Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 87±102

www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Sequestration of CO2 in geological media in response to

climate change: road map for site selection using the transform
of the geological space into the CO2 phase space
Stefan Bachu *
Alberta Geological Survey, Alberta Energy and Utilities Board, 4th Floor, Twin Atria, 4999-98 Avenue, Edmonton, AB,
Canada T6B 2X3
Received 10 August 2000; accepted 18 December 2000

Abstract
Geological sequestration of CO2 is an immediately available and technologically feasible means of re-
ducing CO2 emissions into the atmosphere, which is particularly suited to landlocked sedimentary basins.
Geoscience, engineering, economic and public issues need addressing by governments and industry before
proceeding with full scale implementation. Speci®c site selection should be based on a suitability analysis, a
proper inventory of potential sites, an assessment of the fate of the injected CO2 and a capacity determi-
nation, together with surface criteria such as CO2 capture and transport. The suitability analysis, both at
the basin and regional scales, is based on geological, geothermal, hydrodynamic, basin maturity, economic
and societal criteria. The inventory of sequestration sites needs also identi®cation of major CO2 point
sources and a cost bene®t analysis. The potential for CO2 escape and migration is a deciding factor in
screening out unsafe sites. Site capacity should be determined based on in situ conditions and CO2
properties and behavior.
Transforming the geological space into the CO2 space is an important step along the road map for se-
lection of suitable CO2 injection sites that allows the identi®cation of safe large capacity sites. An example
of application from the Alberta basin is presented. Ó 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Carbon dioxide geological sequestration; Site selection; CO2 space transform

*
Tel.: +1 to 780-427-1927; fax: +1-780-422-1459.
E-mail address: stefan.bachu@gov.ab.ca (S. Bachu).

0196-8904/02/$ - see front matter Ó 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 9 6 - 8 9 0 4 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 0 9 - 7
88 S. Bachu / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 87±102

1. Introduction

One of the ways to meet the commitments undertaken in 1997 in the Kyoto Protocol for re-
ducing anthropogenic CO2 emissions into the atmosphere is the enhancement of CO2 sinks, of
which geological sequestration is an immediately available and technologically feasible option [1].
In this context, geological sequestration is the capture of CO2 directly from anthropogenic sources
and disposing of it deep into the ground for geologically signi®cant periods of time. Sequestration in
geological media does not depend on climate conditions; it does not compete with agriculture,
forestry, ®shing, other industries and land use, and it is the only signi®cant sink-oriented option
available to landlocked major CO2 producers. Because fossil fuels and power generation are
serendipitously linked with sedimentary basins [2], the cost of transporting CO2 from the source to
disposal sites is minimized. The technology for underground storage of oil and gas and of deep
injection of CO2 and industrial liquid waste is well developed and widely practiced. Generally
there are no associated environmental problems with CO2 sequestration in geological media, and
it can be safely undertaken within national boundaries, thus avoiding international political is-
sues, as in the case of ocean CO2 disposal. Carbon dioxide can be sequestered in geological media
by: geological trapping in depleted oil and gas reservoirs, solubility trapping in producing oil
reservoirs, adsorption trapping in uneconomic coal beds and in coal bed methane recovery, hy-
drodynamic trapping in deep aquifers, cavern trapping in salt structures and by mineral im-
mobilization [1,3±7].
Although the necessary technology for CO2 sequestration in geological media already exists
and has been variously applied, there are still issues that need addressing before full implemen-
tation, which fall broadly into the following categories:

· Geoscience: dealing with the selection of suitable sites for CO2 sequestration.
· Engineering: dealing with the ecient capture, puri®cation and transport of the CO2 stream
from point sources to disposal sites.
· Economic: dealing with cost, ®scal and taxation policy and credits for CO2 sequestration.
· Public: dealing with environmental impact and public perception, education, acceptance and
support.

The public and private sectors have important roles to play in addressing all these issues, which
need to be attacked in parallel to achieve implementation within a time frame that will allow
attaining the targets agreed on in the Kyoto Protocol for reducing CO2 emissions into the at-
mosphere. Academia and research organizations need to advance the knowledge and technology
base with support from both governments and industry. Governments need to address economic
and policy issues, and both governments and industry need to address public issues.
Not all geological media everywhere are suitable for CO2 sequestration. Site selection should be
based on a geoscience based analysis that includes:

· Suitability assessment, both at the basin and regional scales.

· Inventory, selection and characterization of disposal sites.
· Safety and long term fate assessment of the injected CO2 .
· Capacity determination.
 S. Bachu / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 87±102 89

Surface based criteria, such as CO2 capture, transport and injection and cost and bene®ts
should be applied after the geoscience based screening.
Along the road map for systematic, geoscience based assessment and selection of sites for CO2
sequestration in geological media, an important step is the transform of the geological space into
the CO2 phase space.

2. Road map to CO2 sequestration in geological media

2.1. Suitability assessment

The basin-scale suitability assessment for CO2 sequestration needs to consider geological,
geothermal, hydrodynamic, hydrocarbon potential, basin maturity and economic, political and
societal criteria [1]. The ®rst three are hard criteria because a basin geology and geothermal and
hydrodynamic regimes do not change on a human time scale. The last three are soft criteria
because economic, political and social conditions may and often do change within a very short
time frame. The fourth and ®fth criteria are semi-hard in terms of hydrocarbon potential (it in-
creases with new discoveries) and semi-soft in terms of maturity, which increases as the basin is
explored and produces. The number of sedimentary basins suitable for CO2 sequestration is
signi®cantly reduced when these screening criteria are applied [1,7].
The regional-scale suitability assessment should identify which regions in a ``generally suitable''
basin are indeed suitable and which are not, and by what means of sequestration. This step wise
analysis should address:

1. Basin geology and hydrostratigraphy, to identify speci®c areas and strata suitable for CO2 se-
questration as a result of extensive con®nement and eliminate areas and strata where local scale
CO2 migration is possible.
2. Basin hydrodynamics, to identify regions and ¯ow systems suitable for hydrodynamic trapping,
such as in areas of erosional rebound or of regional scale recharge, and identify unsuitable re-
gions, such as in subcrop and discharge areas or where cross formational ¯ow occurs [1,5].
3. Temperature and pressure distributions, to establish the physical state and density of the in-
jected CO2 at in situ conditions. This is particularly important for avoiding areas and strata
where CO2 phase change and instability may lead to rapid CO2 migration and escape, and
for establishing the sequestration capacity [1].
4. Oil and gas reservoirs and their location in the context of regional suitability and CO2 phase
and density, for CO2 use in enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and storage in depleted reservoirs.
5. Coal beds and their location, depth, maturity, methane content, water quality and pressure and
stress regimes, for CO2 storage in uneconomic coal beds and enhanced methane production.
6. Salt beds, their location and stress regime, for CO2 storage in caverns.

The regional-scale suitability analysis further narrows down the regions, strata and means of
CO2 sequestration in a sedimentary basin. For example, although the Alberta basin in western
Canada is generally one of the most suitable basins in the world [1,7], the eastern shallow part of
90 S. Bachu / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 87±102

the basin is not suitable at all, the northwestern and southeastern parts are of medium suitability
because of intermediate depth, fewer hydrocarbon reservoirs and no coal beds, and the deep
southwestern and central parts of the basin are extremely suitable, with potential for sequestration
by all geological means [8].

2.2. Inventory of sequestration sites

The inventory of potential sequestration sites requires, ®rst, the identi®cation of major CO2
point sources, such as power plants and their emissions output, composition and quality. Sites and
means of CO2 sequestration should be identi®ed based on an engineering and economic analy-
sis that takes into account the capture, transport and deep injection of the CO2 stream. Re-
mote areas, even if suitable for CO2 sequestration from a geological point of view, will probably
be eliminated at this stage because of transportation, environmental and economic reasons.
Wherever more than one site is available, the selection should take into account cost and potential
economic bene®ts. For example, CO2 produced by power plants and re®neries in central Alberta
in Canada could be sequestered in oil reservoirs, with potential production of additional oil, in
coal beds, with potential production of methane, and in depleted gas reservoirs, deep aquifers and
salt caverns, with no additional economic bene®t.
After the inventory of feasible sequestration sites, these need local scale characterization in
terms of in situ pressure and temperature, oil and/or gas composition, water salinity, reservoir or
aquifer porosity and permeability, stress regime and fracturing threshold and gas content for coal
beds. Some potential sequestration sites may be eliminated at the end of this process if they do not
meet all the criteria for site selection, particularly with respect to CO2 injectivity and site integrity
[1,9].

2.3. Safety of sequestration sites

The immediate and ultimate safety of CO2 sequestration operations needs to be established on a
case by case basis. Immediate safety refers to the potential for CO2 upward migration and escape
into other strata during or immediately after injection. This could happen, mainly, through open
faults and natural or man induced fractures, regardless of the means of sequestration. Ultimate
safety refers to CO2 lateral migration in aquifers with potential for cross formational ¯ow, or in
¯ow systems with a short residence time. Carbon dioxide could reach aquifers either directly, as a
result of injection, or indirectly, from hydrocarbon reservoirs, beyond the spill point, into the
underlying aquifer, and from coal beds, which by themselves may be aquifers in many cases, into
the adjacent aquifers. In both cases, CO2 may contaminate existing energy, mineral and water
resources and may even reach the surface, the only di€erence being in the migration time frame.
The assessment of sequestration site safety needs to be done on the basis of a better understanding
of the in situ physical and chemical processes associated with CO2 injection and storage, of im-
proved numerical modeling of CO2 fate, and of a detailed knowledge of relevant site character-
istics. The process of safety evaluation will most probably reduce further the sites truly suitable
for CO2 sequestration.
 S. Bachu / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 87±102 91

2.4. Capacity determination

The capacity determination needs to be performed on a site by site basis, depending on site
characteristics and particular means of CO2 sequestration. For EOR operations and depleted oil
and gas reservoirs, the reservoir pore volume and spill point, the degree of water invasion as a
result of production and CO2 solubility are determining factors in estimating the CO2 seques-
tration capacity. For deep saline aquifers, the critical parameters are CO2 solubility in brine and
the migration path to determine how much will be sequestered in solution and how much will
override at the top of the aquifer as a separate phase. For coal beds, the coal thickness and
adsorption capacity at in situ conditions are the critical elements in estimating coal bed seques-
tration capacity. For salt caverns, the critical elements are stress, fracturing threshold and cavern
size.
Depending on the time frame and urgency, an immediate capacity can be evaluated by con-
sidering, ®rst, the most favorable CO2 sequestration sites, i.e. the high capacity ones in the vicinity
of major CO2 producers. The basin ultimate capacity should be evaluated by considering all the
potential sites in that basin, regardless of current transportation and economic factors.
After site selection, engineering design, construction and start up of CO2 injection operations,
a monitoring program needs to be implemented for determining the actual fate of the injected
CO2 and veri®cation of all the initial assumptions and knowledge on which the site selection was
based.

2.5. Road map for site selection and capacity determination

A systematic approach to site selection and determination of CO2 sequestration capacity in a

sedimentary basin requires following a road map in which governments, research organizations
and industry have di€erent roles to play, as illustrated in Fig. 1. Geological surveys are best
equipped to address the issue of basin and regional scale suitability for CO2 sequestration. The
inventory of major CO2 point sources and initial site selection can be compiled by government
organizations, regulatory agencies, or the private sector. Research organizations should develop
the methodology for predicting the CO2 fate. Research organizations and geological surveys are
best suited for developing the methodology for and conducting the immediate and ultimate ca-
pacity assessment. Industry should lead in speci®c site selection and detailed characterization. The
engineering design, construction and operation fall entirely within industryÕs role. Industry and
regulatory agencies should perform monitoring of CO2 Õs fate, with active participation from re-
search organizations, which should validate the initial assumptions and improve the capacity
estimates and predictive capabilities.

3. Geological to CO2 space transform

Each step along the road map for selection of sites for CO2 geological sequestration may
comprise distinct substeps. After suitability analysis and CO2 source inventory, transforming the
geological space into the CO2 -phase space is the ®rst element of the next step, the identi®cation
92 S. Bachu / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 87±102

Fig. 1. Flow chart of recommended steps toward the geoscience based assessment and selection of sites for CO2
geological sequestration. Text in italics indicates the main driver or carrier of the respective activity.

and characterization of sites (Fig. 1). For the range of temperatures and pressures found in
sedimentary basins, CO2 is a gas, a liquid or in the supercritical phase, with a density and viscosity
which approach those of water for low temperature and very high pressure (Fig. 2). Previous
 S. Bachu / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 87±102 93

Fig. 2. Relevant properties of CO2 as functions of temperature and pressure: (a) phase diagram, (b) density of the liquid
and supercritical phases and (c) viscosity of the liquid and supercritical phases.

studies assumed that CO2 will reach supercritical state at depths of 800 m [9,10]. However, the
temperature and pressure regimes in a sedimentary basin are highly variable, depending on many
factors whose interplay can produce a wide range of situations with respect to the state and fate of
the injected CO2 [1].
The geothermal regime in sedimentary basins depends on: basin type, age and tectonism;
proximity to crustal heat sources; basement heat ¯ow; thermal conductivity and heat production
in the sedimentary succession; and surface temperature [1]. Everything else being equal, cold
basins are better for CO2 sequestration than warm basins because for the same depth, tempera-
tures in the former are lower than those in the latter. Thus, the CO2 storage capacity of a warm
basin is reduced, and the potential for and the relative speed of CO2 migration increase as a result
of higher CO2 buoyancy. Basins are warm because of high ground surface temperature and/or
high terrestrial heat ¯ow, and are cold because of low heat ¯ow and low surface temperatures.
The temperature distribution in a sedimentary basin can be calculated using climatic tempera-
ture measurements for estimating the ground surface temperature Ts , and bottom hole tem-
perature measurements Tb at the base of the sedimentary succession (basement top) collected
by the energy industry. By mapping the temperature distributions at the top and base of the
94 S. Bachu / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 87±102

succession, the distribution of geothermal gradients G in the basin can be estimated and mapped
by dividing the di€erence between Tb and Ts by the thickness of the sedimentary column. The
temperature T at any location and depth D in the basin can then be estimated according to the
relation:
T ˆ Ts ‡ GD

The pressure distribution in a basin is more dicult to assess because of the aquitards which
separate the various aquifers, of salinity variations, of the lateral ¯ow in dipping aquifers, and of
the various ¯ow driving mechanisms in the basin, such as compaction, topography, buoyancy and
erosional rebound [1]. Underpressured basins have the same characteristics as the warm basins
from the point of view of CO2 capacity and migration potential. Unlike temperature, which varies
continuously across the sedimentary succession, the pressure distribution needs to be established
individually aquifer by aquifer, in individual coal beds, or in each oil or gas reservoir. Because
CO2 is lighter than water for the range of temperatures and pressures usually encountered in
sedimentary basins (Fig. 2b), the injected CO2 will accumulate and override at the top of the
aquifer or reservoir. Thus, pressure needs to be estimated at the top of aquifers and reservoirs,
using tests performed by the energy industry during exploration and production, according to the
relation:

pt ˆ pm …zm zt †qf g

where p is pressure, z is elevation, qf is ¯uid density, g is the gravitational constant and the
subscripts t and m refer to the aquifer or reservoir top and measurement point, respectively. The
density of formation waters can be calculated on the basis of in situ water salinity, temperature
and pressure [11]. For estimating the pressure at the top of hydrocarbon reservoirs, the in situ
measured gas or oil density has to be used.
The regional-scale distribution at in situ conditions of the CO2 physical state and density in
each target horizon (aquifer, reservoir or coal bed) can be easily established from the CO2 phase
diagram and properties (Fig. 2) on the basis of the temperature and pressure distributions. The
amount of sequestered CO2 is maximized for any available pore space if the in situ conditions
allow higher CO2 density. Injection in areas and at depths close to the temperature and pressure
conditions that correspond to a CO2 phase change will result in transition to the gaseous phase if
the CO2 reaches slightly shallower depths. This may happen if CO2 is injected below the spill point
in hydrocarbon reservoirs, if it overrides quickly at the top of an aquifer, or through cross for-
mational ¯ow. In the absence of geological traps, CO2 bouyancy will lead to its rapid rise or ¯ow
through the sedimentary column and escape to the surface. Thus, this methodology allows the
identi®cation of sites with signi®cant storage capacity, while avoiding CO2 injection into unsafe
places.
Transforming the geological space into the CO2 phase space requires processing of huge
amounts of geological, geothermal, hydrogeological, pressure from drill stem tests (DSTs) and
reservoir data collected by the energy industry and stored in some cases with regulatory agencies.
At the end of this process (Fig. 3), the identi®ed candidate sites for CO2 sequestration in geo-
logical media can be characterized on the basis of in situ rock porosity and permeability, stress,
pressure and temperature to establish the CO2 injectivity, safety and storage capacity [1].
 S. Bachu / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 87±102 95

Fig. 3. Flow chart of data processing for transforming the geological space into the CO2 phase space.

4. Example of application

The Alberta basin in western Canada (Fig. 4) is generally very suitable for CO2 sequestration in
geological media because it meets all the basin scale criteria and has the possibility of sequestering
CO2 by all means, although the eastern part by itself is not suitable because of its shallowness
[7,8]. In addition, unlike other regions in North America, most of the CO2 is produced at large
single sources such as power plants, thus facilitating its capture. In 1997, the last year with
available statistics, greenhouse gas emissions in the basin were of the order of 200 Mt, an increase
of 21% since 1990 as a result of economic and population growth. Close to 15% of the CO2
emissions is due to small, distributed, mobile sources (mainly transportation); another 10.5% is
due to many small, distributed commercial and residential sources (mainly building heating); and
1.5% is due to agricultural sources. Major CO2 producers (Fig. 4), either as in total quantity or as
single point sources, are linked to ®nding and producing fossil-based energy:
96 S. Bachu / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 87±102

Fig. 4. Location of major CO2 producers in the Alberta basin, Canada.

· thermal power plants, mostly coal ®red, with a combined capacity of >7000 MW and approxi-
mately 33% of CO2 emissions, located near Lake Wabamun (>4000 MW), in Edmonton (832
MW), Battle River (663 MW), Sheerness (756 MW), Jo€re (416 MW) and Calgary;
· energy producers, including oil sand plants near Fort McMurray in the northeast and the heavy
oil upgrader at Lloydminster, with approximately 17% of CO2 emissions;
· industrial fuel users located mainly in Edmonton and Calgary, with approximately 11% of CO2
emissions;
· the petrochemical industry, with approximately 6%, located in Edmonton, including oil re®n-
eries, Fort Saskatchewan, Jo€re and Medicine Hat; and
· the upstream oil and gas industry, with approximately 6%.

Although the power generation and upstream energy industries are constantly improving their
eciency, thereby lowering the amount of CO2 produced per unit output, the total amount
continues to increase as a result of new power plants coming on stream and of a marked rise in
production of natural gas and oil from oil sands. In the latter case, there is an increased activity in
surface and in situ production of oil from oil sands, both of which consume energy for steam
production and oil upgrading and transport through pipelines. Gas plants scattered throughout
the basin, but mainly along the western edge, contribute also to CO2 emissions. Finally, cement
and lime plants in Edmonton and in the southwest near Calgary are responsible for 0.5% of CO2
 S. Bachu / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 87±102 97

emissions as a result of both fuel burning and of the process of transforming carbonate rock into
cement in kilns.
The market for CO2 utilization in the Alberta basin is very limited, to some 300 t/d used for
urea and methanol production and other minor commercialization. Approximately 250 t/d of 96%
purity CO2 produced at an ethylene plant in Jo€re are used for tertiary EOR in the Viking Jo€re
oil pool. The upstream energy industry disposes of more than 700 t/d of CO2 by injecting acid gas
(CO2 and H2 S) into deep aquifers and depleted oil and gas reservoirs at >20 locations in the basin,
mostly along the western edge, in order to reduce SOx emissions [12]. The CO2 used in all these
operations represents <1% of the CO2 produced in the basin, of which 0.35 Mt/y are stored in
geological media. Because the Alberta basin is landlocked, with the nearest ocean some 1000 km
away (Fig. 4), with prairie-type vegetation and intensive agriculture in the southern third, and
slow growth boreal forest in the northern two thirds, neither ocean sequestration nor biomass
®xation are real options for enhancing signi®cantly the CO2 sinks in the basin [13]. On the other
hand, geological sequestration, although uneconomic, is secure, veri®able and has a huge po-
tential [7,8,13].
Having established the basin and regional-scale suitability for CO2 sequestration in geological
media [7,8] and the location and output of major CO2 sources, the next step is to identify potential
sites (Fig. 1) using the transform of the geological space into the CO2 phase space (Fig. 3). Surface
temperatures and geothermal gradients in the Alberta basin vary, respectively, from 7°C and
<20°C/km in the south, to 4°C and >60°C/km in the north [14]. As a result, the depth to the 31.1°
isotherm (the CO2 critical point) ranges between >600 m in the north and >1200 m in the south
[8]. The carbonate dominated, oil and gas rich strata of the Devonian Woodbend Group, which
are absent in the northeastern part of the basin due to pre Cretaceous erosion, are found at depths
that vary between <500 m in the north-northeast and >4500 m in the southwest (Fig. 5a).
Temperatures at the top of the Woodbend Group increase with depth from <10°C at shallow
depth in the north to >140°C at the foredeep in the west-southwest (Fig. 5b). Local variations in
the basin-scale trend are caused by variability in the basement heat ¯ow [14]. The carbonate
Cooking Lake and Grosmont aquifers in the Woodbend Group are overlain by the basin-scale,
strong, shaly Ireton aquitard [15]. The ¯ow of formation waters in these aquifers is northward in
the south, updip northeastward in the west, and east-northeastward in the north [15]. In the re-
charge areas of the two regional scale ¯ow systems in this aquifer, one in the south and one in the
northwest, and of direct recharge at shallow depths in the northeast [15], the salinity of the for-
mation water is <25 g/l (Fig. 5c). The salinity of the deep basinal waters in the southwest is >225
g/l. Pressures at the top of the Woodbend Group vary between 1 MPa at the outcrop in the
northeast and >50 MPa at the basin foredeep in the southwest (Fig. 5d).
The injected CO2 will be in a supercritical state in the deeper western and southern parts of the
Woodbend Group strata (west and south of both the 31.1°C isotherm and the 7.38 MPa isobar),
and it will be a gas in the shallower northeastern part (Fig. 6a). Carbon dioxide will be in the
liquid phase in a relatively narrow band between the supercritical and gaseous phases (Fig. 6a).
Pockets of liquid CO2 in the supercritical and gaseous regions are due to local variations in
temperature or pressure, respectively (Figs. 5b, 5d and 6a). The density of liquid and supercritical
CO2 will range from <500 kg/m3 along the phase change boundary at 800 m depth, to >800 kg/
m3 at >3500 m depth in the southwest, and >800 kg/m3 at only 1200 m depth in the south
and 600 m in the extreme north (Fig. 6b). This apparently unexpected and patchy density
98 S. Bachu / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 87±102

Fig. 5. Relevant characteristics of the Devonian Woodbend Group strata in the Alberta basin: (a) depth (m) to
structure top, (b) temperature (°C) at structure top, (c) salinity (g/l) of formation waters, and (d) pressure (MPa) at
structure top.

distribution is the result of the interplay between local-scale variations in the geothermal and
pressure regimes, and of the direct and inverse variability of CO2 density with pressure and
temperature, respectively. The density of CO2 has a stronger dependence on temperature than on
pressure (Fig. 2b), such that the injected CO2 may have a greater density at shallower depths than
at greater depths. Conversely, to achieve the same density, it will have to be injected at signi®-
 S. Bachu / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 87±102 99

Fig. 6. Distribution of CO2 properties and hydrocarbon reservoirs in Woodbend Group strata in the Alberta basin: (a)
CO2 phase, (b) CO2 density (kg/m3 ), (c) CO2 viscosity (mPa s) and (d) oil and gas reservoirs.

cantly greater depths in the southwest than in the south. Although similar, the e€ect of temper-
ature and pressure on the viscosity of the injected CO2 (Fig. 2c) has a lesser impact than on
density. Viscosity will vary between <0.03 mPa s in areas where CO2 will be lighter along the
100 S. Bachu / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 87±102

phase change boundary and >0.07 mPa s where CO2 will be heavier (Fig. 6c), with a corre-
sponding decrease in CO2 injectivity.
Oil and gas reservoirs in various stages of production, some close to depletion, are found
throughout the Woodbend strata, mainly in carbonate reef complexes around the Peace River
High, in the Rimbey-Meadowbrook trend, and at Bashaw (Fig. 6d). In the reef trend, gas is
generally present in the more downdip reservoirs, while oil occurs updip, with most reservoirs
being ®lled to their spill points [16]. Many reservoirs contain both gas and oil, and all of them are
underlain by the Cooking Lake aquifer. With regard to CO2 sequestration, the best targets are the
relatively shallower reservoirs in the Rimbey-Meadowbrook trend and at Bashaw because the
CO2 density is reasonably high (Fig. 6b) and the depth is moderate, in the 2000 m range (Fig. 5a).
As it happens, these reservoirs are the closest to major CO2 sources near Edmonton (Fig. 4).
Deeper reservoirs in the west southwest and around the Peace River High are less favorable
because of greater depth, which increases the cost of drilling and CO2 compression to higher
pressures, and/or greater distance, which increases the cost of CO2 transportation from source to
sink. The oil and gas reservoirs in the shallower northeast are the least suitable because CO2 will
be in the gaseous phase, with corresponding less storage capacity and greater potential for CO2
escape and migration. However, these reservoirs, such as Liege, could be the only option available
for the giant oil sands plants at Ft. McMurray that are major CO2 producers (Figs. 4 and 6d).
With regard to CO2 sequestration in Woodbend Groupp aquifers, the best suited sites are in the
south, where buoyancy e€ects are smaller as a result of the high density of the liquid CO2 (>700
kg/m3 ; Fig. 6b) and of northward ¯ow, besides lower drilling and compression costs. Sites in the
southwest and west are also suitable, although buoyancy e€ects will be stronger as a result of a
lighter supercritical CO2 , heavier formation water and updip ¯ow, while drilling and compression
costs will be higher (Figs. 5a,c,d and 6b). Sites in the northwest are less suitable because not only
do they have the same characteristics as the ones in the southwest, but they are far from CO2
sources (Figs. 4, 5a,d and 6b). Carbon dioxide should not be injected in Woodbend Group
aquifers in the north and northeast because the CO2 will be in the gaseous phase and will easily
override at the top of the aquifer, and it will migrate updip toward aquifer discharge. Any site
close to the liquid gas phase change boundary should de®nitely be avoided because of phase
instability.
Having identi®ed the means and location of the best sites for CO2 sequestration in Woodbend
Group. strata in the Alberta basin, the next step toward speci®c site selection is the character-
ization of these sites and the assessment of the immediate and ultimate sequestration safety (Fig.
1). Thus, the geological to CO2 space transform is an extremely useful and necessary tool in the
selection and screening of potential sites for CO2 sequestration in geological media.

5. Conclusions

Geological sequestration of CO2 is an immediately available means of reducing CO2 emissions

into the atmosphere from major point sources, such as thermal power plants and the petro-
chemical industry, which is particularly suited to landlocked sedimentary basins. Although the
technology exists and has already been applied for di€erent purposes, a series of geoscience,
engineering, economic and public issues need addressing by governments and industry before
 S. Bachu / Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 87±102 101

proceeding with full scale implementation. Among the ®rst is the selection of potential sites and
means of sequestration, which should be based on a suitability analysis, a proper inventory of
potential sites, an assessment of the fate of the injected CO2 and a capacity determination, to-
gether with surface criteria, such as CO2 capture, transport and injection. The suitability analysis,
both at the basin and regional scales, is based on geological, geothermal, hydrodynamic, basin
maturity, economic and societal criteria. This analysis reduces signi®cantly the regions around the
world where CO2 sequestration in geological media is indeed an option. The inventory of se-
questration sites needs also identi®cation of major CO2 point sources and a cost-bene®t analysis
for surface operations and economic bene®ts or penalty avoidance. The immediate and ultimate
fate of the injected CO2 and the potential for CO2 escape and migration are deciding factors in
screening out unsafe sites. The inventory and safety analysis further reduces the areas and places
where geological sequestration of CO2 can be successfully applied. Finally, the means of se-
questration and capacity need to be determined based on in-situ characteristics and CO2 prop-
erties and behavior at these speci®c conditions.
The physical state of the injected CO2 (gas, liquid or supercritical) and its density and viscosity
at in-situ conditions strongly a€ect the CO2 fate, the trapping mechanism and the capacity of the
geological sinks. The temperature and pressure distributions in sedimentary basins vary signi®-
cantly within the same basin and from basin to basin, such that it is not possible to establish, a
priori, the physical state and properties of the injected CO2 . Thus, the geological space of each
basin has to be transformed into the CO2 space using data that are usually collected by the energy
industry, such as analyses of reservoir ¯uids and formation water, drill stem tests and bottom hole
temperatures. The CO2 space can then be mapped and used for identi®cation of sites with sig-
ni®cant storage capacity, and of unsafe sites because of CO2 phase instability or potential mi-
gration and escape. Thus, transforming the geological space into the CO2 space is an important
step along the road map for selection of suitable CO2 injection sites that allows the identi®cation
of safe large capacity sites.

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