
them from consuming the plant.

Leaf Tissue Organization - The plant body is divided into several organs: roots, stems,
and leaves. The leaves are the primary photosynthetic organs of plants, serving as key
sites where energy from light is converted into chemical energy. Similar to the other
organs of a plant, a leaf is comprised of three basic tissue systems, including the dermal,
vascular, and ground tissue systems. These three motifs are continuous throughout an
entire plant, but their properties vary significantly based upon the organ type in which
they are located. All three tissue systems are discussed in this section.

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Plant cell

Like all eukaryotic cells, including animal cells, plant cells contain membrane-bounded
organelles. Some of these organelles, and other structures, are common to all eukaryotes,
while others are found in plant cells but not in animal cells. Among the distinguishing
features of plant cells are:

Like all eukaryotic cells, including animal cells, plant cells contain membrane-bounded
organelles. Some of these organelles, and other structures, are common to all eukaryotes,
while others are found in plant cells but not in animal cells. Among the distinguishing
features of plant cells are:

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Plant cell organelles

• plastids: a group of organelles characterized by a double membrane envelope and

a complex of internal membranes. Plastids contain DNA and replicate
autonomously
o proplastids: specialized for dividing to form new plastid, usually found in
meristematic cells
o chloroplast: contains chlorophyll, internal membranes organized as grana,
specialized for photosynthesis
o chromoplast: contains red, orange, or yellow carotenoid pigments, and
imparts color to fruits, etc.
o leucoplast: specialized for storing starch (amyloplast), oil (elaioplast), or
protein (aleuroplast)

• central vacuole: membrane bound organelle that typically occupies a large volume
of the cell cytoplasm. Vacuoles may contain:
o anthocyanins: red, blue or purple pigments that are water soluble
o tannins: phenolic compounds that bind with protein; they function in plant
defense
o crystals: usually composed of calcium oxalate

Cell wall

• primary cell wall: a cell wall layer deposited while a cell is growing; typically
extensible
• secondary cell wall: innermost layer of a cell wall deposited after cell enlargement
has ceased, often lignified
• casparian strip: a band of suberin within the anticlinal walls of endodermal and
exodermal cells
• cuticle: a water-repellent layer that coats the outer cell walls of the epidermis on
aerial parts of plants, composed of cutin with a surface coating of wax
• mucigel: a slime sheath secreted by roots
• polysaccharide: a polymer composed of sugars
o cellulose: the structural (microfibrillar) portion of the plant cell wall
o hemicellulose: the alkali-soluble portion of the cell wall matrix
o pectin: the hot-water-soluble portion of the cell wall matrix
• lignin: an aromatic polymer that rigidifies may secondary cell walls. Ligin is
stained red by phloroglucinol solutions

Intercellular connections

• plasmodesmata: cytoplasmic channels lined with plasma membrane that connect

the protoplasts of adjacent cells across the cell wall
• pit: a region where the secondary cell wall is absent, but the primary cell wall is
present

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 o simple pit: a pit that is not bordered, may be round or slit-shaped
o circular-bordered pit: a round pit with a thickened margin

Plant Cell Anatomy

The cell is the basic unit of life. Plant cells (unlike animal cells) are surrounded by a
thick, rigid cell wall.

The following is a glossary of plant cell anatomy terms.

amyloplast - an organelle in some plant cells that stores starch. Amyloplasts are found in
starchy plants like tubers and fruits.

ATP - ATP is short for adenosine triphosphate; it is a high-energy molecule used for
energy storage by organisms. In plant cells, ATP is produced in the cristae of
mitochondria and chloroplasts.

cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell, but is inside the
cell wall. The cell membrane is semipermeable, allowing some substances to pass into
the cell and blocking others.

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cell wall - a thick, rigid membrane that surrounds a plant cell. This layer of cellulose fiber
gives the cell most of its support and structure. The cell wall also bonds with other cell
walls to form the structure of the plant.

centrosome - (also called the "microtubule organizing center") a small body located near
the nucleus - it has a dense center and radiating tubules. The centrosomes is where
microtubules are made. During cell division (mitosis), the centrosome divides and the
two parts move to opposite sides of the dividing cell. Unlike the centrosomes in animal
cells, plant cell centrosomes do not have centrioles.

chlorophyll - chlorophyll is a molecule that can use light energy from sunlight to turn
water and carbon dioxide gas into sugar and oxygen (this process is called
photosynthesis). Chlorophyll is magnesium based and is usually green.

chloroplast - an elongated or disc-shaped organelle containing chlorophyll.

Photosynthesis (in which energy from sunlight is converted into chemical energy - food)
takes place in the chloroplasts.

christae - (singular crista) the multiply-folded inner membrane of a cell's mitochondrion

that are finger-like projections. The walls of the cristae are the site of the cell's energy
production (it is where ATP is generated).

cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles are
located.

Golgi body - (also called the golgi apparatus or golgi complex) a flattened, layered, sac-
like organelle that looks like a stack of pancakes and is located near the nucleus. The
golgi body packages proteins and carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for
"export" from the cell.

granum - (plural grana) A stack of thylakoid disks within the chloroplast is called a
granum.

mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. The inner

membrane is infolded many times, forming a series of projections (called cristae). The
mitochondrion converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
for the cell.

nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus.

nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus - it is where ribosomal RNA is produced.
nucleus - spherical body containing many organelles, including the nucleolus. The
nucleus controls many of the functions of the cell (by controlling protein synthesis) and
contains DNA (in chromosomes). The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane

photosynthesis - a process in which plants convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide

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into food energy (sugars and starches), oxygen and water. Chlorophyll or closely-related
pigments (substances that color the plant) are essential to the photosynthetic process.

ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that are sites of
protein synthesis.

rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous,

infolded and convoluted sacks that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is
continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). Rough ER is covered with ribosomes that
give it a rough appearance. Rough ER transport materials through the cell and produces
proteins in sacks called cisternae (which are sent to the Golgi body, or inserted into the
cell membrane).

smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth ER) a vast system of interconnected,

membranous, infolded and convoluted tubes that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the
ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). The space within the ER is called the
ER lumen. Smooth ER transport materials through the cell. It contains enzymes and
produces and digests lipids (fats) and membrane proteins; smooth ER buds off from
rough ER, moving the newly-made proteins and lipids to the Golgi body and membranes

stroma - part of the chloroplasts in plant cells, located within the inner membrane of
chloroplasts, between the grana.

thylakoid disk - thylakoid disks are disk-shaped membrane structures in chloroplasts that
contain chlorophyll. Chloroplasts are made up of stacks of thylakoid disks; a stack of
thylakoid disks is called a granum. Photosynthesis (the production of ATP molecules
from sunlight) takes place on thylakoid disks.

vacuole - a large, membrane-bound space within a plant cell that is filled with fluid. Most
plant cells have a single vacuole that takes up much of the cell. It helps maintain the
shape of the cell.

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