so we find B1 = − 21 , B2 = 61 , B3 = 0, B4 = − 30
1
, B5 = 0, B6 = 1
42 , . . . , B12
691
= − 2730 ,...
Lemma 2
∞
t X tm
= Bm .
et − 1 m!
m=0
t P∞ tm
PROOF. Write et −1 = m=0 am m! and multiply by et − 1,
∞
∞ n X
X t tm
t= am ,
n! m!
n=1 m=0
Also
1 m µ ¶
1 X m+1
Z
Bm (x)dx = Bk = 0, m ≥ 1.
0 m+1 k
k=0
tm
Now let F (x, t) = ∞
P
m=0 Bm (x) m! , differentiating,
∞
∂ X tm
F (x, t) = Bm−1 (x) = tF (x, t).
∂x (m − 1)!
m=1
2. Bm (1 − x) = (−1)m Bm (x).
3. Bm = m 1 Pk r k m (Rademacher [4]).
P ¡ ¢
k=0 k+1 r=0 (−1) r r
Pm k+m m B (k) = m! (Ruiz [6]).
¡ ¢
4. k=0 (−1) k m
Pk−1 ³ ´
5. Bm (kx) = k q−1 j=0 Bm x + kj .
2
Euler MacLaurin sum formula (Rademacher, [4]).
q
Bm (x) (m−1) ¯¯1
¯ Z 1
X
m−1 q Bq (x) (q)
= ... = (−1) f (x)¯ + (−1) f (x)dx
m! 0 0 q!
m=1
Evaluating in x = 1,
1 q 1
Bq (x) (q)
Z Z
m Bm
X
(m−1) (m−1) q−1
f (1) = f (x)dx + (−1) (f (1) − f (0)) + (−1) f (x)dx.
0 m! 0 q!
m=1
where
b
(−1)q−1
Z
Rq = Bq (x − [x])f (q) (x)dx
q! a
Proposition 7 We have:
³ ´ ³ ´
2 log a 2 log b
Z ∞
x log xdx k ³ π ´k+1 Pk π − Pk π
= .
0 (x2 + a2 )(x2 + b2 ) 2 a2 − b2
where
2ik+1 ³ ³x´ ³ x ´´ (2k+1 − 2)ik+1
Pk (x) = Bk+1 − 2k Bk+1 + Bk+1
k+1 i 2i k+1
by first computing
∞
xα dx πaα−1
Z
= .
0 x2 + a2 2 cos πα
2
We note that the polynomials Pk may be defined recursively as
k+1
xk+1
µ ¶
1 X j+1 k+1
Pk (x) = + (−1) 2 Pk+1−j (x).
k+1 k+1 j
j>1 (odd)
3
The idea, suggested by Rodriguez-Villegas, is to obtain the value of the integral in the
statement by differentiating k times the integral of with α and then evaluating at α = 1.
Let
π(aα−1 − bα−1 )
f (α) =
2 cos πα 2 2
2 (b − a )
which is the value of the integral with α. In other words, we have
Z ∞
(k) x logk xdx
f (1) = .
0 (x2 + a2 )(x2 + b2 )
By developing in power series around α = 1, we obtain
∞
X logn a − logn b
πα π
f (α) cos = (α − 1)n .
2 2(b2 − a2 ) n!
n=0
By differentiating k times,
k µ ¶ ∞
X k ³ πα ´(j) π X logn+k a − logn+k b
f (k−j) (α) cos = (α − 1)n .
j 2 2(b2 − a2 ) n!
j=0 n=0
We evaluate in α = 1,
k
π(logk a − logk b)
µ ¶
X j+1 k (k−j) ³ π ´j
(−1) 2 f (1) = .
j 2 2(b2 − a2 )
j=0 (odd)
As a consequence, we obtain
k+1
k + 1 (k+1−j) ³ π ´j−1 logk+1 a − logk+1 b
µ ¶
(k) 1 X j+1
f (1) = (−1) 2 f (1) + .
k+1 j 2 (k + 1)(a2 − b2 )
j>1 (odd)
When k = 0,
³ ´ ³ ´
2 log a 2 log b
log a − log b π P0 π − P0 π
f (0) (1) = f (1) = = .
a2 − b2 2 a2 − b2
The general result follows by induction on k and the definition of Pk . ¤
• For 1 ≤ n:
µ ¶2 n
(2n)! X 1
= 2n sn−s (22 , . . . , (2n − 2)2 ) B2s (22s − 1)(−1)s+1 .
2n n! s
s=1
4
• For 0 ≤ l ≤ n:
(2l + 1)sn−l (22 , . . . , (2n)2 )
n−l µ ¶
X
2 2 2(l + s)
= (2n + 1) sn−l−s (1 , . . . , (2n − 1) )B2s (22s − 2)(−1)s+1 .
2s
s=0
• For 1 ≤ n:
n
X 22s (22s − 1)
sn−s (22 , . . . , (2n − 2)2 )(−1)s+1 B2s = 2(2n − 1)!
s
s=1
where
1
P if l=0
sl (a1 , . . . , ak ) = i1 <...<il ai1 . . . ail if 0<l≤k
0 if k<l
Theorem 9 (Euler)
(2π)2m
2ζ(2m) = (−1)m+1 B2m .
(2m)!
Then
∞ ∞ ∞
X x2 X ³ x ´2k X x2m
x cot x = 1 − 2 = 1 − 2 ζ(2m)
n2 π 2 nπ π 2m
n=1 k=0 m=1
PROOF. The first assertion is consequence of the fact that ζ(2m) is positive. The
second is consequence of the fact that ζ(2m) > 1 implies
2(2m)!
|B2m | > .
(2π)2m
¤
Definition 12 For every rational number r and p prime write r = pk ab where a, b are
integers such that p 6 |ab. Then ordp (r) = k. We say that r is p-integral if ordp (r) ≥ 0.
p k k−a
PROOF. By induction, k + 1 ≤ pk . Let k + 1 = pa q. Then k+1 = p q ≥ 1 implies
k ≥ a. For the second case use that k + 1 < pk for k ≥ 2. The third case is consequence of
k + 1 < pk−2 for k ≥ 3 and p ≥ 5. ¤
Proposition 14 Let p be a prime and m a positive integer. Then pBm is p-integral. Also,
if m is even pBm ≡ Sm (p) (mod p)
PROOF. For the first statement we will use induction. It is clear for m = 1. Now note
that for m ≥ k we have µ ¶ µ ¶
m+1 m+1 m
=
k m−k+1 k
Then Theorem 3 becomes
m µ ¶ m µ ¶
X m nm+1−k X m nk+1
Sm (n) = Bk = Bm−k (1)
k m+1−k k k+1
k=0 k=0
pk
µ ¶
m
pBm−k
k k+1
is p-integral for k = 1, . . . , m, but that is true by induction and Lemma 13.
6
For the congruence it suffices to see that
pk
µµ ¶ µ ¶¶
m
ordp pBm−k ≥1
k k+1
Lemma 15 Let p be a prime. If p − 1 6 |m, then Sm (p) ≡ 0 (mod p). If p − 1|m then
Sm (p) ≡ −1 (mod p)
PROOF. First suppose that p − 1 6 |m. Let g be a primitive root modulo p. Then
and
(g m − 1)Sm (p) ≡ g m(p−1) − 1 ≡ 0 (mod p)
the result follows. Now suppose that p − 1|m, then
Sm (p) ≡ 1 + 1 + . . . + 1 ≡ p − 1 (mod p)
¤
PROOF. (Theorem 11) Assume m is even. By Proposition 14, pBm is p-integral and
≡ Sm (p) (mod p). By Lemma 15, Bm is a p-integer if p − 1 6 |m and pBm ≡ −1 (mod p) if
p − 1|m. Then
X 1
Bm +
p
p−1|m
More Congruences
Vm Sm (n) ≡ Um n (mod n2 )
nk−1
µ ¶µ ¶
m
Bm−k n2 = Am 2
k n .
k k+1
7
If we show that for p|n, p 6= 2, 3, then ordp (Am m
k ) ≥ 0 and if p|n, p = 2 or 3, ordp (Ak ) ≥ −1,
m
then (Ak , n) must divide 6 and the same is true for the greater common divisor between
the sum of Amk and n. Then we may write
An2
Sm (n) = Bm n +
lB
with (B, n) = 1 and l|6. Multiplying by BVm and using the fact that 6|Vm (by Corollary
16) the result is proved.
Use Corollary 16 to see that ordp (Bm−k ) ≥ −1. Assume p|n and p 6= 2, 3. The cases
k = 1, 2 are simple. If k ≥ 3,
nk−1
µ ¶
ordp Bm−k ≥ −1 + (k − 1)ordp n − ordp (k + 1) ≥ k − 2 − ordp (k + 1) ≥ 0
k+1
by Lemma 15.
Now let p = 2. If k = 1, then Bm−1 = 0 for m > 2 and A21 = 2B1 12 = − 12 . For k > 1
note that Bm−k = 0 unless k is even or k = m − 1. k even implies ord2 (k + 1) = 0 and
1 m−2
k = m − 1, Am
m−1 = − 2 n which has order greater or equal to −1.
When p = 3, ord (Am ) ≥ −1 and ord (Am ) ≥ 1. For k ≥ 4, one shows that
³ ´ 3 2 3 3
3k−2
ord3 k+1 ≥ 0. ¤
Sm (p) ≡ Bm p (mod p2 ).
PROOF. By Theorem 11, p 6 |Vm . Now put n = p in the above Proposition and divide
by Vm which is permissible since p 6 |Vm . ¤
Proposition 19 (Voronoi’s congruence) Let m even and > 1. Suppose that a and n are
positive coprime integers. Then
n−1 · ¸
X ja
(am − 1)Um ≡ mam−1 Vm j m−1 (mod n).
n
j=1
Summing for j = 1, . . . , n − 1,
n−1 · ¸
X ja
Sm (n)a m
≡ Sm (n) + ma m−1
n j m−1
(mod n2 ).
n
j=1
8
Bm
Proposition 20 If p − 1 6 |m, then m is p-integral.
PROOF. We will see the case e = 1. Let t = ordp (m). By Proposition 20, pt |Um . In
Voronoi’s congruence, set n = pe+t . Since pt divides both Um and m, and mVpt is prime to
m
p, we obtain,
pe+t−1
(am − 1)Bm
· ¸
m−1
X
m−1 ja
≡a j (mod pe ).
m pe+t
j=1
Definition 22 An odd prime number p is said to be regular if p does not divide the nu-
merator of any of the numbers B2 , B4 , . . . , Bp−3 . The prime 3 is regular. Equivalently, p
is regular if it does not divide the class number of Q(ξp )
PROOF. Let {p1 , . . . , ps } be the set of irregular primes. Let k ≥ 2 be even¡ and¢ n =
k(p1 −1) . . . (ps −1). Choose k large such that n > 1 and p prime such that ordp Bnn > 0.
¯B ¯
¯ n¯
µ ¶
Bm
ordp = ordp Bm > 0
m
and p is irregular. ¤
9
References
[1] D. Castellanos, The Ubiquitous Pi. Part I.Math. Mag. 61, 67–98, 1988.
[2] K. Ireland, M. Rosen, A classical introduction to modern number theory. Second edition.
Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 84. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1990. xiv+389 pp.
[3] M. N. Lalı́n, Mahler measure of some n-variable polynomial families, (preprint, Septem-
ber 2004, to appear in J. Number Theory)
[4] H. Rademacher, Topics in Analytic Number Theory, Die Grundlehren der Mathematis-
chen, Wissenschaften. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1973.
[5] S. Roman, The Bernoulli Polynomials. 4.2.2 The Umbral Calculus. New York: Academic
Press, pp. 93–100, 1984.
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