Handbook of FLUID FLOWMETERING

1st Edition
by Ing C.J .Benard

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1II

PREFACE
THE MONITORING and measuring of industrial processing has become almost an art form, The dipstick and the simple gauge has given way to high technological innovation of such complexity that the average engineer or technician can easily find himself, or herself, at logger heads with management or colleagues as to the true flow of a given liquid, or gas, in a closed circuit. This is hardly surprising, when there are so many methods and measurement systems on the market. Some are cost-effective in the short term, others require long term investment. Naturally, it depends on the degree of accuracy required, the elimination of all misleading factors and the need for instant data on true flow, In some processes, minute accuracy is vital and the cost of obtaining same is secondary, In these circumstances, only the best will do. The difficulty comes in those circuits where the elimination of all factors detrimental to dead accuracy may not be necessary and cost plays a large part in determining what method and equipment should be used. Second best is never acceptable, but the best relative to the circumstances is necessary. For this reason, the HANDBOOK OF FLUID FLOWMETERING has been produced as a first source of reference for users of all types of flowmeters and measurement systems. It provides a comprehensive understanding of the fundamentals, principles and detailed information on every type of flowmeter, its application and effectiveness. Further, it covers aspects of which the operator should be aware to obtain optimum results and the basis for the correct, and best, flowmeter or system within given parameters. Much information is provided on calibration methods, listing the major test houses worldwide, Guidelines on how difficult process fluids, such as adds and cryogenics, affect flowmeter calibration are included as well as comprehensive data on density and viscosity, these being closely associated with flow measurement. As a considerable number of flowmeters are used purely as sensors in a flow control system, an introduction to flow control is incorporated. There is a Buyers' Guide with names and addresses of manufacturers and suppliers to help the user in obtaining further information, manufacturers' data, and current prices. The 'Handbook of Fluid Flowmetering' is a practical work of reference full of vital and useful information, data, tables and charts, to assist consultants, designers, engineers and plant operators in solving their particular problems associated with flow and flow measurement. The Publishers. Published bv The Trade & Technical Press Limited Crown House, Morden, Surrey SM4 SEW England
Printed ill Great Britain by TTP (Primers) Limited, East Molesey, Surrey. England,

ISBN 85461-120--7

COPYRIGHT© 1988 THE TRADE ~ TECHNICAL PRESS LIMITED

All rights T6ened This b.o.ok is sold subjec:, 10 the condition tnat it shul! 1I0t hy H.·ayof trade or otherwise be resold. lent. h.1red.aul. slor~d m a rClri(!1"al_~.\·.Hr:m. rrproduccd or translated into a machine language or o'he~wlse crrculated.ln .a~lYform of bmdillg or nno!'r other thun {hal in. which it is published. . without the PubllSh~,: s prl~r c-C:lIsenr and Idrhow (I similar condition including This condition bemg lmpo.H>(/ Oil tiu: _'fHf)_\"('qIU'1J/ purchaser.

Other books in this series include: Hydraulic Handbook Seals and Scaling Handbook Handbook of Hose, Pipes. Couplinp and Fittmes Handbook of Power Cylinders. Valves and Contr~ols Pneu rnatic Handbook Pumping Manual Pump User, Handbook Submersible Pumps and their Applications Centrifugal Pumps Handbook of Valves, Piping and Pipelines Filters and Filtration Handbook Handbook of Noise and Vibration Control Handbook of Meehan ical Power Drives Industrial Fasteners Handbook Handbook of Industrial Material,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Able Instruments and Controls Handbook of Aviation Fuel Properties British Standards institute Robert Maurer M,Sc GEe Avionics Ltd (P,S,Division) National Engineering Laboratory

IV

INTHE FLOW OFTHINGS!

CONTENTS

SECTION I - Fundamentals and Principles Classification of flow measurement system Definitions ........... Measurement accuracy . . . . . Preliminary flowmeter selection SECTION 2 - Rate of Flowmeters Turbine flowmeters . . . . . . . Pelton wheel and other propeller flowmeters Target or dragplate flowmeters Fluidic flowmeters ..... Electromagnetic flowmeters Ultrasonic flowmeters. . . . Vortex shedding flowmeters Swirl flowmeters Pressure drop flowmeters - constant head Pressure drop flowmeters - variable head . Pressure drop flowmeters - variable orifice Shunt flowmeters . . . . . . . SECTION 3 - Insertion Flowmeters General principles ..... Pitot tube flowmeters . . . . . Laser doppler anemometers Hot wire and hot film techniques Airspeed anemometers . . . . . SECTION 4 - Positive Displacement Flowmeters Classification and selection . . . SECTION 5 - Mass Flow Measurement General principles Compensation mass flow measurement techniques Direct true mass flow measurement. ......" Inferential mass flowmeters (other than those using compensation techniques) SECTION 6 - Cross-correlation Flow Measurement Principles and techniques . . . Radio-isotope marker methods . . . . . . . .

.1 .5 .9 15 25 41 49 53 57 73 91 97 99 113 135 143 149 157 165 167 173 179 199 201 205 213 221 225

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VI

SECTION 7 - Multi-phase Flow Measurement techniques Mixers _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ SECTION 8 - General Aspects Metering steam _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Metering puimps _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Pulsating, fluctuating and transient flow Air elimination _ _ _ _ _ _ Secondary instrumentation Flowmeters and safety __ Flowmeter installation __ SECTION 9 - Flowmeter Calibration General principles ___________ Effect of pipework on flowmeter calibration Calibration of flowmeters for liquids _ Calibration of flowmeters for gases _ _ _ _ _ Effect of the process fluid on flowmeter calibration _ SECTION 10 - Flow Control Principles and techniques _ _ _ Valve selection _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ SECTION 11 - Density and Viscosity Density measurement _ _ _ Viscosity measurement __ SECTION 12 - Engineering Data SECTION 13 Editorial Index Buyers' Guide _

229 233 237 239 241 245 249 257 263 267 273 283 303 311 315 325 333 361 389 405 413

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VIII

IX

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS - ILLUSTRATIONS AND TABLES

Page Number 1 2,top 2,boltom 15 17 18 19 20 25 26 27,top 27,bottom 28,top 28,bottom 30 31 ,top 31 ,bottom 33 34,top 34,bottom 35 36 37 38,top 38 ,bottom 39 42,top 42,bottom 43 .top 43,bottom 44,top 44,middle 44,bottom 45,top 46,top 46,middle 46,bottom 47,top 47,bottom

48
50,both 52 54,both 55,table 55,bottom 51

Company Flow Measurement Control Hayden Nilos Conflow Ltd Webster Instruments Kent Industrial Measurements Kent Industrial Measurements Kent Industrial Measurements Kent Industrial Measurements Kent Industrial Measurements KDG Flowmeters Flow Technology Inc Stanhope Fluid Power Daniel Instruments Bestobell Meters Daniel Instruments Kent Industrial Measurements KDG Aowmeters Maurer Instrument Co Ltd Maurer Instrument Co Ltd Maurer Instrument Co Ltd Permex Ltd Maurer Instrument Co Ltd Maurer Instrument Co Ltd Kent Industrial Measurement Hydril AOTSystems Diessel GmbH & Co Diessel GmbH & Co litre Meter Ltd Maurer Instrument Co Ltd Rhodes & Son Litre Meter Ltd Litre Meter Ltd Bestobell Mowbray Ranger Instrument Co KDG Flowmeters Ranger Instrument Co Litre Meter Ltd Guest & Chrimes Guest & Chrimes Bestobell & Mowbray Rhodes & Son Ramapo Instrument Co TamoLtd Moore Moore Moore Endress & Hauser

Page Number 59 60 66 .bottorn 67,top 67,bottom 68,top 68 ,bottom 69,top 69,bottom 70 71,bottom 73 74,top 75 78,top 79 ,top 79, bottom 81,top 82,middle 85,bottom 86 87 88 89 91 92 93,top 93,bottom 95 96 97 l00,bottom I01,top 101,botlom 102,bottom 103 106 108,top I08,bcttom 110 111 119,both 120,both I2l,top 121 ,middle

Company Endress & Hauser Kent Industrial Measurement Foxboro Co Allison Engineering Ltd Kent Industrial Measurement Hydril AOT Aow System Brown Boveri Kent Kent Industrial Measurement Brown Boven Kent Endress & Hauser Danfoss Flwometering Bestobell Sparling Bestobel! Meterflow Ltd KrohneGmbH Bestobell Sparling Ltd Able Instrument & Controls Ltd & Controlotron Corp Krohne Measurements Ltd Danfoss Danfoss Panarnetric Corp Nusonics Inc Danfoss International Controls Corp Ltd Kent Industrial Measurements Endress & Hauser Bro"TI Boven Kent Brooks Kent Industrial Measurements Yew Fischer & Porter Fischer & Porter Ameter Inc Perflow KDG Flowmeters Fischer & Porter KDG KytolaKy Ameter KDG Rotarneters (KDG) Air Rotameters (KDG) Air Perry Equipment Corp Daniel Industries Inc Furness Controls Ltd Furness Controls Ud

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X
Page Number 121.bottom 122 123,middle 123.bouom 124 125 126.bolh 127,all Company Maurer Instruments Ltd Maurer Instruments Ltd Daniel Instruments Inc Daniel Instruments Inc Fischer & Porter Fischer & Porter Perry Equipment Corp Kent Industrial Measurements Kent Industrial Measurements Taurus Controls Ltd Taurus Controls Ltd GEC A vioncis Ltd ICC Gilflow Gilflow Spira. Sarco Spirax Sarco UCC International Ltd Perflow Instruments Ltd Perflow Instruments Ltd Kent Industrial Measurements Litre Meter Litre Meter G.A-Platon Ltd KDG Maurer Instruments Maurer Instruments Hydril Div, AOT Flow Systems Maurer Instruments Technitron (UK) Fischer & Porter Airflow Developments Ltd Disa Elektronik A/S National Engineering Laboratory Dantek Electronic Weber Sentec GmbH Airflow Developments Ltd Airflow Developments Ltd Airflow Deve ioprnents Ltd Scheme Engineering Ltd V AFlnstruments Litre Meter Brooks Inst Div Emerson Electrics V AF instruments V AF Instruments KDG Flowmeters Brooks Inst Div Emerson Electrics Arkon Instruments Brooks Inst Div Emerson Electrics Brooks lnst Div Emerson Electrics Liquid Controls Fluidyne Instrumentation Jiskoot Autocontrol Ltd V AF Instruments Brooks Inst Div EmeTSOn Electrics V AF Instruments V AF Instruments V AF Instruments Brooks Endress & Hauser Page Number 202.all 203.10P 205 207 208,both 209,bottom 2l0.top 11O,bollom 211.[op 211.boltom 114.bottom 2l6,top 216,bottom 217,top 217,bollom 222,both 230 23I,top 231,bottom 238 239,both 240 246 247,top 249 250.both 251 252 254 255 ,top and centre 255,bottom 257 258 260 268 270.bottom 271,top 271.bottom 275,top 275,botlom 276 277 278 279 281 282,top 282,bottom 287, top 296 297,top 297.centre 299 301 305 307.top 307,bottom 308 322 323 324 Company Solartron Paar Scienti fic Ltd GEC Avionics Maurer Instruments Ltd Maurer Instruments Ltd Brooks Inst Div Emerson Electrics Danfoss Lee Engineering Ltd Eurocontrol Maurer Instruments Ltd Brooks lnst DivEmcrson Electrics Sarasota Automation Weber Sentec GmbH Weber Scntec GmbH Euromatic Kent Industrial Instruments Jiskoot Autocontrol Ltd Euromatic Flowrneters Ltd Auburn International Spirax Sarco Pump Engineering Ltd Pump Engineering Ltd Atlantik-Geratebau GmbH Atlantik-Geratebau GmbH Daniel Instruments Inc Jiskoot Autocontrol Ltd Siemens .riskoot Autocontrol Ltd Newport Electronics NewportElectronics Boveri Kent Measurement Technology Ltd Measurement Technology Ltd Safety Technology Ltd National Engineering Laboratory Brooks Instruments Ltd Kent Industrial Instruments Hydril AOTSystems Maurer Instruments Ltd A.S.M.E. A.S.M.E. A.S.M.E. Daniel Instruments Inc Maurer Instruments Ltd Daniel Instruments Inc Daniel Instruments Inc K.J.Zanker Sira Maurer Instruments Ltd Maurer Instruments Ltd Brooks (Instrument Div of Emerson) Avery Hardoll Ltd Ameter NEL NEL British Gas Engineering Research Station NEL Jiskoot Autocontrol Ltd Jiskoot Autocontrol Ltd Jiskoot Autocontrol Ltd
Brown

XI
Page Number 363.table 1 370 Ltd 378 38Ltable 386,top 400 401 Company Clandon Scientific Ltd Perry's 'Chemical Engineers Handbook', McGraw Hill Book Co Inc. N.Y. UCC The Petroleum Engineer Toray Industries Inc UCC UCC

118
131.bottom 132,bonom 135 136.both 137,bottom 138 139.both 140,top 14Ltop 143 l44.top 144.bottom 145 146.top 146,middle 146.bottom 152 153,top I 53.bottom l54.top I 54,bottom 159.top 160,bottom 165 166 168 170.top l70,bottom 173 174,top l74,botlom 180 181 182,top 182.bo(tom l83.top 183,bottom

Page Number 325 326 334,top 336 335 336 337,top 337,bottom 338,table I 339,table 2 342,table3

Company Fisher Controls Fisher Controls Nixon Instrumentation Solartron

Solartron A utomation Products Inc Jiskoot Autocontrol Ltd Fischer & Porter Fischer & Porter Fischer & Porter

12

184
ISS,top 186 187.a11 188,top I 88,bottom 189,top 189,bottom 190.top 190,bottom 19l.top 192

199
200

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XII

SECTION 1
Fundamentals and Principles

CLASSIFICATION OF FLOW MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS DEFINITIONS MEASUREMENT ACCURACY PRELIMINARY FLOWMETER SELECTION

Classification of Flow Measurement Systems

THE NEED for an accurate and cost effective method of measuring fluid flow grows daily, particularly when it is necessary to establish the cost of a certain amount of liquid which has passed through a line. Flow measurement is also essential in the process industries as more and more processes are automated. It is estimated that 'flow' is the third most important parameter to be measured in industry. A prerequisite of accuracy in flow measurement is that the flowmeter is repeatable. Many flowmeters operate in difficult environments and often handle corrosive fluids or erosive slurries. Flowmeters also operate at extremes of

The precision flowmeter dairy.

installed in a

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FUNDAMENTALS

AND PRINCIPLES

CLASSIFICATION

OF FLOW MEASUREMENT

SYSTEMS

temperatures handling hot or cryogenic fluids. These factors will cause loss at accuracy to occur. Often flowmeters are only repeatable on a short term basis. For these reasons, flowmeters need to be re-calibrated at regular intervals. All new flowmeters should have a calibration certificate issued by an accredited test facility. Normally a flowmeter forms part of a flowrnetering package. The data supplied by the meters can be used in a control system, for trend recording or can be fed to a computer for total flow calculation etc. Most flowmeter manufacturers can supply the required associated equipment, such as totalisers, batchers, recorders, computers, Iinearisers. An increasing application of flow measurement is in hydraulic power systems. Taking the electric hydraulic analogy, in an hydraulic system, the oil hydraulic pump represents the rruotor and the oil flow is the equivalent of the current. Rate of flowmeters are frequently used as the 'ammeters' in the circuit, to monitor system performance.

Positive displacement flowmeters, especially those of the gear type are used in hydraulic systems incorporating rams. The ram positions are computed from pulses generated in the flowmeter, while the system computes the expected volume in the reservoir from the ram positions and other parameters and compares it with the actual. The measurement of fluid flow The process industries handle a wide range of fluids varying from clean filtered liquids to pulp and solid materials, which are suspended in a liquid or pneumatically conveyed. There are a large variety of flowmeters available. The following can be considered as a broad guide to selection. There are basically five types of flowmeters: (i) Rate offlowmeters which measure the average flow velocity over the whole area of a pipe bore. (ii) Current flowmeters or anemometers, which measure the speed of flow of a liquid at one particular point in the flowstream. (iii) Positive displacementflowmeters, which measure the volume passed per unit time. (Volume flow is also measured with speed of fIowmeters in which case the speed is multiplied by the throughflow area). (iv) Mass flowmeters, which measure the weight of the liquid which has flowed through the meter. (v) Cross correlation flowmeters, in which the time is measured for an impurity or a flow disturbance to pass two pick-ups. Rate of flowmeters There are three main types of speed of flow- or ratemeters: (i) Flowmeters using a propeller or turbine mounted in the flow, the rotation speed is the measure of the fIowrate. The main flowmeters in this category are: Turbine, Propeller and Pelton Wheel flowmeters. (ii) Flowmeters in which the flowrate indication is derived from the measurement of a pressure drop across a reduction in the flow area ie: Pressure Drop flowmeters. These flowmeters can be subdivided into Constant Head and Variable Head flowmeters. Constant head flowmeters: Variable gap meters (or rotameters). Variable head flowmeters: Orifice plate; Flow nozzles; Venturi tube; Dall tube; Spring restrained dragbody flowmeters; and Target flowmeters. (iii) Flowmeters using more recent measuring concepts such as: Ultrasonic; Electro-magnetic; Vortex shedding; Fluidic; and Swirl flowmeters. Current Oowmeters or anemometers These are normally manufactured in the form of probes which are inserted in the flowstream and can be traversed across the bore of a tube to measure the speed of flow at various positions. The main types are: (i) Insertion flowmeters incorporating a turbine, vortex or other type of flowmeter at the end of a probe;

Flowrate meier providing essential flow characteristics of hydraulic systems.

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Low cost hydraulic flow indicator will monitor up 180 lit/min.

FUNDAMENTALS

AND PRINCIPLES

(ii) (iii) (iv)

Laser doppler anemometers; Pitot tubes; Hot wire or hot film anemometers.

Positive displacement flowmeters In these flowmeters the measuring element normally makes contact with the wall of the flowmeter body, so that little or no fluid can bypass the measuring element without giving it a positive displacement. The main types of flowmeters in this category are: (i) Rotating sliding vane; (ii) Reciprocating piston; (iii) Rotary piston; (iv) Rotating disc; (v) Flowmeters with screw rotors or gears. Mass flowmeters In these flowrneters the weight of the fluid which has passed through the flowmeter is determined either by calculation using the fluid parameters or by direct true mass measurement. The main types include: (i) Flowmeters using compensation techniques; (ii) Axial flow transverse momentum; (iii) Linear acceleration; (iv) Hydraulic wheatstone bridge; (v) Rotameters with density compensated floats; (vi) Thermal mass flowmeters (mainly for gases); (vii) Pressure drop flowmeters calibrated in mass units: (viii) Corona discharge flowmeters (for gases). Cross correlation flowmeters In cross correlation measurement an impurity or a disturbance is introduced into the flow and the time is measured for this to pass two pick-up probes. All the tlowmeters mentioned are described in greater detail in various chapters throughout the book. Information is also given about certain points that the potential user should know, ie how the flowmeteris affected by the nature of the fluid measured, pressure and temperature extremes, installation conditions and effects of variations of fluid and flow parameters.

Definitions
Fluid Viscosity THE COEFFICIENT of viscosity, usually termed as viscosity, is a figure that indicates the amount of resistance a particular fluid offers to a shearing force under laminar flow conditions ie: when one layer of liquid flows relative to the other. Viscosity provides a comparative measure between thick heavy oils and petrol, for example. It is defined more fully and more scientifically in Section 11. Viscosity of a liquid varies with temperature and, to a much smaller degree, with pressure. In a non-Newtonian liquid, the ratio of shear stress to shear rate is not constant, but changes with stress. Typical non-Newtonian liquids are: chocolate paste, ointments, toothpaste, thixotropic paints, bitumens etc.
Reynolds number (Re)

This is the ratio between the momentum of a flowing fluid and its viscosity. Its value will determine whether the flow is laminar ie: all particles flow along straight or non-turbulent paths.

Re

= __.EY_Q
n

where p is the density of the fluid V is the linear velocity D is the diameter of the pipe n is the dynamic viscosity

With laminar flow fluid viscosity damps out any disturbances; with turbulent flow inertia forces exceed viscous forces and random swirl and eddies will occur. Flow will remain laminar up to a value of Re = 2000; there is a transition region between Re = 2000 and Re = 5000 when flow will become turbulent due to the slightest disturbance. Flow will always be turbulent when Re reaches a value of approximately 5000. The larger the fluid momentum and the lower the viscosity, the SOoner turbulent flow will commence.

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FUNDAMENTALS

AND PRINCIPLES 6(A)

Pipe Reynolds number (Rd) In calculations on Orifice Plate flowrneters use is made of the value Rd rather than Re: 4M
IlDn

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where: M is the mass flowrate D is the diameter of the pipe 11is the kinematic viscosity Velocity profile Fluid will always flow faster along the centre the friction of the pipewall will slow the fluid show how the speed of flow varies across a velocity profile or flow profile. Figure 1 shows the flow profile for laminar predominate.
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of a pipe than along the pipewall, as down in that region. Figures 1 and 2 pipe's diameter. This is known as a flow ie: flow in which viscous forces

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Figure 2 shows the flow profile for turbulent flow. Flow irregularities in the form of vortices and cross currents are superimposed on the main linear flow, so that flow is slowed down in the centre of the pipe and accelerated nearer the pipewall. This causes the flow profile to become more flat. Both profiles shown are symmetrical.

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KDG Instruments ltd Tylors & Rotameter Works 59-61 Victoria Road, Burgess Hill West Sussex RH15 9LJ, England Telephone: (04446) 2631 Telex: 87551
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DEFINITIONS 6(B)

Control and measurement of liquids

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Smith rotary positive displacement and turbine meters for high accuracy custody transfer.
POSITIVE DlSPl.ACl:MENT METEOR With electroniC control of muRifunction oontroi

In practice flow is seldom neatly symmetrical, the flow profiles are normally distorted by valves, pipe bends etc. For flow calibration it is a requirement that flow through the flowmeter is fully developed; this means that the flow irregularities have had the opportunity to damp out and the flow profile has become fully symmetrical and free from swirl. In theory this occurs after the fluid has flowed through an infinitely long pipe. In practice this occurs after the fluid has flowed through a pipe the length of which is twenty times its diameter, ie the pipe is 20 D long. Any changes to the profile after this length can be neglected. It is necessary to have the flow fully developed in a calibration facility to ensure repeatability of results. . Cavitation In a flow the value p V is constant, so that when the speed is increased, the pressure will drop. If the pressure drop is sufficiently large, a phenomenon will occur which is known as cavitation. As the pressure drops below the vapour pressure, bubbles of vapour will appear and collapse as soon as they enter an area of higher pressure. If cavitation occurs immediately in front of or inside a flowmeter, the flowmeter performance will be affected.
Coefficient of discharge (Cd)

vave.

This is defined for ratemeters as: Vi and for current meters (anemometers) Cd
=

Cd

Vt as:

....Q!_ Oi

where Ot and Vt are the true flowrates and flowspeeds as indicated by a very accurate master flowmeter Oi and Vi are the values indicated by the meter itself. See Figure 3.
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT METER For high accuracy long IHe. Double or single case construction. Flow ranges from 2 cu. mtr.lhr. to 2,000 cu. mtr.lhr. Smith control valves, Mechanical TlJRBINE METER In size range from 1 " up to 24" High accuracy (±O.10% possible). Flow range 3-12,000 cu. mtrsJhr. Bi-<lirectional flow available. Stainless steel or carbon steel construction. Pressures up to 9OO1bansi. FULL RANGE ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS AND ACCESSORIES

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Reynolds number

Re

Figure 3 Example of characteristic curve based on coefficient of discharge.

FUNDAMENTALS

AND PRINCIPLES

DEFINITIONS

Meter factor F The meter factor is a similar constant as Cd but applied to meters which measure total volume: F Vt Vi
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The Flow Measurement Centre

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K-Factor The K-factor is used to describe the performance of meters the output of which is in the form of electrical pulses:
K
n

Vt

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where n is the number of pulses per unit time Vt is the volume passed in that time The K-factor is normally plotted against flowrate. Linearity A flowmeter is said to be linear if the flowmeter read-out is a straight line going through the origin when it is plotted against flowrate. The linearity graph is not normally plotted; it is normal to plot the deviation from linearity because the deviation from linearity is then shown on a larger scale. Velocity head The pressure drop across a flowmeter is often expressed in velocity heads: Velocity head = Y2P y2 where p is the density of the fluid y is the linear velocity of the fluid Range and rangeability The range of a flowmeter is normally the. range where it meets the accuracy specification of the flowmeter. The ratio of the maximum flow rate of the range to the minimum flowrate of the range is called rangeability or turndown ratio.

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DEFINITIONS
9

Measurement Accuracy
SECTION 1 sound levels, propagatlo". of sound, measurement of sound, noise scales and noise indices. subjective noise par3!"e~eT$l room acoustics. acoustic rooms. prmc'ples of vibration, SECTION 2a annoyance and community response, health and safety (hearing damage), ,speech communication, hearing conservation 5n industry, hearing protective deviCf!$. SECTION2b vibration - effect on people. SECTlON3a noise measuring techniques, sound level meters frequency anal'($is (spectrum anal'($i5), recording and. signal pr~ and data loggers, envIronmental noISe monitoring, audiometry. SECTION3b . . vibration measurement. vIbration tra ... dueers, dynamic analysis of vibrat!0n, modal anal'($is, vibration testmg, machinery health monitoring. SECTION4a . machines, bearings, internal ?Ombustlo." engines. construction site eq~lpment, aIr disvibution S'($tems, fan norse, factory noise road traffie noise, aircraft and airport noise, noise in commerci~1 b,:,ildin!l""' noise in domestic buildings, auditoria, nOIse in ships. SECTION Sa • sound insu~atio" and absorption, acoustic materials, aeousne enclosures, sound barriers acoustic treatment of floors and ceilings: acoustic glazing, acoust!c doo!" fan and air duct SIlencers, Industrial silencers, silencing gas turbines. SECTION 5b . machine balance, vibration isolation,. antI' vibration mounts, damping techmques, resilient mounting of structures, SECTION 6 legislation. SECTION 7 buyers' guide, editorial index.

THE MOST important parameter of a flowmeter used for custody transfer is its accuracy, There can be no accuracy without good repeatability. Repeatability is the flowmeter's ability to give exactly the same output when measuring exactly the same flowrate. The output of some flowmeters drift with time, after a period of operation it will still give good repeatability but about a different point. Repeatability can be of greater importance than absolute accuracy eg: in flow control. It is not possible to manufacture a flowmeter where its accuracy can be exactly predicted, Therefore, it is necessary for each flowmeter to be calibrated. Spot checking only is not acceptable.
If repeatability is required rather than accuracy, it is only necessary to select a quality flowmeter which has been type-tested for repeatability.

Calibration means to check a flowmeter's output by passing a range of accurately known flowrates, generated in a flowrig or calibration facility, through the flowmeter. If the flowmeter output shows errors which are equal to or less than the accuracy claimed for the flowmeter, it is said to be within calibration.
If a manufacturer claims a certain accuracy for a flowmeter, he should define what he means by accuracy, how it has been established, what standards have been used to establish this accuracy and how the standards used relate to national standards of flow measurement (traceability).

In systems where other parameters have to be measured to arrive at an overall output, such as pressure and temperature, errors in these parameters will affect the final calculation. The effect of these variations on the overall accuracy has to be assessed. For adequate flowmeter calibration, the accuracy of the test rig used by the manufacturer should be considerably better than the accuracy which will be claimed for the flowmeter. The user should not just ask for a calibration certificate for a flowmeter, but also the accuracy of the calibration facility and its traceability to national standards. In many cases it will be found that the accuracy claimed by a manufacturer for a flowmeter is the same as the accuracy claimed for his calibration facility. This is not
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10

FUNDAMENTALS

AND PRINCIPLES

MEASUREMENT

ACCURACY

11

acceptable. Therefore, if accuracy is important to the user, the following should be clearly established: (i) The manufacturer's definition of accuracy. (ii) The accuracy of the manufacturer's flow calibration facility. (iii) The traceability of his flowrig. Definition of accuracy When a measurement of flowrate is made, the obtained value will deviate by a certain amount from the true actual flow; ihis will be a measurement error. This error will be a build-up of at least two types of error ie: a systematic error and a random error. The systematic error is the error that cannot be reduced by increasing the number of readings and taking the average. Random errors are due to a large number of small independent influences and represent the non-repeatability of the flowmeter. When the output of a flowmeter is checked, in a calibration facility, at a number of consecutive flowrates over the flowrange of the flowmeter, a calibration curve (error curve) can be drawn as shown in Figure 1. In the perfect flowmeter, the output would be the straight line OA as shown in Figure 2. The errors plotted in Figure 1 are the deviations of the curved line from the straight line at each flowrate. All flowmeters have a characteristic curve. This curve has approximately the same shape as all other flowmeters of the same design and is referred to as the signature curve of a particular type of flowmeter. The signature curve represents the systematic errors of the flowmeter. The more accurate the calibration facility the more accurately the error curve can be drawn. The systematic error is increased or reduced by the random errors.

Figure 2 Graph showing how the flowmeter output can deviate from the ideal linear output.

The curve in Figure 3, shows the variations of the K-factor, ie: the number of pulses per unit volume, of a turbine flowmeter, and represents the systematic errors of a turbine flowmeter over its flowrange. The error curve can be derived from the K-factor curve.

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g ..,

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A Calibration Figure 1 Typical error curve of a flowmeter, output against flowrate. curve

K-factor

Flowrate plotting deviations from the nominal Figure 3 K-factor plotted against flowrate for a turbine flowmeter.

----_._._--._---

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12

FUNDAMENTALS

AND PRINCIPLES

MEASUREMENT

ACCURACY

13

Figure 4 shows the results of measurements taken over a certain timespan at a flowrate which is held constant. The mean value of the random error is the systematic error. The random errors will have a statistical distribution as shown by the curve on the right of the diagram. The data points deviate from the mean value in accordance with the laws of chance. The value on the X-axis represents the number of readings which were equal to the mean random error or systematic error. It is possible to calculate statistically the uncertainty in a measurement due to random errors (see BS 5844 : 1980 Measurement of Fluid).

Mean value

measure d-

=___ ~l~t~_x_
X X
Systematic error

Spurious error Random error

X X

--

True flowrate

>~rr~
2S ---

1-------

Systematic error

------l

le

% nfidence
vel

Figure 5 Gaussian distribution

curve of a set of random errors.

Time over which a constant flowrate is being measured Figure 4 Diagram showing 'spread' about the nominal of flowmeter flowrate is held constant.

Time

If the spread of the random error or the non-repeatability is claimed to be ± 1% and if this ± 1% is equivalent to 2S then it can be said that the repeatability of the flowmeter is ± 1% with a confidence level of 95%. (These figures are approximate, for more accurate figures see BS 5844). This error, due to non-repeatability, should be added to the systematic error obtained from the calibration curve. Therefore, to be able to assess the accuracy of a flowmeter, it is necessary to know the calibration curve of the flowmeter as well as the non-repeatability of the flowmeter. Strictly speaking, the non-repeatability of the calibration method should be added to the non-repeatability of the flowmeter (see also BS 5497 : Part I Guide for the Determination of Repeatability and Reproducibility for Standard Test Methods). If a calibration curve is not supplied with the flowmeter, it is common practice just to give an accuracy figure. This figure then covers both the systematic error and the random errors. If, for example, an accuracy of ± 1% is claimed this can be 1% of maximum flow, as indicated by the two dotted lines parallel to the X-axis in Figure 1. It is referred to as ± 1% FSD. (Full Scale Deflection). If the manufacturer states that the accuracy is 1% of flow, the accuracy figures fall between the two lines OA. Sometimes different percentages are given for different sections of the flowrange as indicated by the heavy lines in Figure 1. Microprocessors can be used to improve the accuracy of flow measurement and also to increase the range of some flowmeters. Flowmeters which are used for accurate applications are provided with a calibration curve which plots system errors ie: those errors which cannot be reduced by taking a large number of readings and taking an average. These errors also include the larger errors due to non-linearities of some flowmeters at the bottom and top flow ranges. Figure 1 shows an error curve of a flowmeter. This error curve can be stored in a microprocessor, so that for any flowrate the actual flowrate for a particular flowrate (as represented by the signature curve) can be determined. For a turbine

readings while the

Flow: estimation of uncertainty of a flowrate measurement The distribution curve of the random errors are shown separately in Figure 5. It can be shown that 95% of the errors measured will lie within a band ± 2S wide, S is a statistical value known as the standard deviation and is calculated as follows:

where Yi is the arithmetic mean of the n measurements of the variable Yi (Yi)r is the value obtained by the r'th measurement of the variable Yii n is the total number of measurements of the variable Yi In practice it is not possible to obtain a true estimate of the standard deviation, as for this, in theory, an infinite number of measurements would have to be taken. The larger the number of readings, the more accurate S can be calculated.

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14

FUNDAMENTALS

·AND PRINCIPLES

15

flowmeter the K-factor curve would be stored in the microprocessor. The error curve can 'be stored as tabulated data, with interpolation in bet:-veen th~ stored points, or it can be expressed as a second or t~ird orde:- polynomial. equatlO~; the coefficients would have been determined previously using curve fittmg techniques such as least squares or cubic spline routines. The volume and thus the density of all liquids is affected by temperature. The density of some of the lighter hydrocarbons is also affected by pressure; therefore, if volume is measured for custody transfer, the volume should always be correcte.d for base reference conditions, which is 15·6 °C (60.°;) although 15°C (59 OF) IS now becoming popular, and 101·325 kPa (14·696Ibfm a). API Standard 2101 gives combined correction factors for pressure and temperature. After the accuracy of a flowmeter has been established, the accuracy of the whole measurement system will have to be assessed. Traceability . Each standard used in a calibration facility should periodically be checke~ a~amst a master standard. The manufacturer's master standard should also be periodically checked against a local or national station, so that it is possible to trace the accuracy of a standard used against a national standard.

Preliminary Flowmeter Selection

IN MANUFACTURERS' catalogues, flowrate ranges given are normally those for liquids and they usually apply for water. Flow ranges for gases tend to be a matter for consultation with the flowmeter supplier in each individual application. The flow ranges for gases are subject to a number of factors such as pressure, temperature and viscosity changes, which do not affect the flowrates for liquids to the same extent. The measurement of gas and steam flows is mostly carried out with the aid of pressure drop devices which, together with vortex meters, are flowmeters where the meter coefficient can be calculated theoretically. \
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accuracies of six flowmeters.

---.---~

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16

FUNDAMENT ALS AND PRINCIPLES

PRELIMINARY

FLOWMETER

SELECTION

17

Figure 1 shows how the accuracies of six types of flowmeters compare. Table 1 gives a preliminary selection table. The graphs in Figure 2 give approximate cost comparisons of the main types of flowmeters in use. Table 2. shows the meter characteristics of a number of flowrneters.
TABLE 1- PRELIMINARY SELECTION TABLE

PD meter (local read-out}

Metal body VA

Type of Flowmeter

Orifice plate

f ~ Variable
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>
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ori fice with spring restrain Venturi tube Pitot tube

Oto 1·900-000 150to 1500 0-8to 40-000 10 to 490-()()() 0·0001 to 4000 0-001 to 15·000 0-1 to 12-000 0·1 to 2-700·000

20:1

1-0 1-0 1-0 1·0

0-25 0-25

6000 6000 600

-40 to +400 -20010 +500 +290 +550

0-1

3000

:c~
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With glass tube With metal tube

6:1 to 10:1

2·0 4·0

0-25 0·5

350 9300

~~

.;.-=
Positive displacement flowmeters Turbine and propeller flowrneters Pelton wheel meters ~

-30 to +100 -200 to +350 -4010 +250 -240 to +1380

100

o
1100 Figure 2 Cost comparisons

2"

4" Meter diameter

6"

8"

120:1

0·1 to 3·0 0·25

0_01 to 0-25 0·05

1440

20:1 to 50:1

10000

500

0.15 to 227-000 0-210 1-900·000 up to 75·000 10to 7-000-000 up to 7·6rn1s Oto 10:1 300:1

1.0

0_25

4350

-265 to +400 -40 to +177 -200 to

500

~<:,r J~~gelvolume custody transfer of expensive liquids, mainly turbine and ISp acement flowmeters are used, though there are now a number of other contenders on the market, notably ultrasonic flowmeters.
positive

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0

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1-0 1-0FS

0·5

3625

1000 1000

3000
0-15 1500

6 -=

+200

A.s a first step. in .pr:eliI;ninary selection the nature of the fluid should be cflonstdered. If the liquid ISdirty or is contaminated with abrasive particles the only owmeters that can be used are: Vortex flowmeters, Orifice plates with segmental or eccentric orifice Electro-magnetic flowmeters ' Doppler type ultrasonic flow~eters. Steam is normally metered with: Orifice plate flowrneters, Vortex flowmeters, Venturi tubes, Orifice with springloaded plug, Shunt flowmeters.

Vortex shedding flowrneters Target flowmeters

20:1

0·5

-26810 +370 -195 to +400 -40 to +85

10;1

0-5

0-2

5000
2000

True mass flowmeters

0·25

22700
kg/min

-------

--------~--~

------

18

FUNDAMENTALS

AND PRINCIPLES

PRELIMINARY

FLOWMETER

SELECflON

19

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FUNDAMENTALS

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.'.PROGRAMMABLE-KEYED STORAGE MAGNETIC FLOWMETERS

• Customer programmable excitation high occuracypipes 5/64" to 80" for • Dynamic response to less than 10 milli secondslor high accuracy botching -Auto empty pipe detection, reverse flow, electrolytic electrode cleaning • Built-in calibration • Auto-zero and zero check to noise

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For further intor morion csk leof1et No. HfFf870

Sole UK Agents: Flowline

Systems

ltd.

183-191 Baliardslane,

Finchley,

london

N3 lll,

Tel: 01-349 1904

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Flow Meters *'h"to 12"bore series *liquid and gas versions *Baseefa certified *1000 bar operating *Wide turndown ratio

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Flow Calibrators * I" to 8' prover barrels * Baseefa certified * FulIy traceable *Uni and Bi-directional models *350 bar operating Unit 4, Browells Lane.

The unique self-averaging pitot flow sensor that has proven itself in many applications in a wide cross-section of industry including: -Petrochemical-HVAC _ Steel - Cement -Water Distribution -Brewing -Oil and Gas -Power Generation _ Nuclear - Food, etc. etc, TORBAR is Accurate, Hepeatable, Dependable, Low Cost, and contributes to energy savinq . TORBAR is a true self-averaging

pltot-tube,

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Wakes Colne Colchester C062AZ Tel: (07875) 3796. Telex: 995801

Middlesex TW13 7EQ Telephone: 01-8907300 Telex: 887326 MAUFLOG

--_._--.----,,-_..- ..---~-~-.--~----

20(B)

PRELIMNINARY

FLOWMETER

SELECfION

21

Cryogenic liquids can be metered with: Turbine flowmeters, Vortex flowmeters, Positive displacement flowmeters. Aggressive fluids can be metered with most types of flowmeter; for this. meters made from special materials are available. As a second step the diameter of the pipe, in which the meter is to be mounted, can be used as a criterion for selection. For large diameter pipes, approaching 3 m (to ft), the choice of meter will be limited to: Electro-magnetic flowmeters, if the liquid is conductive or ultrasonic flowmeters. This leaves the cheaper alternative of using an insertion flowmeter to traverse the bore.
PUMP USERS' HANDBOOK F. Pollak, MBE, CEng, MIMechE, MIMarE Written for the benefit of the user, the author has concentrated on producing a practical handbook with numerous diagrams, charts, ready· reference tables and much technical data throughout. The book deals systematically with the principles of pumping, suction performance, the stuffin!J" box, how to enquire for, select and order pumps, electric pump drives, systems and valves, pressure surges and their control, health and safety, fault·finding and maintenance, and useful hints for users, 250 pages, hard case bound, gold blocked with a dust jacket.

H the line size is very small, down to 1 mm (0·04 in) or even less, an integral orifice flowmeter is the only choice. Venturi tubes have been made up to 3 m (to ft) in diameter, while Orifice plate flowmeters seldom exceed 1 m (36·5 in) in diameter. Nozzles are seldom larger than40 em (15 in). Most other flowmeters are available in sizes upto 30 em (12 in). As a third step the speed of flow, that a flowmeter can cope with, should be considered. To check if a particular type of flowmeter is suitable for a particular flowspeed, Table 2 shows the maximum flowspeeds for a range of flowmeters. Table 1 shows the temperature and pressure extremes that the flowmeter can stand. The table will also give accuracies and repeatabilities, which can be achieved with various flowmeters, so that the range of suitable flowmeters can be further narrowed down. Table 2 shows the pressure drop which can be expected across the flowmeter in velocity heads. Table 3 shows some typical installation requirements. Further information regarding the suitability of each type of flowmeter will be found in the relevant chapters.

contents:
ttte Principles of pumping; Main classifications of Pumps Physical properties of Uqu~ds
RQ\ooynamj:c pumpil.

Pcsltive displacement pumps Self-primi.ng rctodvnarnie pumps How to make FiQutd flow into the pump Why, whether, and now to prime pumps. How to define the tara! pump head lpressure] The stuffing-box The choice- of materials for pumps How to select and order the correct pump Electric pomp drives Ptpetlne syst"rns and vawes - the Inlet and deli- v ery system Pressur-e surges. ~n pipelines - and control How to test pumps Hints for users Health and -safety Appendices; Installation, Starting and operation; Fault Finding and Mainrenillr;1ce; Sectional drawings of pumpt; Materials fOT Pumps; T echntcaS Data; Bibliography; Index.
TH'E "tRADE ;& TECHNICAL PRESS CROWN HOUSE, MORDEN, SURREY. SM4 5EW, ENGLAND. TELEPHONE: 01 540 3891 TEl:EX: 928926 ACROSS G. liMITED,

~~_

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c ••

, •

SECTION 2
Rate of Flow Meters

I
1

TURBINE FLOWMETERS PELTON WHEEL AND OTHER PROPELLER FLOWMETERS TARGET OR DRAGPLATE FLOWMETERS FLUIDIC FLOWMETERS ELECTRO-MAGNETIC FLOWMETERS ULTRASONIC FLOWMETERS VORTEX SHEDDING FLOWMETERS SWIRL FLOWMETERS PRESSURE DROP FLOWMETERS - CONSTANT HEAD PRESSURE DROP FLOWMETERS - VARIABLE HEAD PRESSURE DROP FLOWMETERS - VARIABLE ORIFICE SHUNT FLOWMETERS

---

------------

----

---------------

-----------------

----------

25

Turbine Flowmeters
TURBINE FLOWMETERS consist of a flow tube with mounted co-axially inside. A typical example is shown mounted on bearings which in tum are mounted in hub the hub assemblies act as flow straighteners at the same own are not generally adequate to straighten the flow. a small propeller or turbine in Figure L The turbine is assemblies; the support for time, though these on their

Figure 1 Turbine flowmeter

The bearings can be either plain bearings, ball bearings or hydro-dynamic bearings lubricated by the fluid being metered. The angular velocity of the turbine is proportional to both the axial velocity of the fluid and the helix angle of the turbine blades. The angular speed of the turbine therefore, is a measure of the rate of flow, usually measured by means of a magnetic pick-up, mounted outside the meter body. A magnetic circuit is completed when the tips of the turbine blades pass the pick-up. Pick-ups are of the inductance type if magnets are mounted on the rotor. and ofthe reluctance type if the magnets are mounted in the pick-up; rotation of the turbine varies the reluctance. The frequency of the output signal is proportional to the rotary speed of the turbine which in tum is proportional to the speed of flow of the liquid. The output of the flowmeter is electrical and basically an a.c, voltage at a frequency proportional to the turbine speed.

-------------

.-------

26

RATE OF FLOW METERS TURBINE FLOWMETER'

WHICH FLUID SYSTEM MEASUREMENT DO YOU NEED?

For single or multipleinput digital readouts and a full range of compatible sensors, talk to Webster Instruments. We design, manufacture, export worldwide.

~~t

ft:,41

Turbine [lowmeter typically used in petrochemical, offshore gas and oil processing nuclear and power generating industries.

Our equipment is used in field and laboratory testing,on hydraulic systems, process and service lines. Please contact us for more information.
DF SERIES FLOWREADOUT Teamed with our flow blocks, to measure flow from 80 cc's 1m in to 800 IImin at pressures to 420 bar. DPSERIES
PRESSURE READOUT Calibrated for pressure transducers up to 700 bar or 10,000 psi.

The frequency range is from 3 to 10 Hz. The magnitude of the voltage is approximately proportional to the flowrate. At rated flow it is usually 10 to 1000 mV rms. The signal is normally shaped to a square wave which is then amplified. The number of pulses per unit time can be determined by means of a digital counter to give a digital speed of flow indication. Alternatively, the number of pulses per unit time can be converted to an analogue of the pulsing rate. The turbine meter is basically a speed of flowmeter, although it is quite easy to obtain volume rate or mass rate by multiplying the flowrate by the flow area and by the density of the liquid. A very wide range of associated electronic equipment is available from flowmeter manufacturers and electronic instrument makers. This associated equipment includes totalisers, batchers, analogue outputs, recorders, computers, linearisers etc; High frequency turbine flowmeters have the advantage of greater digital read out resolution for a given sampling period. The number of pulses per revolution can be increased by mounting a rim on the turbine in which a number of ferrites are embedded (Figure 2), or by using a slotted rim as shown in Figure 3. For even higher resolution, multiple pick-ups can be used (Figure 4). If a turbine meter is required for an application where it will be regularly tested by means of a meter prover, it is important that a meter should be selected with a high pulse resolution. The physical limitations to the number of blades, or to the number of buttons that can be placed in a rim, might make it impossible to obtain the required resolution, in which case use can be made of phase interpolation techniques. See Meter Provers. A typical shape of the output curve of a turbine flowmeter is as shown in

DTSERIES
TEMPERATURE READOUT Compleme~ted by wide range of sensors which can be Installed in high pressure systems.

DS SERIES SPEED READOUT Connected to Webster pick-ups to read shaft or gear whee! speed. Fast update time. DMSERIES
MULTIPLE INPUT READOUT Measures pressure, peak pressure (held in memory), flow and temperature. Pen recorder output.

SENSORS
Full range, inCluding turbine and positive displacement flow blocks pressure transducers, temperature probes and tachometers.

......

WEBSTER
A DIVISION

INSTRUMENT::
PRODI..JC'T$ UMrTE;!

OF WEBTEC

West Newlands Industrial Estate Somersham Cambridgeshire PE17 3E . Tel: 10487)842202 Fax: [0487] 843104 Telex: 32781

----._-----

....

TURBINE TURBINE FLOWMETERS

FLOWMETERS

27

Put Daniel now·measurement

experience

to work on your specific problems.

~
ULTRASONIC FLOWMETERS Multlpath cusrodv transrer gas flowmeter licensed by British Gas. No pressure drop, no moving parts. does not need ,ndividual··wet canoration." Large turndown ratio. and wide rangeability. Bi-directional flow measurement Self checking

2500 SERIES MAINSPOWERED RTUICOMPUTERS Specifically European. userconligurable. ISO equations (also AGA. API, NX, etc. I Media-independent lor remote operation" Wide range of compensation/processing. Up to 16-brt resolution.

i~··

DANALYZER BTU-CONTENT CHROMATOGRAPHS On-line. automatic analysis. Multiple columns lor fast readout. Self-calibrating. Remofe operation over any communication media Repeats '" ;I BTU in 1000 dynamically over if to t30-F range.

I
I

ORIFICE PLATES AND FLANGE UNIONS Plates offer highest accuracy, longesf lile. Recognized superior. Flange Unions conform to codes. Almost aU sees. pressures.

SENtOR' ORIFICE FITTINGS Easy, rapid changing of orifice plates wifhout interrupting line flow. Liquids and gases. Oldest and best "Senior" available.

Hydroturbine flowmeter used for monitoring operational testing of hydraulic systems,

control

and

LIQUID TURBtNE METERS large-volume custody transfer 1"' to 24'· In class t50 10600. no 12·' in class 150101500. Can befitted foc bi-directional flow

Inquire about other Daniel products -and let our half-century-plus experience help solve your problems,

-----~'C._'_.~~ ~_
11111'":._L TOc INDUSTRIES,

DANJEllNDUSTRIES L tecnlands Industrial Estate tarbert, Slirlingshir. Scotland. fK5 3NS Tel: (0324} 556!fl Telex: 779634 DANFAl G Cable: DANIEL FAlKIRK

ro.

library House The Green Oatchet. Slough Be,kshire, England SK3 9AU Tel: i0753) 48587

THERMALPULSE® n LIQUID FLOW METER For Process Streams 0.1 ml/min to 100 ml/min
• No Moving • Precision Parts; All Glass and Teflon® Better than 0.1% of Full Scale Interface Signal 0 to 5 Volt Analog • RS-232 and 20mA Computer • Programmable

Rimmed

rotor

• 4 Alarm

Relays: S_P.D.T. Rated at 5 AMPS Display of Flow or Volume

• 16 Character

The Thermalpulse® II flow measuring system is a- microprocessor based flowmeter designed to measure flow rates from 0.1 ml/min to 100 mllmin with a precision 01"0.1%. The flow cell's maintenance free design of no moving parts is also chemically inert to most solvent systems hailing Teflon®, glass and Kalrez® the only materials wetted by the stream. The flow cells are less than 4" long and are fitted directly into the stream's plumbing system requiring no special orientation, mounting or location. The Control Unit provides the interface for the flow cell and provides the user with a variety of operational modes and display choices at the touch of a key. The Control Unit communication features include an RS-232 and 20mA current loop for computer communications and data processing systems. A programmable 5 volt D.C. analog signal makes recording and controumq a simple addition. The performance and flexibility of the Thermalpulse® II has made it an indispensible tool for Chromatographers, Quality Control Engineers, Process Engineers, and Scientists involved with Research and Development. Carl our toll free number or write for more information. 'TenOOarn3~~f('!~~~I~t~tedU'Bdemltr~~~~Jci..~~~~~~:

$2950.00

Unit volume per pulse Buttons - made of Hi-Mu80, a high-permeability soft iron alloy

• • • • •

IM O

.... "T E K T

Molytek, Inc.• 2419SmallmanSI., Pittsburgh, PA 15222,U.S.A_ Telephone (412) 261-903ti • Telex 812-569 From Outside Pennsylvania(800)245-5101• From Canada(BOO) 441-8197
... _._"

Figure 2 Rimmed rotor with embedded paramagnetic

buttons.

._-_._ ... ---------~----.-~-----

_._-------

--_-

---------"

...

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---

I
28 RATE OF FLOW METERS

TURBINE

FLOWMETERS

29
Fully turbulent Region

Laminar Region

Flowrate Figure 5 Typical turbine flowmeter non-linearity. Cd curve showing low range

Figure 3 . Slotted ring for high resolution turbine meters.

Single pick-up - 4 pulses per TOtor revolution

_j\,

f-, I \ I \I \'

3600

__j

EI:C_t_riC_a_I __

!\

Two pick-ups - 8 pulses per rotor revolution

13

/
Coil No.2

1_

~ectricall

..

360°

_j

Figure 5. The curve shows the K-factor against flowrate. The K-factor, is the relationship between the number of pulses produced by the flowmeter, per unit volume. The shape of the characteristic is dependent upon the parameters of the liquid metered, mainly its viscosity, it is also dependent upon the flow range covered by the flowmeter. The curve consists of a linear and a non-linear section. The non-linearity of the first section is due to bearing friction, magnetic drag, velocity profile, viscous drag of the impeller tips etc. The effects of the resistive forces on the turbine are particularly noticeable in the smaller size meters of 50 mm (2 in) bore and less, where they can represent a considerable proportion of the driving torque. The error due to magnetic drag from the pick-up can be avoided by the use of non-magnetic pick-ups. For instance, capacitance pick-up, or an optical-pick-up where a light shines, via an optical fibre, on to the turbine; each time a blade passes, the light is reflected and a signal is generated. It is also possible to have non-drag pick-up by applying a high frequency carrier signal to a pick-up coil, using an oscillator. The rotor blades modulate the carrier signal at a rate which is proportional to the turbine speed. These non-drag type pick-ups are not in general use as they require an external power source and are mostly used on low flow flowmeters, The error due to bearing friction has been minimised by the general improvement in bearing design and also by the use of hydro-dynamic bearings, ie floating rotors see Figure 6, although these tend to increase the sensitivity of the flowmeters to viscosity changes. The major source of error, without doubt, arises from the viscosity of the metered fluid as viscous drag takes place between the hub of the turbine and the bearing hub and between the turbine blade extremities and the flowmeter housing. At the top end of the flow range, it is permissible to exceed the maximum flow by 50 to 100% for short periods, although this will reduce bearing life. The maximum flow is mainly limited by pressure drop considerations and cavitation.

Coil No.1

_j\, ,
\
Q

,' --l90 E ~

Coil No.2

_J\,
\

36O"E----j
1 II \'

.:«

Figure 4 .. . Multiple pick-ups for still higher resolution.

30 Bearing assembly

RATE

OF FLOW METERS

TURBINE

FLOWMETERS

31

Deflector (upstream)

Deflector (downstream)

Rotor

Series 7300 turbine [iowmeters.

\ Impingement annulus

A.

I
\

B. C.
I

I I
I

Downstream force

lS
Pressure

Hydraulic balance point distribution

When the flowmeter only has to measure the same liquid, which is always at approximately the same temperature, a flowmeter where the linearity is less sensitive to flow range would be the better choice. When a large variety of liquids of varying viscosities have to be measured, it would be better to select a flowmeter with low sensitivity to viscosity. Variations in turbine output can also be obtained by both varying the degree of sharpness and improving the surface finish of the blades. It is possible to compensate for viscosity shifts by carrying out calibrations at a number of viscosities. Some flowmeter manufacturers can supply meters with a universal viscosity curve. With the aid of this curve the K-factor can be determined for liquids with different viscosities. However there is an alternative. This is by use of the twin rotor turbine flowmeter as shown in Figure 7. The design of this flowmeter overcomes the previously mentioned disadvantages. It can be used over an extended flowrange and can handle large changes of viscosity and bearing friction with a minimal loss of accuracy or change in the overall K-factor. The design of this flowmeter incorporates a first rotor, which is a helically bladed turbine mounted immediately downstream of the inlet guide vanes and immediately downstream, a second axially bladed rotor is mounted.

Figure 6 .. 'Floating' rotor prmnple.

The shape of the curve depends upon the viscosity of the liquid which va~~s;i~h tern erature and from liquid to liquid, as well as on t~e flow range over w IC t e fl Pt· ed Turbine flowmeters can be designed so that they are less owme er IS us . . b db' sensitive to one of these two factors than to the other. This can e one y vary~ng th ti clearance of the impeller, by correct design of the rotor bla?es, or by a~tenng th~ ~~b/rotor ratio etc. The effect of increasing the tip clearance IS tw<?fold, It.frees the rotor from the high drag area at the tips, and also places the rotor III a region of higher velocity.
.._-------_._--------------

Figure 7 'Maurer' twin rotor for turbine flowmeter.

32

RATE OF FLOW METERS

TURBINE FLOWMETERS

33

It is important that the speed pick-up of the axially aligned rotor is of the nondrag type, particularly as it is the error sensing rotor. In operation, the fluid entering the flowmeter will cause the helical rotor to rotate at an angular speed which is proportional to Vtan.A in which V is the speed of flow and A is the mean helix angle of the turbine rotor blades. Three examples are: (a) In the case of an ideal frictionless operation, the fluid should issue from the helical rotor as axially as it entered, and the second axially aligned rotor should not rotate. (b) In a practical case where bearing friction and viscous drag retard the speed of the helically bladed rotor, a swirl component of momentum will be gained by the fluid passing through this turbine. The second axially bladed turbine will sense, however, the swirl of the fluid passing through it and provide a corresponding speed signal. The rotational speed of the second rotor will thus be equivalent to the speed lost by the first turbine. A complete indication of the flow passing through the flowmeter will be obtained by the addition of the speed signals of both rotors. (c) In the case of extreme friction, the first rotor will be stationary. The second rotor will then rotate in opposition to the tendency of the first rotor and at a speed equivalent to that of an unimpeded first rotor. In all cases there will be viscous drag effects on the second rotor, so that there will be a small error on the error correction signal, but overall the improvement in accuracy is significant. This flowmeter is again shown in Figure 8, where the larger non-drag pick-up can be seen clearly. The second rotor can also be given a small helix angle. Flow range and rangeabfhty Turbine flowmeters are available to measure flow rates from as low as O·llitlmin. to as high as 200 000 lit/min, These flowmeters are available with rangeabilities of 3:1 to 10:1 for linear range, and 20:1 to 50:1 for extended range. The whole output curve of a turbine flowmeter can be linearised by using a microprocessor, programmed to apply correction factors. Accuracy A turbine flowmeter gives a very repeatable output. If all possible variables are maintained constant, a repeatability of ± 0·05% of a point can be achieved. An accuracy of ± 0·15% of a point is normal, while with care, accuracies of ± 0·10% of a point can be achieved. Generally speaking, the larger size flowmeters are more accurate. Application The turbine meter is ideal, if the liquid to be metered has a viscosity which is less than 500 cSt for larger f1owmeters, and 200 cSt for the smaller flowmeters which for a particular application, is constant to fairly close tolerances; and an accuracy in the order of ±0·15% over a 10:1 turn down ratio is required. The turbine flowmeter is used in aerospace, petro-chemical and oil industries and also for custody transfer of expensive liquids. It is used in batching, mixing and hygienic applications such as in breweries, distilleries and dairies, where the flowmeters can be steam cleaned, and in cryogenic applications in road tankers for liquid gas deliveries. -------------------_

II

Figure 8 Double rotor flowmeter shOWing the large 'capacitance type' pick-up for the second rotor.

An int~resting application is shown in Figure 9, where a turbine flowmeter is mounted In the handle of a dispensing nozzle. . T~e turbine flowmeter has a quick response time as the rotor has low inertia and SUitable for measuring fluctuating flow. For pulsating flow digital read out should be used and the counting period should be long compared with the frequency of the flow pulsations. '
IS

. If the flow is in ~he form of one jet, for example while measuring a short single ~hscharge, t?e pulsIn~ rate of the flowmeter should be high. Bearing wear is usually Increased With pulsating flow.

Turbine flowmet~rs are extensively used for the metering of gas flows, but very seldol? for mea~unng steam. Table 1 gives typical examples of the airflow capaclt.les of turbine fl~wmeters compared with liquid flow for flow meters of the sa~e size. Meters re9ul~ed for the measurement of gas flow are usually specially designed for gas applications,

------.~--~----

RATE OF FLOW METERS

TURBINE

FLOWMETERS

35

"'''"'

6~MV) ""'

.9BB.8

If){f')f''')1fl

9~t;l6
000

Flanged turbine meter.

Figure 9 A small turbine flowmeter with digital read-out mounted in the handle of a dispensing nozzle.

The driving torque exerted by the gas on the turbine is much smaller than that exerted by a liquid. This torque is proportional to p v', where p is the density of the fluid and Y the speed of flow. To increase the speed of flow in order to increase the driving torque, the hub of the turbine is made much larger for gas meters than for liquid meters. The rotor should also be as light as possible. Turbine meters for gases are not available in the smaller sizes, because the bearing friction becomes proportionally large. The range of gas meters is influenced by the density of the gas, which is proportional to its pressure. The density of the gas and thus its pressure, will affect the calibration of the turbine meter. There are no calibration facilities in which the calibration can be carried out over a range of pressures.

E E

RATE OF FLOW METERS

36

TURBINE

FLOWMETERS

37

As the viscosi!y of oils.etc is temperature dependent, a correction should be ~ade, or alternatively a twm-rotor turbine meter should be used if the temperature IS not constant. Operating conditions - pressure and temperature There is a minimum op~rating pressure which will prevent cavitation occurring at ~he outlet end of a turbine flowmeter. This should be (3 dP + 1·3 Vp) in which dP IS the pressur~ loss ac~oss the flowm~ter and yp is the liquid vapour pressure. The pressure loss III a turb.me flowme~er IS approxl.mately proportional to the square of ~he f1o~rate and .also increases With the VISCOSity. the fluid. Normally flowmeters of are designed to give a pressure drop of 3 to 10 lb/irr' when used with water at a rated flow. For other liquids, the pressure drop across the flowmeter can be estimated by the formula: dP = PD X 11-0.25 x SGO.75 where 11- = viscosity in cP SG = specific gravity PD = pressure drop for water Generally speaking, turbine flowmeters are easy to design for high pressures. Installation conditions If the flowmeter is m~unted at an an~e, be~~ing load is changed and accuracy can be.affected. The turbine flowmeter IS sensitrve to velocity profile changes and to swirl, . General~y '.misalignmen~s, T junctions, upstream and downstream valves, poor plpe.work fitting and multiple bends can introduce a distorted velocity profile vortices and swirl :-vhichhave a pronounced effect on the flowmeter output. Swirl generated by multiple bends persists over a considerable length. An optimum installation is where a fully developed profile is attained before entr~ t? the f1o,:meter. Swirl should also be removed by using a flow straightener. DevlatJ~ns of.2 Yo and more caused by swirl have been observed. The best flow pattern IS obtained by using adequate length of straight piping (10 D upstream 5 D downstream), as well as a flow straightener (Figure 10). The flow through the flowmeter should always be controlled by means of a valve mounted downstream of the flowmeter.

Turbine meter for ga$£S

Influence of the fluid parameters Turbine flowmeters are suitable for most liquids including cryogenic liquids, acids, petrochemicals and chemical liquids. They are less ~uitable for liquids which tend to foam or liquids which contain gas, as the meters will measure the total volume of liquid plus gas. These f10wmeters are not recommended for liquids with viscosities of more than 200 cSt for small f1owmeters, 500 cSt for large flowmeters, because the accuracy of these f10wmeters is affected by changes in viscosity. The bearings demand that the fluid is filtered. For plain bearings a small amount of contaminant is allowed and filtration should be to 70 microns. For some high speed baIl bearings, filtration above 10 microns is advised. Preferably the fluid should have lubricating properties. If a flowmeter is calibrated with water, an increase in viscosity will tend to increase the non-linear first section of the calibration curve. Reduction of density also has this effect. A common mistake made is to assume that if a turbine flowmeter (or any other flowmeter) is to be used with aviation fuel such as A VT AG, it will always give meaningful results when used with any other batch of A VT AG. Depending on the source of supply, the viscosity and density of these fuels can vary widely. All parameters of the calibration liquid should be specifie~; this means density and viscosity and, therefore, also its temperature and sometimes pressure. The precise metering of flow with turbine flowmeters requires a knowledge and control of all parameters which influence the performance ofthe flowmeter, both during the calibration and in its application. The influence of the parameters varies among the different makes and sizes of flowmeters. The influence of flowrate and viscosity on the calibration factor is generally greater with the smaller size flowmeters.

Coil protection box

Meter and straightener connections

Figure 10 Typical flowmeter

installation.

~I

38

RATE OF FLOW METERS

TURBINE

FLOWMETERS

39

Maintenance Be~rings need regular servi:ing or replacement. For this purpose the flowmeter has to e removed .from the line, Pre-calibrated, field replaceable rotor assernbl c~psules are avail~ble for some flowmet:rs (Figure 11). However their calibratio~ WIll ?ot be to ~ptmlUm accuracy. Expenments are being carried out with various beanng matenals for flowmeters used with chemically aggressive fluids Good results were obtained with stellite and with carbide bearings. .

Figure 11 Pre-calibrated, capsule.

field replaceable rotor, assembly

Calibration If accuracy is important, turbine flowmeters should be calibrated using exactly the same fluids which are to be measured, if this is not possible, some correction factor should be derived. Calibration should also be carried out using the same upstream and downstream pipework as would be used in its installation. This often means that calibration has to be carried out on site using a meter prover. If a secondary standard is used for calibration, this secondary standard should not be sensitive to flow profile and swirl in the same way as a turbine flowmeter, for example a positive displacement flowmeter should be used as the secondary standard.

Turbine meters for the food and beverage industries.

Turbine flowmeter.

41

Pelton Wheel and other Propeller Flowmeters

THESE FLOWMETERS use a multi-blade rotor from which the straight blades protrude radially (Figures 1 and 2). The flow through the flowmeter, is narrowed to a jet which enters the flowmeter chamber tangentially and makes impact at right angles with the blades. The rotor is driven at a speed which is proportional to the speed of flow. Pelton wheel flowmeters are suitable for extremely low flows, they are also used as bypass fIowmeters (see Shunt Flowmeters}.

Figure 1 Pelton wheel flowmeter.

Bearingless Hover type flowmeter The bearingless meter or Hoverf/o® shown in Figure 3, was specially designed to surmount the problem of bearing weakness encountered with most turbine type f1owmeters. This flowmeter was developed by using a mathematical model based on airfoil theory. Liquid enters the flowmeter body chamber from the inlet port. This chamber contains a removable cartridge which encloses a rotor. The rotor consists of a turbine and a lower disc positioned at each end of the central shaft. Without flow the rotor rests on the top hover seat. When flow commences, the pressure drop

----

... .. _-----

---

___

42

RATE OF FLOW METERS

PELTON WHEEL FLOWMETERS

Tip mounted Ierrites

Sensing
coil

~ Outlet

Litre Meter Flowmeters

Inlet

l..====:::=:~=--:::::==::::::J
Tip mounted ferrites

Outlet

'"
MM:OrificelPellon

'"

The precision Pelton Wheel turbine is the heart of all Litre Meter Flowmeters. It runs in sapphire bearings for accuracy and is produced from a range of chemically resistant materials for a long life. There are two types of Litre Meter flowmeters. In the LM Series, designed for smaller flowrates, the entire flow is directed onto the rotor. A sensor detects ferrites in the rotor tips to produce a pulse output The larger MM Series combines an orifice with an identical Pelton Wheel assembly, mounted in a by- pass chamber. In both types of meter. the pulse output is directly proportional to flowrate. Litre Meter also supply a complete range of electronic instruments for flowrate indication, totalisation, batching, alarm, data logging and control requirements. Specialist instrumentation with programmable linearising facilities is also available . • Meter bodies are provided in 316 stainless steel and other corrosionresistant materials, including an all-PVC version with no metal parts. • Flowrates from 0.01 to 22,000 litres/min. Pressures to 300 bar. to 135 C .
c

Figure 2 .h I ge capability down to 0·02 lit/min and showing the Full flow Pelton wheel flowmeter Wit ow ran flowmeter used as a shunt flowmeter.

Pelton wheel flowmeter.

across the lower hover disc lifts the rotor. The liq~id flowflPasses t~rough both turbines causing the rotor to turn at a speed proportional to ow spee . bi . bl 1 t ce pick up system as used on most tur me It has a conventional vana ere uc an ~ lses per revolution and tlowmeters. The increased number of magnets give more pu therefore greater resolution. Propeller tlowmeters .. bine flowmeters but the propeller is Propeller flowmet~rs are slmIl~r. t.o t~~r~ue to a counte; mechanism, therefore designed so as to give adequate r~v~g eters This type of flowmeter is mainly they are volume rather than spee ow~ . used for measuring large water consumptlon.
_._-------_._-----------

• Sizes 6 to 300mm (% to 12") bore with screwed, hose, or flange con nections.

• Temperatures

FLOW

LITRE METER
SPECIALISTS

Litre Meter Limited

50/53 Habans Close

Rabans Lane Industrial Estate Aylesbury Buckinghamshire H P19 3RS Tel (0296) 20341 Telex 837801

MEASUREMENT

----_

..

----._._--

PELTON wHEEL FLOWMETERS

PELTON WHEEL AND OTHER PROPELLER

FLOWMETERS

43

• Compact, lightweight and self-powered. • Non~intrusive transducers for aU pipes . • Quick, computer-aided set-uo . • Simple. Enter 00,10, pipe material. • Automatic compensation for other variables. • Clear or cloudy liquids - non-Doppler, • Direct LCD readout of linear, volumetric or total flow. • Instant chanqs-over between metric and Imperial units. • Good for cash flow too. • Around £ 1 500 in UK complete.

Figure 3 'Hoverflo'

bearingless turbine type flowmeters.

National Weights and Measures Laboratory Thddington, Middlesex

for Calibration of Flowmeters and Volumetric Standards traceable to National Standards. Flowmeters up to 6000 l/min. On site Calibration of Proving Tanks and Liquefied Petroleum Gas Systems. Service throughout the U.K.
.------------.-~.-~-

I
300 bar, high pressure Pelton wheel flowmeter.

--~-- .. ~--.

_I

RATE OF FLOW METERS

44

PELTON WHEEL AND OTHER PROPELLER FLOWMETERS

45

The propeller can be mounted on a vertical axis (Figure 4) or on a horizontal axis (Figure 5). In the vertical arrangement, the upward flow of the liquid reduces thrust and wear on the lower bearing, but the vertical type has a larger pressure loss than the horizontal type. Other impeller type flowmeters There is a large variety of flowmeters in which an impeller or turbine is driven round by the fluid flow; many of these are used as watermeters such as the multi-jet

Pelton wheel PVC flowmeter aggressIve acids.

specifically

designed to handle

Series 71 with read-out type L3/T.

Figure 4 Propeller flowmeter.

.,. ? .. .~ ,
-~'"''''
J ••

) ).

,<> •...

>

'_

....'?-'"
'.'

~,."

Diagram of propeller flowmeter shown in Figure 4. There is a glandless magnetic coul!ling between measuring unit and drive mechanism.

Figure 5 On this version the impeller spindle is concentric with the pipe axis. The water flow is straight through the flowmeter and therefore causes minimum head loss.

______

..

__

••

.OO

••

",,_,,

_,,_.

••

_._

.oO.

-------

46

RATE OF FLOW METERS

PELTON WHEEL AND OTHER PROPELLER fLOWMETERS

47

flowmeter as shown in Figure 6. In the multi-jet flowmeter the liquid enters the flowmeter chamber through a number of tangentionaJ orifices. Another example of an impeller type flowmeter is shown in Figure 7.

> >

Multi-jet propeller flowmeter; the liquid passes through the small holes in the flowmeter chamber and impinges on the rotor.

Figure 6

'ulti-jet flowmeter.

Flowmeter manufaCtured from fluids.

pvc for

use in corrosive

Body

Spiral enclosed water meter.

Figure 7 Water flowmeter

with direct drive for counter.

------~

~----~-

RATE OF FLOW METERS

f
j
j

49

Target or Dragplate Flowmeters

THE TARGET flowmeter consists of a cylindrical tube with an obstruction in the form of a thin disc mounted inside, The disc is attached to the end of a cantilever, which, in turn, is mounted in a protrusion of the meter body (Figure I), The flowmeter measures flow in terms of dynamic forces acting on a fixed body in the flow stream. Force Angled propeller flowmeters 11 fl eter in which the propeller can be ngled prope er owm 'd' Figure 8 shows an a b 'ned or replaced thereby avoi mg any , h it needs to e exarm '.' removed sIdeways ~ e~ I 'The rotor bearings are located outSIde the mam disturbance to the pIpe Installation. inated flow and are less liable to become contamInate ' where Cd A p Cd A P

~!;;:d8propeller

f!0wmeler,

allowing easy removal of propeller

assembly for servlcmg,

y2
2g

drag coefficient target area fluid density y velocity Tests are necessary to establish Cd.

Figure I Target [lowmeters.

50

RA TE OF FLOW METERS

TARGET

OR DRAGPLATE

FLOWMETERS

51

The force which the flow exerts on the obstruction causes a bending strain in the cantilever. The level of this strain is measured with a strain-gauge and is a measure of the fiowrate. Alternatively a displacement transducer can be used to measure the amount of rotation of the pivot point of the lever. The rangeability of this type of flowmeter is about 10: 1. The range can be changed by changing the target. Target flowmeters are frequently used to measure pulsating or transient flows. For this purpose the electrical meter output should be linearly proportional to flow. It is then quite easy to process the output and obtain average flow. The advantages of this type of flowmeter include high response, no moving parts, bi-directional, long life, low pressure drop and easily calibrated. Typical applications for dragplate or static plate type flowmeters are given in Table L Flowmeters based on the principle shown in Figure 2 can be used
TABLE I-STATIC PLATE FLOWMETERS (extract) Industry Mf condensers Functions Cooling circuit control

Applications Industry Atomic power stations Target flowmeter with retractable probe for open stream flow velocity measurement. Boilers Functions Controlling cooling and lubrication circuits Prevention levels oflow water

Night storage heater systems Paper machines

Prevention levels

of low water

Oxygen cutters

Burner control

Cooling and lubrication circuit control Prevention dry of running

\+.:
- gg

Chemistry

Flow control

Pumps

Diesel engines

Leakage, oil and cooling water control Cooling circuit control Prevention levels Prevention pressure Flow control of low water

Tube generators

Cooling and lubrication circuit control Valve cooling control Coil cooling control

Generators Heating plant

X-ray plant Forge heating plant

,
.~_'

High pressure purifiers Hydraulic machines and plant Induction furnaces Compressors

of low water

Welding machines

Cable cooling control

Heavy machinery control

Lubrication

circuit

Cooling and oil circuit control Cooling and oil circuit control Cooling circuit control

Relief valves

Response

control

Vacuum furnaces

Jacket cooling control

This flowmeter was developed specifically for precise measurement offlow of dirty liquids, gases and slurries.

Arcfurnaces

Machine tools

Emulsion and lubrication circuit control

~---..

...

~----

-------------

RATE OF FLOW METERS 52

53

1. Paddle or static plate. 2.Spring. 3.Bellows. 4.Pointer. 5.Scale. 6.Microswitch. 7 .Indicating lamp.

Fluidic Flovvuneters
ORIGINALLY DEVELOPED in the early nineteen seventies,fluidicflowmeters consist of a fluidic oscillator. The oscillator consists of a jet which attaches itself, due to the Coanda effect alternately to opposite walls (wall attachment) of the flowmeter body. The Coanda effect is explained as follows: if the wall of the flowmeter body slopes away from the jet as shown in Figure 1, the pressure in the space between the jet and the sidewall drops below the pressure at the other side of the jet due to turbulence. Consequently the jet will be deflected against the sidewall.

Figure 2 Diagram of target flowmeter flow indication.

giving direct

throughout heavy industry, in rolling mills, the c~em~cal and. pharmaceutical industry, food and beverage industry and the machme mdus~ry In gen~~al. One advantage of this type of meter design is that it ~an be mounted I~ ~ny position. The instrument must be calibrated in accordance with the actual posmon however.

Jet

Turbulence causing low pressure region Figure 1 The turbulence near the wall causes a pressure drop across the jet which forces it towards the wall to which it will attach itself.

The shape of the flowmeter body allows for the flowing stream to attach itself at random to one of the sidewalls when flow is initiated. At a point downstream, a small portion of the fluid is diverted through a feedback passage to a control port (Figure 2). This feedback flow acts against the main flow and diverts it to the

.~---_

._-_

S4

RATE OF FLOW METERS

FLUIDIC FLOWMETERS

55

TABLE 1- TYPICAL CALIBRATION FACTOR FOR FLUID FLOWMETER

600

S80
-

~ 0; ~
on

560 S40 S20

500

e-

--

" '3 .s
~

~ .... ~

480
460

+2%

Control

port

Feedback

passage

.........

440 Figure 2

r-...

,
1

of rate band

420
400 001
Normalised

opposite wall where the same feedback action is repeated (Figure 3). The result is a continuous self-induced oscillation of the flow between the sidewalls of the flowmeter body. The frequency of this oscillation is linearly related to the fluid velocity and hence the volume flowrate.

flow

Flow rate gallmin Viscosity (centistokes)

The graph shows a typical performance curve" The shift in 'K' fa Reynolds number approaches 600 The normaf d fl I ,ctor at low flow rates occurs as the pipe (centistokes), and is direct reading"in gal/min fo;:ate ow ~ca e l~ sh'.'w~ as galrrnin + kinetic viscosity 60 "F. The meter'S performance on other fluid be r , WI ose viscosity IS approximately I centistoke at . , . " s can eva uated by dividing "ISfl (i " (In centistokes) and entering the graph at the II d I ow_rate III gal/min) by its IIOWI~g Vl~lty vanation In K factor can be evaluated to determine if th ca cu ale .value. In this manner the expected expected opera tinz ranee. e meter WIll gIVe the required accuracy over the

Figure 3

The oscillations are detected by a flush-mounted sensor and are amplified by electronic means to provide a digital output. The flow velocity in the feedback passages varies continuously from zero to maximum; it provides a region with substantial flowrate change in which it is easy to sense the frequency of oscillation, and produce a relatively noise free output. Only one of the feedback passages needs to have a sensor. The sensing element is normally a thermistor which is part of a constant temperature Wheatstone Bridge. The other sections of the bridge can be remotely positioned (up to 300 m (328 yd)) in a control room. The bridge output is conditioned and amplified to provide an indication of flowrate and total volume passed. Fluidic flowmeters will operate at much lower Reynolds numbers than most other flowmeters, although flow ranges depend on viscosity. The rangeability, which is typically 30:1, decreases with increasing viscosity. These flowmeters are very suitable for viscous liquids such as fuel oil, For a given flowmeter size, the:

Figure 4 Fluidic flowmeter for high viscosity fluid"

system w,il!0I:'erate at much lower flows than conventional flowmeters Electro . repeatability IS said to be within ±0·2% of actual flowrate. . rue The fluidic flow~et~r s~own in Figure 4 features dual output signals, analo ue f10:-v control and/or indication and scaled pulse for direct totalising in enginee~ng units.

----

~-

.~ .....

- ~.~~. - -.-.~ ----

57

Electromagnetic Flowmeters
THE MEASURING principle of the electromagnetic flowmeter is based on Faraday's law of induction. If a conductor is moved within a magnetic field. a voltage is induced at right angles to the direction of movement in that conductor and at right angles to the magnetic field. See Figure 1. This voltage is proportional to the average speed at which the conductor moves. In these flowmeters the magnetic field is produced by a pair of coils (see Figure 2) and the conductor is represented by liquid which must be electrically conductive. When the liquid flows through the magnetic field, it cuts the lines of magnetic force. The induced voltage is picked up by two insulated electrodes embedded in the wall of the flow tube and which are in contact with the flowing fluid. The voltage generated (E) is: E = B.L.V where B is magnetic induction L is length of conductor V is velocity of conductor

Figure I Diagram of electromagnetic

flowmeter.

_J

58

RATE OF FLOW METERS

ELECTROMAGNETIC

FLOWMETERS

An electromagnetic flowmeter system consists of a detector head, a converter and a display (Figure 3). The detector head consists of a tube made from a nonmagnetic material. If the tube is made from metal it will have an insulating liner. Two electrodes are mounted in the tube and make contact with the liquid being metered.

Figure 2 Diagram of electromagnetic

flowmeter.

Electrodes

Electromagnetic flowmeter intrinsically safe circuit.

with

Electromagnetic

Polarising potentials can be detected across the electrode when the electromagnet is off. This is caused by various effects and would cause measurement errors if a direct current was used for excitation. To avoid these polarising potentials an a.c. excitation voltage is used to generate the magnetic field.
unit.

Figure 3 Diagram of electromagnetic

flow measurement

~!~~~~~~~~

The length of the conductor L corresponds to the ~ist~n~e. between the d is therefore constant. The magnetic induction B IS a fl?wmeter

~~uced signal voltage is proportionaldto th~ ~ve~~~ea~~;t~~l~~t~~~c~~; fl file over the whole flow area, an so 1 IS . ~~~fil~~ b~~~ity does not enter into the flowmeter equation and electromagnetic flowmeters are true speed flowmeters.

a.c, Excitation When using a.c. excitation, the output is also an a.c. voltage from which d.c. voltages can be separated. Various forms of a.c. excitation can be used, such as sinusoidal, square wave trapezoidal etc. Sinusoidal excitation produces an unwanted transformer voltage which is induced by the varying magnetic flux linking a loop of the electrode lead. This can be overcome partly by providing an artifical loop on one electrode. The transformer voltage is proportional to the frequency of excitation. This frequency is therefore usually kept low, in the order of 50 Hz. This transformer voltage must be cancelled out by the system's electronics.

-----

._-

--------_._._-------

RATE OF FLOW METERS 60

ELECTROMAGNETIC

FLOWMETERS

61

Square wave and other excitation wave forms are used to avoid the problems of transformer voltages. Quadrature voltages out of phase with the signal are rejected by the converter. Those in phase with the output signal are eliminated by a zero~ng facilitv of the converter. Zero adjustment is made at no-flow. The factors which contribute to the zero error may change during service and occasional re-zeroing is necessary. In some continuous processes it is not possible to shut down and interrupt the process to carry out this re-zeroing. To overcome this problem and, at the same time, to avoid the technical problems associated with eliminating quadrature voltages in the converter, pulsed d.c. excitation was developed. Electromagnetic flowmeters with pulsedd.c. excitation are now available from most manufacturers. Bipolar pulse operation Bipolar pulse operation is used by one manufacturer as a means of eliminating the zero error (Figure 4). Under ideal or reference conditions the peak-to-peak value of the electrode signals, Vp + Vn equals the flow velocity and Vp is also equal to VnIf the zero or no flow signal is offset, for example in the positive direction by Ve, then the positive signal is Vp + Ve and the negative signal is Vn - Ve· Hence the overall value of the electrode signal is Vp + Vn and the offset signal is eliminated. The same applies if the offset is in the negative direction. Using a double balanced demodulator technique, the signal is measured for 50% of the drive cycle twelve times each second enabling not only d.c. offsets but also random noise and power line pick-up, to be rejected.

Pulsed d.c, excitation When an intermittent d.c, volt~g~ is used for excitation, the polarising potential is ~uppre~sed. When t?e voltage ISfirst applied, it builds up gradually and as soon as Its ma~lmum value IS reached, the voltage is transmitted to the converter and the value IS.st?red. The. excitation is then turned off and when the voltage has died d?wn, It IS determined and subtracted from the first determined value. The difference between the two output voltages is a direct measure of the flowrate, ' 5) (FIgure .

Electromagnetic on

Electromagnetic off

Difference in the two output voltages

Measuring Electrode signal under reference conditions

interval

Sampling times

Figure 5

Negative Peak.to-peak value of Vp

Measuring

interval

+ V n = flow velocity

Electromagnetic

flowmeters

with capacitive pick-ups

Random noise Electrode signal under typical conditions

-,:Vp

No flow signal Zero

Figure 4
Bipolar pulse operation.

In the electromagne~ic flow.meters described so far, the signal is picked up by two metal electro~es which are tn. contact with the fluid. These electrodes are liable to get coated WIth.non-conductive deposits while in use; this will break the contact between the fluid and the electrodes. . ":'h~n .the tube has an insulating lining, it is possible to embed aluminium sheets III this lining. The~e electrodes are capacitively coupled to the liquid, (Figure 6). .~e flow tube ISmade from a non-magnetic material to allow field penetration. If It ISn~c~ss~ry to make the tube from steel, a stainless steel with low magnetic permeability IS u~ed. Th.e electrodes have to be insulated from the body and the tube ~as to be h~ed With a. non-conductive material. A large variety of liner matenals are avadabl.e varymg fr~m rubber to vitreous enamel, as shown in ~a?le 1, so .that a variety of corrosive liquids can be handled. Where possible a lining.matenal such as PTFE should be selected to prevent deposits from the fluid adhenng to the tube.

------_-_

....

---

----

RATE OF FLOW METERS 62

ELECTROMAGNETIC

FLOWMETERS

63

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64

RATE OF FLOW METERS

ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOWMETERS

65

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66

RATE OF FLOW METERS

ELECTROMAGNETIC

FLOWMETERS

67

Adj. to pipe size~,~Do..

Figure 6 Diagram of capacitive pick-up for electromagnetic flowmeter.

Figure 7 Insertion type electromagnetic

flowmeter.

Accuracy and repeatability A repeatability of ±0'2% of a point is possible at the higher flow ranges and with care an accuracy of ± 1% of a point can be obtained. With flowmeters below 25 mm (1 in) diameter, the acccuracy is further reduced. A typical calibration error curve for an electromagnetic flowmeter is shown in Figure 8. On the whole, the output of electromagnetic flowmeters is linear.
General purpose magnetic flowmeter.

Application Elect~omagnetic fl?wn;teters are ~u~table for most liquids provided they are e1ectncally conductive le have a rrummum conductivity of 1 micro mho/ern. This excludes liquids with very low conductivities such as petrol. The flowmeters are

Since it is not economically feasible to have non-corrosive pick-up electrodes, the electrode material should be selected so that it is compatible with the fluid being metered. Details of electrode materials are also given in Table 1. The wide range of liquids that can be metered with the electromagnetic flowmeter includes liquids which are dirty or greasy thereby leaving deposits on the electrode surfaces. It will then be necessary to remove the electrodes for cleaning. In some systems it is possible to clean the electrodes in situ, using either an electrolysis system or a vibratory one, normally using ultrasonics. Another type of electromagnetic flowmeter consists of a probe which can be inserted into a pipe (see Figure 7). One probe can be used for a range of pipe sizes and has a rangeability of 100:1. It is an insertion flowmeter and is listed under that heading. Flowrange and rangeability . Electromagnetic flowmeters are available to measure fl~ws of O· to 1?0 x IlfliUmin 2 (0.06 to 18 m1s). The range ability of an electromagnettc flowmeter IS around 10:1 and can be extended at some loss of accuracy. Range switching devices are available; these increase the range considerably.

!j-"

.. +
~0 "# -1

10%

50% % Flowrate

100%

Figure 8 Typical calibration error flowmeter.

curve of an electromagnetic

-.----~ -----..
-

6S

RATE OF FLOW METERS

ELECTROMAGNETIC

FLOWMETERS

69

suitable for water, effluent, sludge, pastes, acids, electrolytes, foodstuffs etc. The flow in an electromagnetic flowmeter is not obstructed by measuring elements and is suitable for measuring slurries and similarly difficult liquids. They are used for measuring the mass flow of multi-phase fluids in conjunction with gamma ray densitometers.

which are chemically compatible with virtually all liquids however corrosive or aggressive. As the size of the magnets does not increase in proportion to the bore, the larger flowmeters are more economicaL Electromagnetic flowmeters are also well suited to measuring pulsating flows. The main limitation of electromagnetic flowmeters is that they are not suitable for the measurement of gasflows. In the UK, BS 5792 gives guidance on the construction, installation and use of electromagnetic flowmeters,

Process industry electromagnetic

flowmeters.

Electromagnetic dairy effluent.

flowmeter

and recorder monitor

~-

ELectromagnetic flowmeter

installed in brewery.

Electromagnetic flowmeters are insensitive to entrained gases. If large quantities of gas are present, the meter will read high. Gas can give trouble if it accumulates round the electrodes. Electromagnetic flowmeters are suitable for dirty, greasy, gaseous fluids, untreated sewage and fluids containing solids. They can be made from materials

Flowmeter

secondary

electronics

unit.

----------

-------

------------------

70

RATE

OF FLOW METERS

ELECTROMAGNETIC

FLOWMETERS
71

Influence of fluid parameters Within limits, measurement is not affected by changes in pressure, temperature, density, viscosity nor conductivity of the liquid being measured. Also, it is not affected by variations of the conductivity of the liquid when it is uniform over the whole liquid. Local variations in conductivity can cause errors. Operating conditions Standard flowmeters are available to cover a temperature range of -40 °C to +177 °C and pressures up to 526 kPa (3625 lb/irr'). Flowmeters of this type are available to measure the flow of liquid metals, such as sodium in nuclear instrumentation. Installation conditions Measurement is less sensitive to flow profile than most other flowmeters, as the flow speed is averaged. Flow profile is still a factor to be considered especially for very large flowmeters ie flowmeters of 1 m (39 in) diameter. Further reduction in sensitivity to flow profile has been achieved in some flowmeters by using large area electrodes. Uneven contamination of these electrodes was found to cause calibration shifts. Upstream bends, valves, contractions and diversions may detract from flowmeter accuracy. It is good practice to ensure that at least 10 D upstream pipework and 3 D downstream is straight. Measures should be taken to ensure that the flowmeter always runs full, otherwise there will be a measuring error apart from the fact that the flowmeter is liable to overheat. (See Figure 9).

produces an .a~t~rnating voltage. The Current flow causes a vigorous formation of gas I~ the VICInItyof t~e electrodes which will remove any deposit. Electrode cIeam~g can also b~ achieved by passing a high current over the electrodes for a short time and burmng away any deposits on the electrodes In one mod I . tri I. . e , a piezoj e ec fIC crysta ISmounted on the backs of the electrodes who h i d I . ibrati . , IC In uce u trasomc VI ratlO.ns t~ VIbrate the deposits from the electrodes. On-line s~mulators are available to check the performance of the flowrneters in the mstallation; the~e provide voltage signals representing detector head flo l Yo tage reference SIgnals can be provided to cover the velocity ranges of the flowmeters. e Figure 10 shows a large bore electromagnetic flowmeter.

Figure 10 Electromagnetic

flowmeter.

Figure 9 An electromagnetic flowmeter should always run full,

(like most other flowmeters},

Calibration Dry calibration can be carried out on large bore flowmeters. The flow signal can be deducted by means of probes which measure the strength of the magnetic field. Measurements are carried out at a number of positions across the flowmeter bore. This method does not produce an accurate calibration, which can only be obtained by calibration in a f1owrig. Maintenance Deposits from the fluids could insulate the electrodes. Flowmeters are available with removable electrodes or with auto-cleaning devices. In some flowmeters a cleaning unit is wired into the detector head and when switched on, the unit

The Magflo 1100-15 intrinsically safe electromagnetic flowmeter.

72

RATE OF FLOW METERS

73

Further developments . . . Work is being carried out in the area of COlI deslg~, wIth? larger number of windings with a view to reducing the power consumption of this type of flowmeter so that it can be made intrinsically safe. . Liner materials are also being improved (aluminium oxides) so that fluids can be metered at higher temperatures.

Ultrasonic Flowmeters
INTRODUCED IN the early nineteen seventies, ultrasonic flowmeters have now passed successfully through their introductory period, providing a flow measuring instrument with previously unattainable rangeability, linearity and sensitivity. Ultrasonic waves will pass through pipewalls and many ultrasonic flowmeters can be mounted on the outside of pipes without disturbing the pipe installation, see Figure 1.

Figure 1

There are two basic types of ultrasonic flow measurement methods, the first using transit time flowmeters, the second using Doppler shift devices, which measure the Doppler shift of ultrasonic signals reflected by bubbles of impurities in the flow.

------------~

-.----~~

74

RATE OF FLOW METERS

ULTRASONIC

FLOWMETERS

75

There are three possible methods to evaluate this transit time difference: (i) Direct time measurement, or dT method. (ii) By measurement of the phase shift of two sinusoidal signals, or d¢ method. (iii) By sing-around technique or df method. Direct time or dT method Direct tiI?e m~asurement using the leading edge system, involves the measurement of the. time mterval bet"7'een the leading edges of the two acoustic pulses tra~smltted across the flowmg medium up- and downstream. The two transducers, which face one another, act alternately as transmitter and receiver. The mathematical expression for the speed of flow (V) is as follows:

V
Time of flight ultrasonic flowmeter.

where
L

2LdT cos cP (Tl + T2) distance between transducers TI-T2 angle between beam and direction of flow travel time of pulse upstream travel time of pulse downstream

dT The sonic beams or pulses are generated in the main by piezo-ceramic crystals, which can act alternately as transmitter and receiver. These are mounted in or on the outer wall of the pipe and an ultrasonic beam is trasmitted into the fluid at an angle to the flow. Transit time meters The transit time method consists basically in sending two ultrasonic pulses at an angle across the flowing fluid as .sho~n in Figure 2. On~ in t~e direct~on ~f the flow and the other in the opposite direction, The pulse emitted In the direction of the flow will travel the distance between the two transducers in a shorter time than the pulse travelling upstream. The difference in transit time of the two signals is a measure of the flowrate. In transit time flowmeters, the pulse travels across the pipe diameter; these flowmeters are used to measure the flow of clear liquids.

cP
Tl T2

This fon_nula does not include the speed of sound. The output of these flowmet~rs IS not .affected .by changes in the transmission speed for sound through the flowmg medium, which could happen due to changes in temperature or pressure.

__

Transducer

Transducer

.
Ultrasonic flowmeters are used for large bore pipes.
------------------_._-._._
..

Figure 2 Diagram showing principle of a transit time ultrasonic flowmeter.

76

RATE OF FLOW METERS

ULTRASONIC

FLOWMETERS

77

Phase shift or d<l> method . .. In ultrasonic flowmeters operating on the phase shift principle, each transd.ucer sends out a burst of ultrasonic signals, and is then immediately used~s a recel~er. The phase of the two signals is modified by the flow and the phase dl~ference. IS a function of the speed of flow. The first commercial flowmeter to use this technique was a reflex type flowmeter as shown in Figure 3. These refl:x type fl~wmeters which increase the length of the flight path of the signals are particularly SUItablefor small bore flowmeters.
Transducers

rates is a measure of the speed of flow. The expression for the speed of flow for these flowmeters is:
V

dFL 2 cos
<I>

, ,

, ,

",,

,,
/

difference in frequency of the repetition rates distance between the transducers <I> angle between beam and direction of flow ,,\gain. in th~s type o~ ultrasonic flow.meter, the speed of sound through the medium IS not mcluded in the mathematical expression for the speed of flow; the meter output is again independent of any variations in this parameter. Transit time flowmeters are available both as insert and clamp on flowmeters.

where dF L

Reflected beam Diagram of wetted transducer single reflex transit time flowmeter. Transducers

'\ i ----~-i--~\ I I

ultrasonic flowmeter using the singaround technique.

Figure 3 Clamp on transit time reflex meter.

The expression for the speed of flow in these meters is: V

Insert tlowmeters The complete insert flowmeter requires installation like any other flowmeter. The transducers are directly exposed to the fluid and are known as wetted types, see Figure 4. The wetted types are susceptible to fouling and will have to be removed occasionally for cleaning. In some flowmeters this can be done without shutting down the system. As an alternative to having a complete flowmeter, weld-in inserts are also available. Figure 5 shows a transducer mounting arrangement welded into a pipewall.

dq,C 4fL

the phase difference between the cycles f frequency of the signals C speed of sound in the fluid L distance between the transducers In this type of flowmeter the sonic velocity does come into the output. There is a relationship between sonic velocity and density; the output of these flowmeters can be used directly for mass flow measurement. Sing-around technique or df method With this technique, received pulses trigger off another set of pulses and the pulse repetition rate is measured. The roles of t?e transd.ucers a~e then reversed. ~nd another repetition rate is measured. The difference m the sing-around repetItion

where d<l>

Figure 4 Time of flight ultrasonic welled flowmeter .

-----------------~

..

---.- .. -- .. ~

78
Flexible conduit

RATE OF FLOW METERS

ULTRASONIC

FLOWMETERS

79

the pipe wall, through the liquid and out through the opposite pipe wall to the other transducer. The tra~sducers do not face one another directly and the performance of these flowmeters IS on the whole better than that of insert types . .Transdu~ers should be accu~atelypositioned on the outer pipe wall. To facilitate this, mountmg brackets (see Figure 7) with locating holes can be used.

Figure 5 Ultrasonic flowmeter

kit welded into pipewall.

Referring to Figure 4, the insert transducers face each other at a fixed angle to the flowstream. Therefore, it is not necessary for the system to compute the liquid refraction angle to maintain system calibration, as is necessary with the clamp-on transit time system. However, as can be seen in Figure 4, the facing transducers create an echo-chamber in which the sonic beam echoes to and fro for a considerable time. This echo chamber effect decreases the signal to noise ratio of the system and causes poor low flow performance and low resolution and response rate. In addition the echo chamber effect is the reason why transit time fiowmeters with insert transducers cannot be used for fiowmeters smaller than 100 mm (4 in) diameter. Insert transducers are easier to set up, less complex and slightly less expensive. In general the accuracy of transit time fiowmeters can be lengthened by increasing the length of the path travelled by the pulses.
Clamp-on Oowmeters

Figure 7 Transducer mounting method.

brackets for wide beam

In clamp on flowmeters, (Figure 6), a pulse of ultrasonic energy is injected through

Crystals

Figure 6 Transit-type

clamp-on flowmeter

arrangement.

'Stick-on' ultrasonic transmitter.

80

RATE OF FLOW METERS

ULTRASONIC

FLOWMETERS

81

Apart from the direct transrrussion of the ultrasonic beam as used in conventional transit time flowmeters, there is also the wide beam method of operation. (Developed and patented by the Controlotron Corporation). In the conventional system a narrow beam is generated. With the critical nature of the transducer alignment, when narrow beams are used, any small changes in sonic velocity through the medium because of changes in temperature and/or density causes the sonic transmission velocity of the fluid to change and therefore the refraction angle (Snell's law). This can cause loss of the transmitted signal due to a change in the angle of travel of the beam. The wide beam overcomes this problem by utilising transducers which are precisely matched to the material and dimensions of the user's pipe. This matching produces two advantages: (i) The matching rules ensure that the received wave shape has the highest signal to noise ratio possible. The wave shape and the system performance can change dramatically when they are used on different types or different sizes of pipes. (ii) The matching produces a curious effect (see Figure 8). The match resonates the pipe wall which effectively multiplies the footprint of the transmit transducer. This means that a beam many times wider than the receiving transducer is generated as is shown in Figure 8. Any change in the liquid sonic velocity and corresponding change in the refraction angie, will have no effect on the signal received. A disadvantage of the system, especially in survey work using portable systems, is that each pair of transducers covers only a small range of pipe sizes. However, matching the transducer to the pipe is a requirement for reliable and consistent performance. The use of the wide beam system is limited to wall thicknesses below 2cm. The output of transit time type flowmeters is a function of the average flow speed along the path of the ultrasonic beam which lies in one plane and therefore does not give the average speed across the whole bore of the pipe. The flowmeter indication will, in general, be too high. An improvement can be obtained by off-setting the
The pipewall resonates and multiplies the 'footprint' of the transmit transducer

b~am from the centre of the tube or by using multiple beams as shown in Figure lO(a) and (b). The positions of the beams are carefully selected. The flowmeter indication will be nearer the true average flowspeed over the whole flow area,

Figure 9 Ultrasonic jlowmeter of transducers.

with two sets

Transducers

.-------~---,~
\

.
"

"" ,
"

..,.

......----..
Flow

High liquid sonic velocity Low liquid sonic velocity

Transducers B (b) longitudinal section of pipe (a) transverse section of pipe Figure lOr a}

Figure IO(b) Multi-beam contra propagating ultrasonic transit time flowmeter.

Beam always arrives at receive transducer

Figure 8 Principle of wide beam ultrasonic flowmeter, change in liquid refrection angle.

showing effect of

For a single beam ~owmeter, it will b~ necess~ry to carry out special calibrations and ~o make c~rrectlOr;ts for the velocity profile effects if optimum accuracy is req,Ulred. ,velocIty profile effects can also be reduced by using larger transducers WhICherrnt a beam that covers the whole flow area as shown in Figure 11. In this flowmeter the beam travels over the whole flow area of a U-shaped body,

i__

..

.._

82

,
I
~¢:J

RATE OF FLOW METERS

ULTRASONIC

FLOWMETERS

83

•I
¢
¢

¢ t::!>

¢::J

0-

c::>

Figure 11 . Diagram of broad beam ultra-sonic flowmeter.

The Doppler shift is proportional to the velocity. Electronic circuitry is used to take into account pipe and liquid constants before generating an analogue signal. The amplitude of the reflected signals is dependent on the number of particles and discontinuities present in the flow. The receiving frequency is not a single frequency but a spectrum of frequencies which translate to an assortment of detected flow velocities. These flow velocities are averaged to yield the displayed flowrate. The calibration accuracy of the Doppler flowmeter is therefore always limited. Doppler effect flowmeters can only be used for measuring the flow of contaminated fluids. Normally only a section of the flow near the transducer and near the pipe wall is monitored. The zone of reflection is in a region of variable velocity, see Figure 13. The output will also vary with changes in sonic conductivity of the liquid.

Coupling of signal

Flow profile

Ultrasonic flowmelers and transmitters for pip~ d_ia'!1eters~et":een D,,!IO and D NSOO. The smallest being catered for by a u pipe sectIOn mto which are inserted the sensors. Figure 13 Doppler type ultrasonic flowmeter in unstable zone.

with area of reflection

Doppler effect flowmeters . Doppler effect occurs when a travelling wave is reflected from a mov~ng body .a~d consequently undergoes a change in its frequency related to the rela~lVe velocl~es of the wave and the body. An ultrasonic beam transmitted at an an~l~ into the fluid, will be reflected by impurities or bubbles in the flui.d to a receiving se_nsor at a slightly different frequency, see Figure 12. The transmitted and r.eflected signals are then compared by electronic means to calculate the Doppler shift.

Mode of operation of the Doppler principle.

~R

Vo

=-:"

*.11 ~ * ..

.... ....

Figure 12

In a one transducer system there is also a large amount of coupling of signal between the transmitting and receiving elements through the common structure of the housing. This signal tends to overwhelm the very weak Doppler reflection making its detection difficult, except in cases where the liquid is heavily loaded with reflective contaminant. In large diameter pipes, these factors can give rise to large errors. In order to minimise this flow profile and sonic conductivity error, some manufacturers have adopted the two transducer method using separate transmit and receive elements. This alleviates the problem, since it enables most of the received energy to have originated in the zone of reflection shown in Figure 14. As can be seen, this averages the relatively stable flow profile in the centre of the pipe, as opposed to the highly variable flowrate near the pipe wall. In addition to that advantage, the two transducer system is capable of operating at much lower reflective particle concentrations than the more usual one transducer Doppler meter.

__ ....

-- .. ~- ..--.----------

84

RATE OF FLOW METERS

ULTRASONIC

FLOWMETERS

85

There will also be coupling of the ultrasonic signal through the pipe with this arrangement, but the effect will be much less. Figures 15 and 16 show practical applications of these systems.

Coupling
of

signal

'" . ~-.-\
\

,
I

Figure 16 Tl:,o transducer Doppler arrangement pipes. for large diameter

Figure 14 Diagram showing arrangement of steady flow.

in which 'Reflection'

is in a zone

Leaky valves

....

Temperature

Outputs: V = Mw = M = C = Figure 15 Two transducer

Flow velocity Molecularweight Mass flow rate Souodspeed(option)

Doppler arrangement for small diameter pipes.

Flow range and rangeability

Ultrasonic flowmeters are available to measure flow speeds up to 10 m/s using flowmeters with diameters of 6 mm to 10 m (0·23 in to 33 ft). The rangeabiJity of these flowmeters can be as high as 300: 1 Transit time flowmeters are fully bi-directional.

Figure 17 Typica! installation A and B are ultrasonic transducers, Flows mlo flare system are from various sources .

-----~

...-------~-----

..

86

RATE OF FLOW METERS

ULTRASONIC FLOWMETERS

87

Applications Ultrasonic flowmeters will stand high process temperatures and steam cleaning. They are used to meter hot water supplies to boilers, cooling water in atomic power stations. fuel flow of ship's engines, flow of continuous beer production, hot hydrocarbons in solvent recovery processes, abrasive liquids, slurries, sewage, effluent, corrosive liquids, toxic liquids, drinks such as milk etc. An ultrasonic flowmeter for the measurement of high pressure gas was developed by the British Gas Corporation, the flowmeter gave an accuracy of ± 1.0%. The rangeability was 100: 1 and the meter was considered suitable for custody transfer applications. (See Reference 1). Ultrasonic flowmeters are also available for the measurement of flare gas. The arrangement shown in Figure 17 makes it possible to measure the exact amount of gas flow in a flare stack, this in turn makes it possible to accurately control the amount of steam required at the flare tip. All transit time flowmeters have the ability to measure the sonic velocity of the fluid and have the potential to measure mass flow. In general, the Doppler systems are used in cases where accuracy and repeatability are not primary requirements, or where conditions prevent the use of the transit time systems. Unlike the transit time system, Doppler systems cannot operate at very low flowrates, a frequent condition encountered for the most Doppler suitable liquids ie slurries. On the whole Doppler flowmeters are reasonably priced and suitable for small bore pipes.

flowmeters are not capable of the same degree of accuracy as transit time flowmeters. Accuracy is in the order of ± 1 % FSD. Operating conditions - pressure and temperature F1owmet~r~ are available which will operate under pressures of up to 435 kPa (3000 lb/in ) and temperatures between -200 °C to + 200°C.

i+H---- Ball valve which

can be closed after the transducer has been retracted

Figure /8 Flushing pOI.

Repeatability and accuracy Repeatabilities approaching ±0·1 % of point at 95% confidence level have been achieved for multi-beam transit time flowmeters (at flow speeds over 0·3 m/s). Typical accuracies claimed are ±0·5% of point. The accuracy of clamp-on flowmeters using direct transit time measurement is potentially better than that of insert f1owmeters; it is generally in the order of ±l% to ±4 of point. These accuracies can be improved with calibration. The non-linearity of these flowmeters will be in the order of ±0·75% for flow ranges up to cavitation. Doppler type

Figure 19 How transducers can be removed without shutting down the system.

88

RATE OF FLOW METERS

ULTRASONIC

FLOWMETERS

89

Installation effects The ultrasonic flowmeter should not be mounted near a bend. Even if an ultrasonic flowmeter is mounted more than 10 D away from a bend or valve, the velocity profile will still vary with Reynolds number; this would affect the a~cur~cy. The change in accuracy due to this can be estimated and corrected, or calibrations can be carried out at selected flowrates. Ultrasonic meters of the transit time variety are increasingly used in industrial flow measurement and for custody transfer, as they are fairly accurate and su bstantially linear. Maintenance In wetted type ultrasonic flowmeters, the transducers are suscepti?le to ~ouling ~nd have to be cleaned at regular intervals. Some flowmeters are provided with flushing ports near the transducers, see Figure 18: The transducers of some other flowmeters can be removed for cleaning through ball valves without having to shut down the flow, (Figure 19). Non-invasive measurement The non-invasive ultrasonic flowmeter is for use in industries as diverse as chemical, pharmaceutical, food industry, coal, pulp, cement, sewage and effluent treatment. The monitor and non-invasive sensor are simple to use, giving immediate velocity measurements with high repeatability that ~an. be c~nverted into ~ow readings, to monitor day-to-day performance of fluids III a pIpe anywhere 10 a system. The non-invasive measurement of fluid flow in a pipe is achieved by using the Doppler frequency shift of ultrasonic signals reflected f:om contamina~ts in the flowing liquid. These contaminants can be suspended solids, bubbles or Interfaces created bv turbulence in the flow. The b~ttery-powered, portable monitor is coupled to the sensor which in tum is positioned on the pipe using a suitable acoustic coupling jelly. With the monitor turned on, an immediate velocity reading is given.

The unit can be used to monitor flows through steel, iron, hard plastic PVC and glass pipes and by its non-invasive application can be used to measure flow of liquids such as cement, sewage and effluent where in-line flowmetering would be difficult or impossible.

Ultrasonic flowmeter obstruction to flow.

with no moving components

and no

References 1. NOLAN, M.E. & O'HAIR, J.G.O. An Ultrasonic Flowmeter for the Accurate Measurement of High Pressure Gas, Proceedings of the FLOMEKO 1983 North Holland Publishing Co. '

Figure 20 Non-invasive

ultrasonic flowmeter.

_._---_

....

_._---_

..

-------

91

. Vortex Shedding Flowmeters

VORTEX SHEDDING is the name given to the natural phenomenon that occurs when a gas or liquid flows around a bluff or non-streamlined object. The boundary layer of the fluid flowing over the body can only follow the contour of the obstacle at very low flowrates. At a Reynolds number of approximately 2000, the boundary layer separates from the body contour. Flow friction causes the boundary layer to form a vortex. This vortex grows, breaks free and moves downstream, (Figure 1). With a symmetrical obstacle, the vortices form at either side resulting in a wake with a stable pattern of alternate shedding. A typical example of this phenomenon is a flag flapping in a strong breeze. The first experiments with the vortex shedding phenomenon were carried out by Strouhal who formulated the Strouhal number'S', which is the basis for vortex flowmeter design.

Figure 1 Karman vortex train.

V where f is the shedding frequency W is the width of the obstacle V is the speed of flow

fW

92

RATE

Of

FLOW METERS

VORTEX

SHEDDING

FLOWMETERS

93

There are various ways in which the frequency of the vortices generated can be measured. Almost every manufacturer of vortex flowmeters uses his own method of vortex detecting (Figure 2). The vortices which occur at either side of the obsta~le can also generate a vibrati~n which can be measured by using piezoelect.nc crys,tals, for exan~ple. The PIC~ up of the flowmeter shown in Figure 3 consists of diaphragms which form the Side of the bluff body. The diaphragms form the ~ovable plates of t"":o variab~e capacitors connected in a radio frequency energised Wheatstone bndge. ThIS system makes it possible to detect minute pressure changes. As the design is pressure balanced, it is not affected by line pressure.

Ultrasonic transmitter _I';:ortex //

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Amplitude modulation

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Vortex flowmeter

measures gas, liquid

Ultrasonic Vortex sensing technique.

and steam flows in pipelines.

The vortex flowmeter relies on the fact that the Strouhal number stays constant. The frequency of vortex shedding is thus a function of the speed of flow. When a vortex sheds from one side of the body, flow speed on that side increases and the pressure decreases. At the other side, flow speed decreases and pressure increases; this is reversed as the next vortex sheds. Velocity and pressure change at the same frequency as vortex shedding. This frequency is proportional to the rate of flow of the fluid passing the object. Vortex shedding flow meters have now been in use for some 15 years, but it was a long time before they became fully accepted,

Output leads~':

, Recess

Insulator Metal electrode .' Metal diaphragm

Typical natural vortex formation.

Figure 3 In a capacitance vortex meter, the bluff body has diaphragms and electrodes installed on opposite sides. When a vortex sheds. the diaphragms deflect and change the capacitance. These changes are detected and output as a frequency or voltage signal.

.--------------

..

--.~

94

RATE OF FLOW METERS

VORTEX SHEDDING

FLOWMETERS
95

The output signal is squared in a Schmidt trigger circuit, producing an output with the frequency proportional to the speed of flow. Another (patented) technique is by passing a confined ultrasonic beam through the vortex path. Each pair of contra-rotating vortices causes one cycle of amplitude modulation to be super-imposed on the carrier signal. Range and rangeability These flowmeters are available to measure from a minimum flow of approximately 10 lit/min to 7 x 106 lit/min. As these flowmeters are Reynolds number dependent, they are less suitable for use at low flowrates. The minimum speed of flow that can be measured is in the order of 0·3 m/s. The upper limit depends on cavitation. The measurable flowrates range over Reynolds numbers from 5000 to 7 000 000. A rangeability of 20: 1 is typical. At higher pressures, or for superheated steam, a range ability of 30:1 or even more can be achieved. Repeatability and accuracy Repeatability of these flowmeters is in the order of ±O'IS% of point. Accuracies claimed are in the order of ±0·5% of point. These flowmeters have good long term repeatability. Installation Vortex flowmeters should be installed with straight upstream pipework of at least S D long. Longer straight lengths are required if there are valves and bends upstream. Downstream pipework should be straight over a length of at least S D. Influence of fluid parameters The frequency output of vortex flowmeters is independent of fluid density, pressure, temperature and viscosity within certain limits. A flowmeter calibrated for use with a liquid can be used to measure gas flow without re-calibration. Vortex flowmeters are suitable for use with liquids and gases, varying from cryogenic liquids to steam. Pressure and temperature Flowrneters are available to handle liquids at pressures up to 725 kPa (SOOO Ib/in2) and at temperatures of -40 °C to +400 °C, so that high steam temperatures can be handled. Pressure loss across the flowmeter is in the order of two velocity heads. It can be calculated with the following formulas:

60 C-~~~~-'~-rTT1T~275/m~m~~4~0~m~m~5~0~m~m~i~8~om~m~1~00~m~m~~1~5~0~mlm I- 6P Cxy f V _f I 1 40 It.P; pressure loss !7 / I IT I!

(x 10 kg/em") y: Specific weight
5

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1

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2 10 20

II
10
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20
flow rate m3/h
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5
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50

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100

200

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5000

Example Water flow rate Specific weight Operating pressure Operating temperature Flowmeter size
(Solution)

: : : : :

Ot050m3Jh 992·2 kg/rrr' 0·5 kg/ern? G 40°C 50 mm(2 in)

2

{:'P P

1·377x 992·2 x

or
{:'P =

0·501 kg/crrr' 2·7xO·SOI + 1·3xO'0752 1·450 kg/ern? absolute = 0-417 kg/ern? G

50 51.14

l'377xYf

cavitation

~in~e the operating pressure of O·S kg/crrr' G is higher than 0.417 kg/ 2 G OCCurs. em , no

where {:,P Yf V Q D

pressure loss (kg/ern") specific weight of the fluid (kg/rrr'] flow velocity (m/s) actual flow r~te (m3Jh) internal diameter (mm)

The pressure drop can also be obtained from the graph on facing page.

The p~e~sure drop can also be obtained from the graph of Figure 5. The minimum back pressure required to insure that cavitation does not occur is: P = 2·7.6.P + 1·3x Po where P is the minimum line pressure {:'P is the pressure loss calculated with the above formula Po is the saturation liquid vapour pressure at operating temperature

~~.------.-.---

96

RATE OF FLOW METERS

97

Application Vortex meters are suitable for hygienic use. They are generally suitable for metering low viscosity organic liquids and are worth considering for the measurement of waterflow, suspensions of solids in liquids. high viscosity organic liquids and cryogenic fluids. They could also be considered as secondary standards for flow calibration and generally for accurate flow measurements. They are used for flow speeds of up to 50 mls (165 ftIs). Vortex flowmeters are most suitable for the measurement of gases and steam, they are used as alternatives to orifice plates. Advantages of vortex flowmeters No moving parts; calibration is mainly determined by physical dimensions, long term repeatability and accuracy is therefore good; easy to make intrinsically safe; low cost; low installation and operation cost. Calibration This can be determined, body. with limited accuracy, from the geometry of the bluff

Swirl Flowmeters
THE PRINCIPLE of operation of the swirl flowmeter is based on the measurement of flow oscillations. The curvature of the swirl flowmeter inlet blades adds a t~ng~nti?nal velocity component to the initially axial flow. The resultant pressure dlstn.button causes the flow to become unsteady, thereby producing a secondary rotation of the vortex core and local velocity fluctuations. These fluctuations are detected by a sensor which produces an electrical pulse signal. The frequency of the pulses is directly proportional to the speed of flow and the number of pulses generated is representative of the total volume passed through the flowmeter. Swirl flowmeters (Figure 1) are used in combination with temperature, pressure

Maintenance No routine maintenance is required. No calibration shifts occur. On line simulators are available to check the performance. Figure 6 shows a vortex flowmeter with analogue flow indication.

Figure 6 Vortex flowmeter

with analogue flow indication.

Figure 1 Swirl flowmeter.

~-------------

-------

98

RATE

OF FLOW METERS

99

and densitv measurement to measure mass flow. The system consists of a flowmeter body, a sensor and a detector amplifier. The amplifier detects and shapes the primary signal. Sensors are available as specially manufactured thermistors or piezo-electric pressure transducers. The type of sensor used depends on process conditions. Because of its good performance and the direct digital output which is available, this flowmeter has replaced turbine flowmeters in many applications. Swirl flowmeters are suitable for the measurement of wet or dirty gases and liquids and, by having the advantage of no moving parts, they are reliable, repeatable and require little maintenance. Accuracy and repeatability These flowmeters have an accuracy of of point.

± 1% of point and a repeatability of ±O·25%

Pressure Drop Flowmeters - Constant Head

PRESSURE DROP FLOWMETERS are based on the principle that fluid accelerated through a restriction increases the kinetic energy at the expense of its pressure (or potential) energy. On the downstream side of the restriction, kinetic energy is partially recovered in the form of potential energy while the remainder of the original energy is lost in frictional head due to turbulence. Pressure drop flowmeters are of the constant head and variable head types. These meters are referred to as Variable area meters, Gap meters and often as Rotameters, after the manufacturer. They consist of a tapered vertically mounted metering tube inside which a bobbin can move up and down (see Figure 1). The bobbin is referred to as the float even though its density is larger than that of the liquid. As the liquid flows upward through the annular gap between the float and the bore of the tube, there will be a pressure drop in the fluid at the point where the fluid passes through this gap. The resulting force from the pressure difference acts on the float and lifts it until it finds a balance position. For any flowrate within the capacity of the flowmeter, the float assumes an equilibrium position at a particular height in the tube. The float is guided and centralised either by the fluid stream, longitudinal beads which are moulded into the glass tube and an extension on the float (Figure 2) or, when the float is a ball, by three flats on the inside of the tube. For high pressure applications, the flowmeter is made from a cylindrical metal tube with a fixed orifice mounted inside (Figure 3). The conical float moves up and down in this orifice. Figure 4 shows an all metal gap meter with dial indicator. The basic flow equation, which defines the operation of variable gap meters, is derived from Toricelli's equation for the velocity (V) of flow in orifices: V =C \12 g h where h is the head across the orifice C is the coefficient of discharge, which is a function of Reynolds number g is acceleration due to gravity

Application Swirl flowmeters are used for the control of gas or liquid flows and for volume measurement for custody transfer. They are suitable for most industrial gases and chemicals. Influence of fluid parameters Within limits, the output is independent of fluid pressure, temperature or density.

100

RATE OF FLOW METERS

PRESSURE DROP FLOWMETERS

~ N ~
\-

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LAMINAR FLOW ELEMENTS

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LAMIFLOW Tape red transparent metering tube LAMINAR FLOW ELEMENTS HAVE A LINEAR RELATIONSHIP FLOW AND DERIVED DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE • 100:1 turndown on flow • Ranges from 1 ml/min to 1000 litres/min • Low pressure loss:-typicaI10mm H20 BETWEEN

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• STACK FLOW MEASUREMENT

FOR LIQUID FLOW

2 BEST

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Figure 1 Variable area flowmeter.

MEASUREMENT

Direction of flow

• AIR FUEL RATIO • HIGH RELIABILITY • WIDE TURN DOWN RATIOS • EXCELLENT REPEATABILITY • VARIABLE INSERTION LENGTH

• LARGE DUCT FLOW

A500 Spedfically designed to increase efficiency and be more cost effective in the monitoring of liquid flow. The A500 flowmeter operates on the principle of MO frequencies being injected into the liquid and passing through the tube. The difference in time is subtracted to determine the liquid flow velocity. Models are also available in k1t form comprising all the parts necessary to install the flowmeter in an existing pipe . of simple design and robust construction, with a minimum of moving parts. These flowmeters have an excellent reputation for efficiency and durability with low maintenance costs.

PROPELLER METERS A range of propeller type flowmeters

SCHEME ENGINEERING LTD

Figure 2 Sections across glass metering tubes showing centralising beads for the 'floats'.
~ "

Comet House. C&1!eva Park. AI<lonnaston. Berks. RG7 4QW Telephone [07356179151 Telex: B58122

PRESSURE I'I{I ~Jlil('-I)ROPFLOWMETERS

DROP FLOWMETERS

- CONSTANT HEAD

101

---~--.--------------------------------------------------------.

SELECTION, SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

• 270 pages • numerous tables • diagrams
Variable areajlowmeters .

PUMPS:

• illustrations . • laminated cover

CONTENTS

types of fluids fluid parameters fundamentals of pump performance centrifugal pumps positive displacement pumps special purpose pumps . hand pumps miscellaneous pumps products handled materials. and compatibility pipework calculations total system head system design and economics the testing of pumps pump selection guides, data and index

···.Orderfrom Trade &Technical Press ltd.

TRADE & TECHN ICAl PRESS LIMITED, CROWN HOUSE, MORDEN. SURREY. SM4 SEW. ENGLAND. TELEPHONE: 01 540 3897 TELEX: 928926 ACROSS G.

Variable area jlowmeters.

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102

RA TE OF FLOW METERS

PRESSURE

DROP FLOWMETERS - CONSTANT HEAD

103

In the variable gap flowmeter, h can be calculated, taking into account the forces acting on the float, such as its weight and its buoyancy giving the equation:
Guide rod ---Nt----r

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pi

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tube for

pf is the density of the float pi is the density of the liquid

Figure 3 All-metal variable gapmeter.

-------1 Ul ...

Variable area metal tube flowmeter.

Figure 4 All-metal flowmeter.

variable

area

Read-out The flowrate corresponding with a particular height is marked on a scale mounted alongside the tube Or on the tube itself. As the float position is to be assessed relative to the scale, read-out errors can occur. Scales are generally linear but flowmeters with logarithmic scales are also available so that accuracy can be maintained at the lower flowrates, In the all metal

104

RATE OF FLOW METERS

PRESSURE

DROP FLOW METERS - CONSTANT HEAD

!O5

version of this flowmeter, the float movement is transferred by means of a magnet to an indicating needle (Figure 3). For control purposes an electric output of the needle movement can be generated. The flow metered is basically volumetric but it can be calibrated in mass units. In a design for aggressive liquids and gases, the float carries an extension rod which protrudes from the top of the flowmeter and moves along a scale (Figure 5).

Scales indicate the flowrates obtained with a standard fluid or with the calibrating fluid. Manufacturers supply conversion charts and graphs which can be used when the gap flowmeter is used with any fluid other than that for which it was calibrated.

Scale and now indicator

Seal

Outlet

2.Tuber'O·

(special material)

Tapered lube (special material)

Float button Float stop ---fu End stop -----t Cover plug The gap meter is intended for permanent installation and the sight glass housing and float can be removed easily for cleaning.

.....

._____._----

Fluid inlet

Flow range Gap tlowmeters are available commercially to cover a flowrange from as low as 0·0001 lit/min to as high as 4000 lit/min. The rangeability of this type of flowmeter can be between 1:6 to 1:10. Capacity changes can be made by simple changes in the weight of the float. Gap flowmeters can be mounted in series (Figure 6) to increase the flowrange, while maintaining the accuracy of read-out at the lower flowrates.

Figure Y Diagrammatic view of a variable area flowmeter suitable for corrosive fluid.

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106

RATE OF FLOW METERS

PRESSURE

DROP FLOWMETERS - CONSTANT HEAD

107

Outlet

Inlet

Figure 6 Gapmeters mounted

in series.

Accuracy and repeatability . The accuracies that can be achieved with these flowmeters are ±1·5% of pomt.at minimum flow up to ±O·4% of point at maximum flow for a good qual~ty flowmeter. For the commercial quality flowmeters these figures are ± 13% of point at minimum flow to ±4 % at maximum flow. The accuracy of these flowmeters is limited by the abi.li~y. the user to assess the of float position relative to the scale and number o~ sub-dlVl~lOn~of the scale. Readout, accuracy and repeatability can be improved if cross Wire sights are mounted at specially calibrated points a~ross the flowr~nge of the flo~meter. Good repeatability is only achieved with flowmeters with the centrally guided floats.

A bank of six metering tubes which may be entirely separate or have a common inlet.

The accuracy of the flowrneters can be improved upon if calibration can be carried out with the liquid to be used under the same operating conditions. The commercial accuracies quoted normally allow for interchange of floats and tubes. The signature curve 'of the gap meter has a hump before the level value; its disposition and magnitude varies from one float to another. At present it is not possible to make floats and tubes absolutely identical therefore, when better than commercial accuracy is required, calibration should be carried out with the actual float used. The accuracy can be further adversely affected by: (i) Flow fluctuations and irregularities Most gap meter floats are subject to a slight fluctuation due to the turbulence of the flow around the edge of the float. This can be overcome by using a guide rod to provide some friction. If this friction is too much, it can be reduced by giving the float a rotational movement about the guide rod, thereby removing the stiction between float and guide rod. The rotation of the float is obtained by machining a few angled grooves in the circumference of the float. (ii) Temperature differences between flowmeter and fluid. It is recommended that gap meters are used at the same temperature as they are calibrated, which is usually room temperature. During calibration in the factory, the fluid is often cooled before entering the pump so that the heat input from the pump will bring the fluid back to room temperature. (iii) Changing temperatures. It is not possible to calculate indication errors for specific temperature variations. If these are significant and/or if accuracy is important, temperature calibration curves should be compiled for a range of temperatures. Errors are also introduced by temperature differentials across the flowmeter and between the flowmeter and fluid. (iv) Change in fluid parameters. From the formula which defines the operation of gap meters, given at the beginning of this chapter, it is possible to calculate the change in performance of these flowmeters if they are used for a different fluid other than that for which it was calibrated, and also the effect which a change in float will have. The formula does not include any terms for viscosity and can only be used if the viscosity of the other fluid is approximately the same as the original fluid. From this formula it can be derived, that if the density of the float is made equal to twice the density of the liquid, the effects of density changes, during operation eg due to temperature variations or variations in the density of the fluid, are reduced to a minimum. The effect of viscosity variations on the performance of gap meters was established by various researchers and manufacturers in the early nineteen fifties, by plotting the effect of Reynolds number variations on flowmeter factors. It was found that the shape of the float has a pronounced effect on the readings of a gap flowmeter. Optimum performances were obtained with floats with edges kept as sharp as possible so that the area the fluid rubs against was at a minimum. The diameter of
...._--_

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--'-~

108

RATE OF FLOW METERS

PRESSURE

DROP FLOWMETERS

- CONSTANT HEAD

109

the remaining part of the body which was required to obtain the necessary weight, was kept to a minimum at the same time. The accuracy of a gap meter is affected by changes in density and viscosity of the fluid being measured. Density and viscosity of a fluid usually vary from batch to batch and are also affected by temperature. In practical terms, this means that a 5% change in viscosity at constant temperature could cause a change in flow indication of approximately 0·5%. A 5% change in density at constant viscosity could also cause a change in flow indication of approximately O·5%. The two effects tend to cancel one another out at one point of the scale. At low flowrates the viscosity effects will predominate, at high levels, the density effects will predominate. Most manufacturers supply formula andlor graphs to assess the affects on accuracy by parameter variations. Floats are made in different shapes (see Figure 7) in order to achieve either density or viscosity variation compensation. For further notes on the behaviour of gap meters when used with a fluid other than for which it was calibrated see Section 9, chapter on Effect of the Process Fluid on Flowmeter Calibration.
Bead guided floats Air Oil Fuel

Application

For the glass version of the gap meter it is necessary to be able to view the float position, accordingly the flowmeter is only suitable for transparent liquids. Flowrneters with tubes made of borosilicate glass are suitable for most acids. solvents and petrochemicals. Table 1 gives an example of gas flows that can be metered with gap meters of the same size as used for water. Where it is required to convert from liquid to gas or vice versa, the following formula can be used:

SCFM air equivalent

= 4·12

gaUmin specific gravity

(at 14·7lb/in2 and 70 OF)

Gap meters are normally suitable for fluids with viscosities up to 100 cSt. The fluid should be free from contamination by large particles. Maximum particle size should be a fraction of the smallest gap width. The gap meter is probably the cheapest type of flowmeter on the market and one of the most popular. Figure 8 shows a console with a set of gap meters used for blending.

Rod guided floats

Figure 7 Various float shapes.

Gap meter suitable for acid applications and other corrosive liquids and gases.

110

RATE OF FLOW METERS

PRESSURE DROP FLOWMETERS

- CaNST ANT HEAD

111

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112

RATE OF FLOW METERS Bursting disc or relief valve Pressure gauge Pressure switch
r----I--~--I--r----I

PRESSURE

DROP FLOW METERS - VARIABLE

HEAD

113

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Vessel unit

Pressure Drop Flowmeters - Variable Head

Pressure regulator

Regulated

supply pressure

Figure 8 Schematic diagram - M N gas blender.

IN VARIABLE head flowmeters a pressure drop is generated across a fixed restriction in the flow, Th~s press,!re difference is a measure of the rate of flow, it is measured by means of a differential pressure gauge, which can be in the form of a U'-tube manometer but usually is a differential pressure gauge incorporating a diaphragm and strain gauges. The pressure drop across the restriction can, in some instances, also be gauged by means of a bypass flowmeter. There are several types of variable head flowrneters.

Pressure drop Pressure drop across the flowmeter is constant as the weight of the float is constant. The pressure drop is quite low, When it is quoted in a catalogue it is usually for use with water and a specified float material. Most manufacturers provide formula and! or tables to calculate the pressure drop for use with other fluids. Effects of the nature of the flow on flowmeter output Flow fluctuations and irregularities will make it difficult to assess the true mean float position, they can cause large errors in some installations. The gap meter is not sensitive to flow profile or swirl effects. Flow irregularities can be caused if the flowmeter is too near a pump. This type of flowmeter is used for flows with Reynolds numbers from 10 000 down to streamlined flow. Where the Re is less than 10 000, this meter starts taking over from the orifice plate flowmeter. Operating conditions, temperature and pressure The ideal material for the flowmetering tube is glass; this limits the temperature and pressure at which the flowmeter can be used. Some glass tubes are available with externally mounted guards, All-metal versions are available for high temperature and high pressure applications. Effect of installation conditions The meter must always be installed vertically; the inlet velocity pattern is usually destroyed before it reaches the float; the flowmeter is insensitive to installation conditions; sharp bends immediately upstream or downstream of the flowmeter will not be detrimental to the accuracy of the flowmeter.
A high pressure orifice carrier for measuring the flow of water or steam at high pressures.

Orifice plate flowmeters The ~ost commonl~ used variable head flowmeter is the orifice plate flowmeter. It consists of a plate With a hole, of diameter 'd', which is usually concentric, ranging

.......

_---_._------------

114

RATE OF FLOWMETERS

PRESSURE DROP FLOWMETERS - VARIABLE HEAD

115

from 10 to 80% of the pipe diameter 'D'. The ratio of hole diameter to pipe diameter defines the B-ratio, which is a factor used in design calculations of pressure drop devices. This ratio varies with the required differential pressure. The orifice plate is mounted between two flanges. It is a simple and inexpensive flowmeter and it handles a large range of flows. More than 80% of all flowmeters used in chemical and process industries are orifice plates. Orifice plate flowmeters are well documented. An orifice plate flowmeter constructed to ISO 5167 Or BS 1042 will have a discharge coefficient which can be calculated to within ±0·6%. The operating data required for the calculation of pressure drop devices such as viscosity, density and temperature are not always accurately known however and the resulting accuracies will be correspondingly lower. If generally the flow conditions are different from the ones specified, errors of as much as 20% can be introduced. Once the pressure drop has been established, the flowrate can be calculated. There is a large number of factors such as friction, velocity profile, the degree of contraction, which affect the theoretical pressure drop versus flowrate relationship so that it has been necessary to introduce a coefficient C in the formula. The flowrate through orifice plates is usually expressed in mass units and the general flow equation for the sharp edged orifice plate becomes: W = C E Y A Fa

where

L_1 is the tap distance from the upstream face of the plate divided diameter

by

the pipe

L_2' is the tap distance from the downstream edge of the plate, divided by the pipe diameter Rd is the pipe Reynolds number
This formula only applies for turbulent flow, for laminar flow the coefficient C will have to be established by calibration. The flow will be directly proportional to pressure drop. 'Y' the ¥as ex~ansion factor should be included in the formula when the density of the .ga~ IS consI~~rably less downstream than it is upstream of the orifice plate. In designing an onfl~e plate f~r gases, the pressure drop for maximum flow should be so chosen that Y ISnear unity and practically constant. The equation for Y is:
Y

V 2 g 6.P

6.P

PI where P I is the upstream pressure K.is the ratio of specific heats . Several computer bureaux can provide software packages suitable for use with micro computers; these can be used to carry out the design calculations for orifice plates and the other pressure drop type flowmeters mentioned in this section. The ~se of these software packages can save hours of expensive design engineering time. Several types of orifice plates are in use for different applications and include: rounded (or quadrant edge) and conic edge orifice plates (Figures 1 and 2).

where C is the meter coefficient B is the diameter ratio A is the inside cross sectional area of the pipe Y is the gas expansion factor which is unity for liquids Fa is the area factor for thermal expansion of the orifice 6. P is the pressure drop PI is the density of the fluid just upstream from the orifice E is the velocity of approach factor
E

_1_

(1-64)

Stolz evolved an equation for calculating C, his formula is given in ISO 5167 and covers all tapping arrangements. The.equation is:

If

0·0390 (=0-4333) 0·0900 usc 0-0390 for the coefficient of 134 (1-134yl

Figure 1 Quadrant edge orifice plate.

116

RATE OF FLOW METERS

PRESSURE

DROP FLOW METERS - VARIABLE

HEAD

117

The segmental orifice plate (Figure 4) is used for the same reasons as the eccentric pl~te,. but m?inly to preven~ the build-up of material behind the plate when mete~mg I,n, honzontal ~la,n~.It I~more effective in preventing build-up than a the eccentnc orifice plate, but It IS inferior in performance.

Tap location

Forlow ~~)
O·OlD

Figure 2 Conical edge orifice plate.

Figure 4 Segmental orifice plate,

These are used for more viscous liquids as the chamfer or radius counteracts the viscous forces. They are used at low Reynold's numbers (below 10 000) as they give more predictable discharge coefficients at the lower flowrates. When the Re is below 10 000 the gap flowmeter is used in preference, where possible, to the orifice plate. The eccentric orifice plate (Figure 3) is used mainly when measuring liquids containing gas or some solids. For liquids containing gas, the orifice is at the top.

'Yhen the orifice pla~eis used in small pipes (up to 40 mm (1·5 in) diameter), the detn~.ental effects of.~lpe bore roughness, plate eccentricity and orifice plate edge condI1I~m are magnified and it becomes difficult to calculate the discharge c?effiClent.,These must therefore be established by calibration. For the small line SIzes, specially honed and precision machined flowmeter tube assemblies are availabl~ which have more predictable discharge coefficients. In these small as~embhes, the pressure taps are usually annular grooves machined in the pipebore (FIgure 5).

r·

:
\

---~
Tap location D = pipe diameter

0·02D Figure 3 Eccentric orifice plate. Figure 5 Orifice plate with ring chamber,

.--_._--_

..

------------_._._---"

..

.------

---_---._

..--

_---_ _--_

_-

..-.--_.

__

118

RATE OF FLOWMETERS

PRESSURE

DROP FLOWMETERS

- VRIABLE

HEAD
119

For very small bores, orifice plates are available as fixed bores in manifolds which are an integral part of the differential pressure transmitter. These can be used for very low flowrates down to O·0151itlmin. Due to the abrupt change in the flow area with orifice plates, the pipe does not run entirely full immediately upstream and downstream of the plate (Figure 6), this is due to the so called vena contracta effect. This effect has been considered when laying down standard pressure tapping positions. The standard positions are: Corner taps; Flange taps; D- and D/2 taps; 21hD and 8D taps.
Corner taps

?J ~

The.sealing bar/plate earner COntains the orifice plate and seal ring. Special clamping bar seals effectively, yet loosens easily with only three set screws.

-------F1angetaps Figure 6 Drawing showing 'vena contracta' effect in orifice plate assembly.

Fitting body, made of high strenght cast carbon stee:l (A216WCB), is deSIgned to high pressure measurement.

Rangeability As the flowrate is directly proportional to the square root of the differential pressure, the rangeability of the orifice plate is low, in the region of 1:3 to 1:5. Orifice plates and other pressure drop flowmeters however can be operated over wider ranges and the flows are limited by the minimum required pressure drop at one end of the range, and by the maximum allowable pressure drop at the other end. The measurable range can be increased using several methods such as: (i) Changing the orifice plate. Several specially designed mounting arrangements are available to do this (Figures 7 and 8), some of which can be used without shutting off the flow. (ii) Using two or even three differential pressure gauges in parallel, each covering a different section of the flow range. (iii) By using a laminar flowmeter, as is.often used in the gas industry. At laminar flow, the pressure drop across an obstruction is linearly proportional to the speed of flow. The laminar flow region starts at a Reynolds number of around 2000. To achieve laminar flow, the -- -~~---~-

Figure 7 Large diameter line size orifice filtings.

flow is slowed down by increasin the" . . of the flowmeter Th fl g . PIpe diameter In the Inlet cone . e owstream IS the 1'1 . parts by a series of parallel plates in which ~hsP m~o many separate ~ At the end of the measurin s ti e ow ecomes laminar, accelerated through the outl! c~~~~~' th: flo~~ are rejoined and drop is measured by means of th~lr original state. Pressure pressure transducer A scheme £ a ~pec!al low range differential with a gas burner, is shown in ~ a am~nar flowmeter, associated 1000:1 tum down ratio. gure , The arrangement has a (iv) Using a pressure drop comp ti d . ~ instrument known as ~n:aV ~ l:~~efl' such as is incorported in FIgure 10. ea owmeter as shown In

------.-~-

120

RATE OF FLOW METERS

PRESSURE DROP FLOW METERS - VARIABLE

HEAD

121

Figure 9 Schematic for laminar flow orifice in a gas burner supply system.

Large diameter line size orifice [iuings . Laminar flow orifice in which flo w is linear with differential pressure resulting in high turn down ratios, typically 1000: /.

l.Top chamber. 2.Gasket. 3. Valve seat with grease groove. 4. Valve strip with springs. 5.Valve carrier guide. 6.Valve carrier. 7. Valve shaft and pinions. 8.0pen-closed indicator plate. 9.Lower chamber. 4-:

~~5

~~

$_7/9

(:::J

Figure 8 Figure 10 V Delta P Meier

In this flowmeter a signal proportional to the differential pressure is used to drive a small turbine (pressure geneator) by a small motOr. It can ~e shown that the ~e.ed of the motor is proportional to the speed of flow of the medium through the orifice plate assembly. The speed ofthe motor is read by a pic~~up and conve~.ed to? flo~ speed indicator on a r~ad-o~t paneL The rangeability of the orifice plate IS increased by means of this device to 10:1. . . It is also possible to linearise the output of a pressure dlffer~nce met~r by using a flowgap created by a moving part eg a spring-loaded van~ m a housing. T~ese flowmeters are described in the chapter on flowmeters with spnng restrained dragbody (variable orifice flowmeters).

3·3 x 107 ft.

The discharge coefficients of all pressure difference devices are effected by Reynolds number variations, so that they can only be used over a certain range of flowrates, The throat of an orifice plate has a particular Reynolds number constancy limit below which there are large changes in discharge coefficients. The minimum flow which can be measured with orifice plates is 0·015 lit/min for the very small assemblies, while the maximum Reynolds number can be as high as

122

RATE OF FLOWMETERS

PRESSURE

DROP FLOWMETERS

- VARIABLE

HEAD

123

n?zzles do not normally e.xceed 40 c~ (16 iDS). A typical flow nozzle is shown in Figure 12. ~ozzles are suitable for high flow velocities (up to 30 mls). Figure 13 s~ows a tYP1?l1fIow.D?zzle assembly. They are particularly suitable for measuring VISCOUS media containing slurry.

V-de/ta P meter which is used to increase the range of an orifice plate flowmeter.

Figure 11 Diagram showing the pressure drop losses across three types of pressure drop flowmeter.

Accuracy The accuracy that can be obtained with orifice plate flowmeters is not very high, it is in the order of ±3% if supplied uncalibrated and can be ±1 % if calibrated. It is possible that in the larger sizes the plates can buckle or distort and alter the flowmeter coefficient. It is also possible for the plate edges to wear or get dirty and this will alter the flowmeter reading. Accuracy can deteriorate by as much as 20%. Installation Orifice plates should be installed with straight upstream pipe work of 15 to 60 d length and downstream pipework straight over 5 d to 80 d, depending on the nature of the upstream fittings. In many applications it is not possible to provide such upstream lengths. The change in discharge coefficient however can in some cases be predicted as shown in the UK NEL (National Engineering Laboratory) Report No 702 'Effects of Upstream Bends and Valves on Orifice Plate Pressure Distribution and Discharge Coefficients' . Swirl can produce relatively large errors in orifice plate installations. Orifice plates can be installed in pipes which run at any angle. Maintenance The plate should be checked periodically for flatness; the orifice edge should still be sharp with no deposits or corrosion. The pressure tappings should be checked for fouling up. Pressure drop Orifice plates have a high unrecoverable pressure loss of four velocity heads or more. The following alternative variable head flowmeters are therefore often used. (Diagrams showing pressure recovery for three types are shown in Figure 11). Flow nozzles The first refinement of the orifice plate is the flow nozzle which, with its contoured inlet profile, has less head loss but is more expensive. The diameters of these ------------

-Flow--t----

Figure 12 Typical flow nozzle.

Figure 13 Typical flow nozzle assembly.

124

RATE OF FLOW METERS

PRESSURE

DROP FLOW METERS - VARIABLE

TABLE 1- DIMENSIONS

HEAD
LOSS FLOW TUBE

125

Flow tube The flow tube shown in Figure 14 provides lower total pressure loss than the flow nozzle. See also table on facing page.

FOR LOW PRESSURE (Shown in Figure 14)

Cubage Pipe size 4x 4 Throat diameter 1·526 1·982 2·536 3·032 2·298 2·985 3·820 4·566 3·026 3·930 5·030 6·012 3·802 4·938 6·320 7·554 4·554 5·914 7·570 9·048 5·030 6·455 8·457 9·921 5·703 7·554 0·381 11·331 6·455 8·457 9·750 10·680 12·766 7·146 9·381 11·880 14·200 8·457 11·331 14·200 17·117 A 'Ph (200) 6,s1l6 (176) 53;" (146) 4'1> (114) 1l% 913116 7'h6 5'h6 14~ 12'¥>6 10M! 7'1> 18% 16'h 12% 9';" 223h 19% 15V. 11M! 25 2m 16% 12'h 283;., 243/, 2014! 14:v. 32\02 28M! 25% 22% 17% 36\i 31% 25V. 18"h (289) (249) (198) (148) (378) (325) (257) (191) (473) (410) (324) (235) (569) (492) (387) (283) (635) (552) (425) (321) (730) (629) (511) (375) (826) (714) (651) (575) (442) (918) (797) (641) (473) B 7'1> (191) C 9 (229)

It'
i.s
1·7 1·6 1·3

m' 0·05 0·05 0·05 0·04 0·08 0·08 0·07 0·06 0·13 0·12 0·11 0·09 0.20 0·18 0.15 0·12 0·29 0·25 0·22 0·20 0·37 0·33 0·27 0·23 0·52 0·46 0·38 0·31 0·61 0·54 0.50 0·46 0·36 0·54 0·48 0·40 0·32 1·21 1-07 0·88 0·69 1·40

Weight \b(kg) 70 (32)

~?f==11
B

6x6

9\02 (241)

11(279)

c-~~

2·8 2·7 2·3 2·0 4·6 4·4 3·78 3·2 7·0 6·2 5·3 4·2 10,1 9·0 7·6 7·1 13·1 11-8 9·7 8·0 18·2 16·1 13·5 10·9 21·7 18·9 17·8 16·1 12·8 19·1 16·8 14·1 11·3 42·6 37·6 30·9 24·2 49·2

90 (41)

8x8

1l:v.

(298)

13'12(343)

- --kJI---- \ ~l----• _.J

175 (79)

!Ox

10

14V. (362)

16 (406)

250 (113)

Figure 14 Low pressure loss flow lube.

12 x 12

17

(432)

19 (483)

400 (180)

Venturi tubes This device has a convergent inlet, a parallel throat and divergent outlet. The arrangement gives greater pressure recovery than the flow nozzle. Venturi tubes permit the measurement of viscous flows containing suspended solids, including slurries. They can be used down to Re = 100 000; laboratory calibration is recommended below Re's of 200 000. The pressure tappings are at the inlet and at the throat. The length of the venturi tube is about 8 D. See Figures 15 and 16. They can be installed at any angle from horizontal to vertical. Pressure drop is approximately 10% and accuracies are in the order of ±1·5% uncalibrated and ±0·25% calibrated. The accuracies reduce with a lower Re· Various constructions are possible, such as cast, machined, fabricated from sheet steel or built-up from sections. In the built-up types it is easier to introduce annular grooves for the pressure tappings.
Dall tubes

14 x 14

18¥< (476)

21 (533)

480 (216)

16 x 16

21';"

(540)

231,02 (597)

710 (320)

18 x 18

22%

(578)

25 (635)

1100 (495)

20 x 20

25

(635)

271,02 (699)

1260 (567)

The Dall tube is an advanced development of the venturi tube. It was developed by Mr H.E.Dali ofthe Kent Meters hydraulic research team; it has better pressure recovery than the venturi but is smaller and cheaper. All Dall devices comprise a short converging entry cone followed by a longer diverging exit cone (Figure 17). Between the two cones at the throat of the flowmeter, there is a small annular gap. The average throat pressure is measured at this point. The upstream pressure is taken immediately before the buttress formed by the start of the upstream cone, at a point where the effective pressure is increased due to the streamlining. The normal differential pressure in accordance with Bernoulli's theorem is considerably increased. For a given differential pressure head the throat of the Dall tube can be larger thus reducing the headloss. These tubes are used for the measurement of water, sewage and mos~ gases. Figure 18 shows a shortened

441,02(1130) 38'1> (978) 3m (791) 23V. (591) 36 (914)

29'1> (749)

32

(813)

2300 (1035)

3Ox3O 36x36
42 x 42

18·160

36

(914)

383/.

(984)

2700 (1215) 3200 (1400) 4000 (1800)

26·297

30 (762)

42¥o(1086)

46 (1168)

56·3

1·60

24·120

54 (1372)

49'h(t257)

53 (1346)

121

3-43

All dimension

in i nches (mm)

126

RATE OF FLOWMETERS

PRESSURE DROP FLOWMETERS -

Y ARIABLE

HEAD

127

Figure 17 Dall tube flowmeter,

(using DalL liner).

Figure 15 Diagram of flanged venturi tube.

Figure 18

Figure 16 Diagram of small diameter venturi tube precision machined from solid bar stock.

version of the Dall tube. A special short and cheaper version of the Dall tube is available as shown in Figure 19. The compact liner Dall tube is used for measuring relatively clean air, gas, liquids and dry saturated steam. They are available in diameters of 150 to 1000 mm and larger; the length of this tube is 0·8 to 1·3 times its diameter. Figure 20 shows comparisons between the pressure drops across various flowmeters.

Figure 19 Kent compact liner Dall tube.

-----~----------------- --------------_.---

-.----------------------

128

RATE OF FLOW METERS

PRESSURE DROP FLOWMETERS - VARIABLE HEAD

129

These flowmeters are therefore seldom used at these flow speeds. If it is necessary to measure flow at these speeds and it is preferred to use a pressure drop type flowmeter, use can be made of the segmental wedge. The s~gmental wedge is not a new type of flowmeter. It was introduced in the lat~ 1950 s an~ has been used successfully for many years for metering all kinds of fluids. So far it has now been promoted to the same extent as other flowmeters that have come on to the market since that time. The most important characteristic of the segmental wedge is its ability to follow the square root relationship between flow and pressure drop accurately over a wide range of Re~nolds numbers down to Re = 1000 and in some cases down to Re = 500, Without deterioration of the square root relationship. For pip~ sizes of 50 mm (2 inches) and smaller in segmental wedge flowmeters the wedge Is.ma~e from. a solid piece of material (Figure 21), for larger sizes up t~ the largest pipe size available, the wedge is fabricated. The wedge for~s .a flow r~st.riction which was originally designed for the measureme.nt of liquids contammg solids. The segmental wedge flowmeter togethe! wI~h.the remote seal differential pressure transmitter, is suitable for mea~unng dlff~cult, corrosive and erosive fluids and fluids that tend to solidify when coming up against a flat surface.

Figure 20 Comparison

of head loss for different differential producer.

Elbow tlowmeters As all piping systems incorporate bends, it is quite easy to install the simplest form of pressure drop flowmeter the pipe bend flowmeter or elbow flowmeter. This flowmeter is a very simple device, which when properly calibrated, can give consistent and accurate readings of flowrates in the order of ±5%. Pressure tappings are taken on the inside and the outside of the bend. The pressure drop is generated by centrifugal forces exerted when the flow is forced into a circular path. Segmental wedge flowmeter All the variable head pressure drop devices described so far are mainly used to measure turbulent flows at Reynolds numbers well above 2100. They are all very limited when it is necessary to measure flows at low Reynolds numbers. If orifice plates, venturis etc, are used to measure flows in the viscous flow region below Re = 1800, their outputs wiII deviate from the basic square root relationship between flow and differential pressure and their accuracy will be drastically reduced. Orifice plates, venturis and the other variable head pressure drop flowmeters start showing deviations from the square root relationship at Reynolds numbers of 1000 to 40000 (depending on type, size and B-ratio) in the order of 3 to 5%. The deviations become even larger at Reynolds numbers below 5000.

Figure 21 Small diameter wedge.

segmental flowmeter

showing

solid

Typical applications are: Fuel oil Tar Heavy syrup Sodium hydroxide Molten sulphur Phenol Hot calc chlliq uor Meth chloride

Coal/oil slurry Crude oil Tar sands Taconite

130

RA TE OF FLOWMETERS

PRESSURE DROP FLOWMETERS

- VARIABLE

HEAD

131

Averaging pitots

The averaging pitot is an insertion flowmeter based on the pi tot principle, (see Figure 24)_ The diagram shows how this flowmeter copes with an asymmetric flow profile, It consists of a probe of diamond section which extends right across the pipe

Segmental wedge flowmeter with solid wedge, for small diameter pipes.

Segmental wedge flowmeter with builtup wedge for pipe sizes larger than 50mm_

Figure 22 shows that the segmental wedge confir~s to th~ square root relationship from at least Re = 1000 to Re = 45 000 with a maximum error of ±0·33%. From Re = 400 to 1000 it is less than 3%_ Figure 23 shows a typical curve for a 38 mm (1-5 inch) orifice plate with a B-ratio of 0-5_ The curve shows a deviation of 5-5% from the square root over Reynolds numbers of 3000 to 30 000 (see Reference 1)_

,~ 1
:2'Q

coo

I IlH···ll
1·1
~.I)OI) 10
OOQ

)ScOOO PIPE R EVNOt_DS NO RO

.II'i:.O'XI

1·1·1

"",DOIl!

I Ii
5(J.~

Figure 24 Averaging pitot lube

~•. ~-4~/~~-4--~--+-~~-+--{---r--+--'_--r--+--~--t--+---r2(1(1

)00

400

see

GOO

700

8OoiI'

'!JioO

'ICOO

))00

;200

lXlO

1400

lSOD

~6CO

HOO

1:!100

P1Pf REYNOLDS

NO_

RO

Figure 22

-c

66 65 6

63 62

"- ~

--,.._

2000

SOOO

10.000

20_DOD

30_000

~PEREYNOlDSNnRD Figure 23 Low pressure 'hot lap' model installed in 3 inch pipe.

132

RATE OF FLOWMETERS

PRESSURE DROP FLOWMETERS - VARIABLE HEAD

133

and incorporates a number of pressure tappings along its length, so that its pressure reading is an average and averages the flow profile across the tube; there is also a downstream pressure tapping. The averaging pitot can be placed in any position where there is a repeatable flow profile, even just after a bend. Figure 25 shows a flowmeter assembly. Data for calculating flow at various pipe positions are provided by the manufacturer. With the averaging pitot it is not necesssary to have long straight lengths of pipe upstream of the flowmeter.

Accuracy Accuracy is ±l'O% of a point and repeatability ±O·l%. Advantages Low initial cost, low permanent pressure loss, complete installation in less than 90 minutes. Because of good repeatability, it is suitable for flow control applications, where stability of flow is of greater importance than unit accuracy. Flow range As with all head type instruments, the flow is proportional to the square root of the differential pressure. This results in a rangeability of 3·5: 1.

Figure 25 Averaging pitot tube flowmeter

assembly.

High pressure output

pressure hole Outer impact tube

,
~ Pipe wall Low pressure output

Seq -averaging

pitot tube

135

Every pee gas meter, from a Fluxi Axial Flow Turbine monitoring up to 230,OOOft3/h,to a simple Diaphragm meterhandling flow rates as low as .5ft3/h is available with electronic remote readout capability (IF transmitters" fitted as standard, HF as an option). $0 you can keep track of an entire complex. at a glance, comparing data for optimum efficiency and cost control, And should a fault occur atanystageof the process, you'll be on it likea flash. Our range incorporates three principal systems of measurement, axial flow turbi ne, rotary displacement and diaphragm positive displacement providing the control and continuity essentialto different processes. But any meter, however well designed, engineered, tested and proven, isonly as reliable and efficien~ as the p~ple behind it: Which is why we provide a highly experienced technical and advisory service, toensureyou getthecorrectdesig nand sj:>ecifkation, right from the startTailormade adaptions for special applications are our forte. And behind that, we operate our own nationwide back-up service. So for advice, delivery, pa.rts and S-etvk~, deal direct With the World s no. 1.

C II!

.'OW¥W·,J

Pressure Drop Flowmeters Variable Orifice

IN THIS type of variable head flowmeter, the gap through which the fluid flows is increased with increasing flow in a similar way as in the variable gap flowmeter. The dragforce of the flow acts against a dragbody which is in the form of a vane or plug which is restrained by a spring. The inside surface of the flowmeter body or the outer surface of the plug is contoured in such a way that the output of the flowmeter is either linear or follows any required law.

"Not standard

on Diaphragm meters,

Specialists inthe electronic and . mernilni(a~ measurement of qases,

Fluld A~iaIFlowTurb'n

e Meters:

'Delt.a

Rota~

Drspi.Kemel"lt

Meter>

440.l30.000 ftJ1r..

tt3'h

Displacement angle e

Manufacturers to the Oil, Gas, Petrochemical and Process Industries of liquid and Gas Metering Systems.

PERRY EQUIPMENT LTD.

Rymer Point, Barnham, Thetford, Norfolk IP24 2PN, England. Telefax: 084289450 Telephone: 084289344 Telex: 81611
Flow Figure 1 Principle of operation of variable orifice transmitter .

.._~- ..--~_-.-.-.---..-.- -.-.------.--.-~-.- .. ----.---.-

~ -.-~ .. ----...
-~

..

-~~~-~-

.-_._._.-

-.-.-.~~~~

RATE OF FLOW METERS 136

PRESSURE DROP FLOWMETERS - VARIABLE ORIFICE

137

Vane type variable orifice flowmeter In this variable-orifice type flowmeter (Figure 1) the fluid flows through the gap' A' and exerts a dragforce on the vane. A spiral spring exerts a restraining force in the vane. The vane reaches a point of equilibrium, where the drag torque is equal to the spring restraining torque. The vane shaft is connected to a potentiometer or other read-out device, which reads out the vane position. The vane position is a measure of the flowrate. The safety valve provides a bypass in case the vane becomes jammed. These flowmeters are usually calibrated in mass units and are used in aircraft fuel flow systems. They form a reliable, very repeatable, low cost unit.

Flowmetering products sele~Ee.dby indusl:ies as diverse as construction, processing, mining and agT!cuicure.

Variable orifice flowmeter.

Flowmeter with spring-loaded plug The flowmeter shown in Figure 2 incorporates a spring-loaded contoured plug which is mounted in the orifice of an orifice plate. When the flow, and therefore the

Six 1/2 in stainless steel oil flowmeters »:ith a flowrate of 20 lit/min ins!alled on a sustation pump endurance rig.

Figure 2 Non-linearity

correction.

RATE OF FLOW METERS

138

PRESSURE DROP FLOWMETERS

- VARIABLE

ORIFICE

139

flowdrag, increases, the plug is pushed further through the orifice and sli~~s against the force of the spring over a guide rod, so that the area o.fthe annular on~lce whe.re the medium flows, is increased. The contour of the plug IS such th~t the differential pressure across the annular orifice is linear and directly propoprtlOnal to flowrate.

~eas~rement of gas flows and especially for the measurement of steam flow. The linearised pres.su~e ~rop flow~eter, as shown in Figure 2, was developed because of th.e severe limitations of orifice plates when metering variable flows and, when varying demands have to be met, such as in the steam generating industry. . Flowm~ters as shown in Figures 6 and 7 are frequently used as 'current' meters ill hydr~uhc syste~s, to check if the fluid power system is working correctly. They are particularly SUItable for this application as they are very robust have a long life and require virtually no maintenance. '

Figure 3 Variable orifice flowmeter used for steam metering. Flowmeter showing spring loaded plug.

with spring restrained flap

The spring restrained variable orifice flowmeter shown in Figures 3, 4 and 5 consists of: (i) The meter unit or transducer with temperature sensor for density correction. The conditioning unit, which accepts the signals from the transducer (ii) and converts them to digital form for transmission to the flow computer. (iii) The flow computer. The meter consists of a circular plate which can pivot about a shaft, restrained by a torsion spring. The plate angle (8) is determined by a device known as a Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT).
Application

tAt no flow, the plate is vertical) Figure 4

Pressure drop flowmeters in general are the main type of flowmeter used for the -~-~~-~---~~-~-~~-

.....

..•..•......

- .... ----~-

•......

140

RATE OF FLOW METERS

PRESSURE DROP FLOWMETERS - VARIABLE

ORIFICE

141

Installation

These flowmeters are not sensitive to velocity profile disturbances and only need an upstream straight section 6D long and a downstream straight section 3D long. If there are no pipe diameter changes, no minimum straight lengths are required.
Read-out

The read-out for the meter shown in Figure 2 is the same as with all pressure drop f1owmeters, with the aid of a differential pressure gauge. The meter shown in Figure 3 gives a digital output of an RVDT.

I
I

I
Temperature signal I Plate angle signal
l

I I I

[
I

-DI I I

.. I Dlg1ta

signals

L_-

- -Conditioning unit

.-------{Uj]
~

Flow computer

Figure 5 Spring restrained variable orifice flowmeter

system.

Figure 7 Method of operation of spring-loaded

plug flowmeter.

In Figure 6 showing direct reading f1owmeters, the medium (liquid or gas), flows through an annular orifice formed by an annular piston and a tapered rod (Figure 7) causing a pressure drop across the orifice, which displaces the piston against a spring. Piston displacement is directly proportional to f1owrate. Because of the sharp edge of the piston which forms the annular gap, viscosity has negligible effect on piston displacement. The piston incorporates a magnet which drags a ring across the outside of the flowmeter flowtube. The ring can be viewed through a transparent cover against a scale which indicates the flowrate (Figure 8).

Figure 6 l 1/4 inch aluminium

flowmeter.

Accuracy and repeatability

f 100'1 th Th se flowmeters have an accuracy of ± 1% FSD over a flow range o ., e accuracy can be further improved to ± 1% of a reading if the range area ISreduced. Influence of fluid parameter variation

Magnet Figure 8 These fiowmeters are also available with direct flow indication as shown, a magnet, which is mounted in the plug, pulls an indicating ring along. The ring can be viewed through a glass cover against a scale.

When used with liquids, these flowmeters are less sensitrve to VISCOSityhanges c than most other f1owmeters.
.------.-

..

.'

-~---~

143

Shunt Flowmeters
SHUNT FLOWMETERS consist of relatively small flowmeters which are mounted in a shunt line in parallel with a main pipeline in which an orifice plate is mounted. The purpose of using a shunt flowmeter is twofold: (i) To avoid the high cost of a large bore flowmeter. (ii) Because orifice plates are mainly used as rate of flowmeters and, if only total flow is to be measured and not rate of flow, the shunt or bypass flowmeter used can be of the type that drives a counter.

'Percept" bypass orifice fIowmeters sensor alarm switch.

with photo-

Shunt flowmeters are used to measure the flow of both liquids and gases including steam. The differential pressure across the orifice plate causes part of the total flow to be diverted through the shuntmeter. Care should be taken in designing the installation to make sure that the pressure drop across the orifice plate is not so that the bypass flowmeter will be overspeeded, while at the lowest flow there should be enough bypass flow to drive the shunt flowmeter.

--

_ ...__ ..

_-_._ _._._
...

.... _--_._-----

RATE OF FLOWMETERS
144

SHUNT FLOWMETERS

145

The ratio of the two flows is constant over the range of the flowmeter; when this ratio has been established, the total flow through the system can be calculated. For metering the flow of gas, including steam, a special rotary shunt flowmeter was designed (Figure 1) which incorporates a rotor of light construction. The bypass flow is directed via nozzles on to the blades of this rotor. The speed of the rotor is kept low by means of a damping arrangement mounted at the end of the rotor spindle as shown in the figure. A counter mechanism is driven by the rotor spindle via a magnetic coupling. Though designed for steam and gas, this flowmeter is also extensively used for the metering of liquid flows. As the rotor is very light and the rotor speed is kept low, the flowmeter follows flow fluctuations quite easily and is therefore suitable for measuring intermittent and pulsating flows. The cutaway section of the meter shown in Figure 2 illustrates how a Pelton wheel is used in the bypass line. This concept achieves a low cost flowmeter with a

Orifice/manometer

flowmeter.

Figure 2 Cutaway model showing Pelton wheel.

Figure 1 Rotary shunt flowmeter.

very wide measuring capacity, giving flowmeter sizes up to 30 em ( 12 inches). The principle of operation is shown in the diagram (Figure 3). It is an example of how the use of a large bore flowmeter is avoided by using a shunt meter. When the requirement is to measure purely the rate of flow, use can be made of the variable gap meter as a shunt meter, (Figure 4). The gap meter will have an accurately calibrated restrictor in series with it, which converts the orifice plate pressure drop into flowrate directly proportional to the main flow. Figure 5 shows various arrangements for the use of the gap flowmeter as a shum meter.

146

RATE OF FLOWMETERS

Tip mounted ferrites

Figure 3 Pelton wheel flowmeter, used as bypass flowmeter in conjunction with an orifice plate.

SECTION 3
Insertion Flowmeters
Calibrated restrictor

t
Figure 4 Air bleeds

Flowrate 1·5 units

GENERAL PRINCIPLES PITOT TUBE FLOWMETERS LASER DOPPLER ANEMOMETERS HOT WIRE AND HOT FILM TECHNIQUES AIRSPEED ANEMOMETERS

n ~lfJ ilh} ~1~1 ~I~J U

--'+1
Drains

Liquid

Gas

Figure 5 Recommended arrangements for liquid and gas service. Note that the unit is always mounted so that flow through the metering tuber is vertically upwards.

""

-.---.----------

-_---

-----~---

--- -----

--.---~-,.--~.--.~

149

General Principles
INSERTION FLOWMETERS were introduced to overcome the cost of large full . bore flowmeters. Insertion fiowmeters are basically small flowmeters which are mounted at the end of a rod and are traversed across the flowstream, so that the flow can be measured with the velocity area method. It is easy to insert a probe at low pressures, say up to 40 Ib/in", At higher pressures the liquid will try to force the insertion rod out of the pipe. A gear drive or rock and pinion is used to move the rod in the bore. Much work was carried out by Winternitz in establishing optimum positions for locating insertion flowmeters. (Reference 1). Winternitz laid down 10 log-linear positions across a pipe bore. (Figure 1). At least two diameters should be traversed. An arithmetical average of the flow speeds at these points will give the average flow speed.

Figure 1 Diagram showing the log linear positions for insertion probes when measuring flow in large bore pipes.

..

~I

150

INSERTION

FLOWMETERS

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES 151

To reduce operator time, it is possible to use automatic traversing gear ~oup~ed to automatic data logging equipment. Taking account also of the meter calibration curve. Another method which can be used is the equal area procedure. In this method the pipe area is divided into N equal concentric zones (Figure 2). N should no~ be less than '5'. The flow speeds should be measured in diametricall_y opposite p~:llnts in the zones as shown in the figure. The average of the flow readings taken will be the average flow speed across the pipe.

The vel_ocity distribution across a pipe is ~haracteristic for each Reynolds number (Figure 3). It follows that there IS a relationship between the speed of flow along t~e centre.ltne and the average flow speed. If the Reynolds number is known, the radius at which the mean flow speed Occurs can be calculated using Nikuradse's formulas, see also Reference 2. The equation for flow distribution in a pipe is:

.Yr
Vc where Vy Vc Y R n

[1]
velocity at position Y in the pipe. (Figure 4) velocity at centre of pipe distance from pipewall pipe radius exponent depending on Re

Nikuradse's formula f?r defining the ratio of mean velocity 'Vrn' to velocity along the centre line 'Vc' IS; Vm Vc
Figure 2 Diagram showing equal area method of assessing flow in a large diameter pipe.

2n2 (n

1)(2n

1)

substituting (1) in (2) gives;

y

[2]

2n2 (n

Generally in situations of non-symmetrical flow, it is necessary to traverse the pipe diameter slowly to establish the flow profile as the basis for flow meas~re~ent. The chosen line of traverse might not give the Correct average flow, often It Willbe necessary to traverse across several diameters. Once the flow profile has been established, a number of methods can be used to calculate the mean flow speed.

1)(2n

1)

so that Y/~: ;-:hich defines the position the average flow speed occurs, can be calculated If n IS known. Table 1 (from Reference 4) gives values of 'n' for different Reynolds numbers.

Profile of laminar flow Re < 2x loJ

Fully developed, flow profile

Re>5xl(Y

Figure 3 Example of how the velocity profile in a pipe alters with a change in Reynolds number.

Figure 4 If the position of Vy is at point 'X'in Figure 3, it can be Seen that different r~sullS are obtained at each Re number. The factor n in formula 1 is thus different for each range of Re numbers.

152

INSERTION

FLOW METERS

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES

153

TABLE]
n= 6 n= 6·6 7 n= n = 8·8 n= 10

YrnNc YrnNc YmNc YrnNc VmNc

= = = = =

0·791 0·807 0·81 0·8SC 0·86<

When a metering probe is inserted into a pipe, it will represent a small obstruction to the flow. This causes a small reduction of the flow area which, in turn, will cause a small increase in speed; the indicated speed will be slightly higher than the true speed of flow. The flow profile of the stream will also be distorted by the insertion flowmeter. Measurement errors will be introduced and corrections will have to be made. Turbine flowmeters, in the form of a small rotor in a cage, are most commonly used as insertion flowmeters. The pick-up is then mounted in the cage. The schematic Figure 5 and the illustration Figure 6 show the construction of a typical

. Electrical Figure 6 Insertion meter . ._~_ Isolation chamber Insertion tube

Figure 5

insertion flowmeter. Further examples are given in Figures 7 and 8. Other flowmeters used as insertion flowmeters are laser doppler anemometers, vortex meters and electro-magnetic flowmeters, all described earlier. If turbine flowmeters are used, these are calibrated in the same way as in-line turbine flowmeters.

Figure 7 Insertion meter designed for applications in pipe sizes of 1 in diameter and above.

154

INSERTION

FLOWMETERS

GENERAL

PRINCIPLES 155

From the foregoing, by using Nikuradse's formulas, it is possible to measure the mean flow speed by taking a single measurement. This only applies when conditions are steady. For air and gas flows generally, the Reynolds number is usually very high because of the low Viscosity of the medium. (Reference 5). Aichelson (Reference 3) recommends measurement at 0·762 times the radius from the centre line. He found that the measured veloicity was equal to the mean velocity within ±0·7% for Reynolds numbers between 4 x 103 and 3 x 106. References 1. WINTERNITZ, F.A.L. & FISCHL, C.F., A Simple Integration Techniquefor Pipe Flow Measurement, Water Power 1957, 9225-34. 2. NIKURADSE, J. Gesiitzmaszigkeiten der turbulenten Stromung Rohren, V D I Forschungsheft 356 (1932). in glatten

3. DeT geometrische Ort filr die mittlere Geschwindigkeit bei turbulenter Stromung in glatten und rauhen Rohren, Zeitschrift fiir Naturforschung 2 (1947) 108. 4. SCHLICHTING, HERMANN, Boundary Layer Theory, McGraw-Hili Book Company.
Figure 8 Cruflo insertion meter.

5. OWER, E. & PANKHURST, Press.

R.c., The Measurement of Airflow, Pergamon

f bi fl eters are often used in hostile Insertion flo~~et~rs.in the form 0 tU;u:~~e~;; the flow of crude oil (see also envi.ronments'll~ I~ 011 f;l~)f~~t~~e~ee:ituations the limited rangeability of these section on mu ti-p ase 0 . low flow seeds at the bottom range, flow flowmeter~ can be a problem. For very ass in w~ch another insertion flowmeter has to be diverted through a sm;H bor: bi%check system should be used, using two is mounted. For custody trans ewr an u ed on fully developed flows and if detailed h ify the flowrates en us . sensors, to ven . . . . the order of +3% can be achieved, traverses are earned out, accuracies 10 hi h . d for the Figure 9 shows a probe with a vortex flowmeter, w IC IS use measurement of air and gas flows.

Figure 9 Vortex type insertion flowmeter.

---- .... -----

---

-------~-----

157

Pitot Tube Flowmeters

A PITOT tube can be used for the measurement of pressure, velocity and quantity of flowing gases. It consists of a tube with the main opening facing forward, to sense dynamic pressure, and holes facing at right angles to the flow to sense static pressure. These two features are combined in the pitot static tube shown in Figures 1 and 2.

Figure I Pitot tube flowmeter.

The pitot static tube is the most common method of accurately establishing the air flow rate in a duct. Pitot tubes should be aligned with the flow but misalignments of up to 15° give insignificant errors. Pitot tubes are manufactured with orifices of different diameters. Contaminated or moist gases require pitots of larger diameter. The size required will also depend on the section of the measuring point. The following pressure terms are relevant (Figure 2): The static pressure (Pst) is the pressure a gas, flowing parallel to a wall, exerts on that wall.

158

INSERTION

FLOWMETERS

PITOT METERS

v=:>

youuseTAMOforallyour Flow requirements? If not read on ...

Flow Indication'6 mm to 5 metres dia. Flow Switching 6 mm to 5 metres dia. 4-20 MA Output 6 mm to 5 metres dia. Viscosity Compensated 6 mm to 25 mm dia. Polluted Medias 10 mm to 500 mm dia. Media Pressure up to 250 Bar Also comprehensive range of level, pressure and temperature products. Contact: TAMO LIMITED for all your requirements. St. Lawrence House Uxbridge Road, ' Hillingdon, Middx. UB100NW_ Telephone: (01) 573 1597 Telex: 937300 TAMO G Fax: (01) 848 0117

DO

Barometric pressure (C)

L (Pf

pressure

Total pressure (Pt)

Figure 2 Pita! static tube showing various pressure drops.

Keep track of your flow

Dantec has a world-wide reputation as a manufacturer of high-quality measuring equipment for fluid flow and particle dynamics. Dantec manufactures optical and thermal transducers together with the ancillary signal processing electronics, software and traversing systems necessary to form a complete measurement system. If you would like to know how Dantec laser Doppler and hot-wire anemometers can solve your measurement problems, please contact us.

Total pressure (Pt) is the absolute pressure compared with atmosphere. Dynamic pressure (Pd) is the pressure exerted by the gas due to the impact against an obstacle when it comes to rest in the opening of the tube, and its kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy. Flow speeds can be calculated with the following formulas: For airflow with .air at standard conditions ie at a density of 1·2 kg/rrr' (corresponding to air at 16°C and at a barometric pressure of 1000 mbar): or more precisely, variations:
v v = 1·291

MAURER.. smUIEIITS
Flow Meters * 'AI" to 12' bore series * Liqu id and gas versions * Baseefa certified *1000 bar operating *Wideturndown ratio

UMITED ~

v'PcI

taking into account temperature

and barometric

pressure

759.t/p T x Pd
Pa(105

+ Ps)

where v air velocity in mls T absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin Pa atmospheric pressure in Pascals The general formula for speeds below 100 mls is:
v =

1-414 ~

tt

DANTEC

P and for speeds above 100 mls: Pd 1·414 v where

DANTEC ELECfRONICS Ltd. Techno House, Redcliffe Way Bristol BS! 6NU. Tel: 0272291436

Flow Calibrators * 1" to 8" prover barrels * Baseefa certified * Fu Uy traceable * Uni and Bi-directional models *350 bar operating Unit4. Browells Lane. Feltham, Middlesex lW13 7EO Telephone: 01-8907300 Telex: 887326 MAUFLOG

~ -.--.-_---..

.---_

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PITOT TUBE FLOWMETERS 159

p Ma c

flow velocity the density of the gas vic = Mach value speed of sound
Meter terminal box

PUMPING MANUAL 7TH EDITION

OVER 500 PAGES 1000 DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATIONS TABLES
CONTENTS SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION AND PRINCIPLES evolution of the pump. type' of pumps, future trends, fluid characteristics. pump performance. pipework calculations. SECTION 2A PUMP TYPES AND CHARACTE R ISTICS centrifugal pumps. mixed flow and axial flow pumps, reciprocating pumps, rigid screw pumps, eccentric screw pumps, roots pumps, lobe rotor pumps, diaphragm pumps, vane pumps, fleXible impeller pumps, gear pumps. peristaltic pumps, liquid ring pumps, vacuum pumps. SECTION 2B - DUTY PUMPS booster pumps, submersible pumps, self· priming pumps, glandless pumps, metering and proportioning pumps. SECTION 2C - PUMP CONSTRUCTION pump constructions, pump materials, plastic pumps. bearings, packed glands, mechanical sea's, pipes. SECTION 20 - PUMP PRACTICE pump installation, pump intake design, pipeline installation, instruments. pump operation and
maintenance, pump noise and vi bration.

Meter
body

Insulating liner

Pitoi tube magnetic flowmeter.

th Fi3u;;, shows that differential readings from the pitot static tube change by less O 'at ovelf a a tacatnor V ery ow yaWl ?gle of ±12°. Figure 4 shows the slight change in calibration ve ocity,
Effect ()~yaw ~gle on pressure output of moddied eJlipsodaJ nose pilot tube +0·6 +0·4 +U·2 0 ---0,2 ---0,4
.-{).6

SECTION 2E - ANCILLARIES pump drives, canned motors, surge and pulsation dampers, filters, heated pumps and pipelines, bursting discs [rupture disCS). SECTION 3PUMP SERVICES AND APPLICATIONS water transport, water supply. irrigation, land drainage, mine drainage, food processing, sewage and sludge, sl urry pumps, paper stock, solids handling, petroleum industry and bulk Oil. brewery industry. hygienic services, hydraulic conveyance, dosing pumps, high pressure pumps, high pressure services, marine services, fire pumps, viscous fluids, nuclea, power pumps. SECTION 4 - EDITORIAL INDEX buyers' guide, addenda to buyers' guide, editorial index, advertisers' index.
TRADE 8< TECHNICAL PRESS LIMITED, CROWN HOUSE. MORDEN, SURREY. SM4 5EW, ENGLAND. TELEPHONE: 01 5403897 TeLEX: 92892ti ACR,?SS G.

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----_._-----_._-----

160

INSERTION

FLOWMETERS

PITOT TUBE

FLOWMETERS

161

LOW SPEED CHARACfERISTICS VARIOUS HEAD DIAMETERS MODIFIED ELLIPSOIDAL NOSE

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INSERTION FLOWMETERS

PITOT TUBE FLOWMETERS

163

Relationship between velocity pressure and air velocity for standard air at 1.2 kglm3 density
Velocity IVmin

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Fair~y accu~ate flow measurements of flow through large pipes can be taken by traversing a pitot tube across the bore. Accuracies in the order of ±O'2% can be achieved. For the measurement of airflow in ducts, the pitots should be consecutively placed at a number of positions in the cross-section area as shown in Figures 5 and 6. The chart, (Figure 7) gives the relationship between velocity pressure and air velocity for standard air at 1·2 kg/rn" density.

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-----_

------~--

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--

----

165

Laser Doppler Anemometers

THE LASER doppler anemometer is basically similar to the ultrasonic doppler effect flowmeter. The sonic transducer of the ultrasonic flowmeter is replaced in these flowrneters by an optical counterpart and the optical doppler effect is used. The development of continuous wave gas lasers has made it possible to use the doppler effect in an optical, non-intrusive method for measuring the velocity of gases and liquids, the measuring method is caJled Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA). The laser is a light source which provides a narrow coherent high intensity beam of monochromatic light. All fluids contain minute particles and bubbles. Particles as small as 1 p.m are large enough to scatter laser light. A simple LDA fringe mode system is shown in Figure 1. It consists of a Jaser, a beam splitting arrangement, and a focusing lens which makes the beams converge at a point where the flow velocity is to be measured. Laser light is scattered in all directions by particles suspended in the flow. The scattered light has a different frequency from the incident light. Some of the reflected light is collected by a photomultiplier. The difference in frequency depends on the particle velocity and the angIe through which the light has been scattered. In many cases, a flow can only be measured correctly if a non-contact sensor is used. The flow pattern may be so smaii that even a very small probe would affect the parameters being measured. A flow of a chemically active medium would

LOA optical system

Figure 1 Typical arrangement

of optics in laser anemometry,

__ ~ -----------...

..

__

._---

INSERTION 166

FLOWMETERS

167

. lobe In some flows the presence of a probe is impossible, such damage a Ph ysica pr . A bh I as flows around propellers, flows in turbines e~c. In such cases LD may e t eon y possible means of measuring local flow velocity. These flowmeters are available to cover a flow speed range. of 5·5 mmls to . ·n the order of +0·1 % FSD They are suitable for use at 3·5 mI s. A ccuracy IS I -... . 0/ FSD °C and they have linearities better than ±O·l /0 • tempera t ures of 0 to 50 . F e 2 shows the optical system of a laser velocimeter where full use I.S made of ~~~;r power and traversing and optical alignment are pa~tlcularly straightforward. Calibration is fixed by the choice of one lens an~ a pns:;, an~ thereafter one multiplying factor cO~lVer~s ~u~put to velocity un er a circumstances. The output is readily obtained 10 digital form.

Hot Wire and Hot Film Techniques

Laser

Half-wave plate

THE CONSTANT temperature anemometer is an instrument which is widely used for the investigation and analysis of simple and complicated flow phenomena in liquids and gases. The technique depends on the convective heat loss from an electrically heated sensing element or probe to the surrounding fluid; in other words the sensor is cooled by the media flowing round it. The heat loss depends on the temperature and geometry of the sensor and on the fluid's velocity, temperature, pressure, density and thermal properties. Assuming that only one of the fluid parameters varies, the heat loss can be interpreted as a direct measure of the quantity in question, usually the velocity or temperature. Should more than one parameter vary, there are techniques for differentiating between the effects of each. Hot wire and hot film techniques are widely used for measuring turbulent flows where two sensors are mounted at 90° to each other and at 900to the probe axis. Hot wire or hot film anemometry is the standard method of measuring instantaneous fluid velocity. It is used for research into hydraulic phenomena and fluid dynamics. The heated wire or film methods have several advantages over other types of insertion flowmeter, the two main advantages are the small size which causes little disturbance to the flow being measured, and they have a very fast response rate. It is the only instrument capable of measuring fast pulsating flow and it is used in the study of turbulent flow. The instrument consists of a fine platinum or tungsten wire, about 0·02 mm in diameter. It is very small compared with its length. The wire is mounted between two slender supports on a probe. If a more robust assembly is required, the wire can be shielded by a silica tube. Typical probes are shown in Figure 1. Another method of making the probe more robust is by using a thin film which has been deposited on an insulating support. Hot wire and hot film anemometers are normally operated in the constant temperature (CTA) mode. The arrangement consists of a Wheatstone bridge (Figure 2) and a servo mechanism. When the bridge is in balance, no voltage difference exists between the inputs of the servo amplifier. Any change in the flow will affect the temperature of the sensor causing it to become cooler or hotter. The resultant resistance change brings about a voltage difference at the servo amplifier inputs.

L1 and L2 linked together

Figure 2 . Laser veIocimeter - optical system.

id technique of point velocity measurement in fluids This flowmeter provi es a new . with the advantage of non-interference WIth flow. . oppler anemometers offer significant advantages over con~entlo~J.a1 L as er d h II obe volume non-intrusrve r methods of velocity measurement, sue as, sma tPh flow auto~atically flow . li t t the probe can traverse e ' . sensing, mear oubPu 'ade in otherwise inaccessible places, and measurement IS measurement can e m flowi dium independent of density, pressure or temperature of the owing me 1 •