Brian Leonhard Ch.

12 HW

2. Independent samples are created when random selection of participants places them in
a particular sample, without regard to others selected for either sample. This produces
scores from independent events, and usually participants are in pairs, such as twins or
couples, so their scores match up with each corresponding other.

4. Homogeneity of variance is an assumption made in order to perform a t-test. When

populations have homogeneous variance, the variances of those populations (represented
by samples) are about equal.

6. If everything else is equal, determining whether to use a related samples or

independent samples design would depend on the hypothesis. Obviously, participants
should not be able to guess (correctly) what researchers are actually studying, so as to
prevent tainted or biased results. If researchers feel confident that their one group of
participants will produce the desired results from enduring both conditions of the
independent variable, then a related samples design would be best. Conversely, if one
group’s scores are independent of the scores from the other group, and they are both
measured separately, an independent samples design would be appropriate.

8. A confidence interval of the difference between two µs indicates a range of differences

(having to do with subtraction) between two µs, with one likely to be represented by the
difference between two sample means. Essentially, it indicates how confident we are in
our results that the range between some value and another value contains the actual
difference between the µs. If the measurement of two variables yields some difference
between them, the confidence interval takes the results a step further by asking “How
much is the difference?”

10.a. The final step when completing an experiment is to report and describe the results.
b. Effect size can be useful in reporting the results because it determines the importance
of the independent variable. The larger the effect size, the more scientifically important
the independent variable is.

12. a. A related samples t-test would be required to study the effects of a memory drug on
Alzheimer’s patients, testing a single group of patients before and after administration of
the drug. It is one and the same group being tested twice, not two independent groups
with their own scores, so each participant would be tested under both conditions of the
IV, indicating the use of a repeated measures design.
b. An independent samples t-test would be required to study whether there is a difference
between how men and women rate the persuasiveness of a female speaker’s argument.
The two conditions of male and female are separate, independent groups whose scores do
not influence one another.
c. If the study in part b. added that for every male of a certain age, there would be a
corresponding female of the same age, then it would require the use of a related samples
t-test because now the scores are in pairs, thus, one collective score comes from one
male-female pair.
14. Sample 1 (bored): x = 14.5, s2x = 10.22, n = 28
Sample 2 (not bored): x = 9, s2x = 14.6, n = 34
a. H0 : µ = 0
H1 : µ ≠ 0
b. *the first step would usually be to estimate variance for each group separately but
individual scores between the two n’s were not provided*
2
(n 1 - 1)s 2 + (n 2 - 1)s 22
s pool =
(n 1 - 1) + (n 2 - 1)
(27)(10.22 ) + (33)(14.6) 275 .94 + 481 .8 757 .74
= = = = 12.629
(27) + (33) 60 60

1 1
s 2 pool ( + )
s x z −x 2 n1 n2
=

1 1
12 .629 ( + )
28 34 12 .629 (. 036 +.029 ) .821 .906
= = = =

(14.5 - 9) - 0 5.5
= = 6.07
.906 . 906

c. when α = .05, tcrit = 2.000

df = (n1 – 1) + (n2 – 1) …or denominator for pooled variance formula
df = 60 2-tailed test for df 60
tcrit = 2.000
tobt = 6.07

+6.07
-

2.0 +2.0
d. An independent samples t-test was conducted in order to measure one’s perception of
how quickly time passes based on his/her level of boredom. Results were significant
(t[60] = 6.07, p < .05), which indicates that time does seem to go by more quickly when
one is not bored.

e. C.I. for difference between µs:

( s x1 − x 2 )(-tcrit) + ( x 1 - x 2 ) <µ1 - µ2 <( s x1 − x 2 )(+tcrit) + ( x 1 - x 2 )
(.906) (-2) + (14.5-9) <µ1 - µ2 <(.906) (2) + (14.5-9)
-1.812 + 5.5 <µ1 - µ2 < 1.812 + 5.5
3.688 <µ1 - µ2 <7.312
 x1 − x 2
f. d=
s 2 pool
14 .5 −9 5.5
= = = .44
12 .629 12 .629
The effect size conveys that the effect of changing the IV conditions was to change
scores by an amount that is less than half of one standard deviation. This means that
boredom is not very important in determining how quickly time seems to pass from the
perception of a participant in this study.

16. Sample A (classical): n = 6, x =14 .69 , s x = 8.4

2

Sample B (modern): n = 6, x =17 .21 , s x = 11.6

2

a. H0 : µ = 0
H1 : µ ≠ 0

b. tobt = - 4.36
(n 2 - 1)s 2 + (n 1 - 1)s 22
s2 pool =
(n 1 - 1) + (n 2 - 1)
(5)(11.6) + (5)(8.4) 58 + 42 100
= = = = 10
(5) + (5) 10 10

1 1
s x1 − x s 2 pool ( + )
2
n1 n2
=

1 1
10 ( + )
6 6 10 (. 167 +.167 ) .334
= = = = .578

(14.69 - 17.21) - 0 − 2.52

= = - 4.36
.578 .578
c. With α = .05, results are significant since tobt is beyond tcrit and p < .05.

(when α = .05, tcrit = 2.228)

df = (n1 – 1) + (n2 – 1) …or denominator for pooled variance formula
df = 10 2-tailed test for df
tcrit = 2.228

- 4.36

-2.228 +2.228

d. An independent samples t-test was conducted to investigate whether classical music

is more or less soothing to air-traffic controllers than modern music. Results were
significant (t[10] = -4.36, p < .05), suggesting that classical music is less soothing to
 air-traffic controllers ( x =14 .69 ) than modern music ( x =17 .21 ).

e. The researcher should conclude that either most people are more soothed by music of
their own relative era or generation, or perhaps people simply prefer to have the
choice of another music genre such as folk, jazz, R&B, etc. to soothe them.

f. The confidence interval of the difference between the µs should also be computed for
this test in order to gauge how much of a difference exists between populations.

g. It is likely that sampling error occurred, in that perhaps this sample of air-traffic
controllers, as a whole, was biased and already disliked classical music. It is also
likely that a sort of priming effect occurred where this group had just been listening to
modern music or simply listens to it more often than classical. Lastly, it is just as
likely that the researcher played a particularly unpopular classical song or a
particularly popular modern song for the experiment, also potentially creating biased
responses. (Type I error)

18.
Sample 1 (Younger) Sample 2 (Older) D (S2-S1) D2
10 18 8 64
11 17 6 36
18 19 1 1
12 16 4 16
15 15 0 0
13 19 6 36
19 13 -6 36
15 20 5 25
a. H0 : µ < 0
H1 : µ > 0

(∑ D) 2
b. ∑D2 − N
sD2 =
N −1
24
D = =3
8
∑D =24
∑D =214 2

( 24) 2 576
214 − 214 −
s D2 = 8 = 8 = 214 − 72 = 142 = 20.286
8 −1 7 7 7
1 1
sD = s D2 ( ) = 20 .286 ( ) = 2.536 = 1.59
N 8
D − µD 3 −0
t obt = = = 1.89
sD 1.59
c. With α = .05, tcrit = +1.895 (one-tailed)

d.

1.89

-1.895 +1.895

Depending on how tobt is rounded, it could be construed either that it is within the
region of rejection or falls just before it. If both tobt and t crit are rounded to two
decimal places, they are the same value; thus, I would argue that tobt is in the ROR.
Therefore, the researcher should conclude that, between a younger brother and an older
brother, the latter tends to be more extroverted.

A related samples t-test was conducted to assess whether the older brother or the younger
brother in a family tends to be more extroverted. Results were not significant
(t[7] = 1.89, p > .05), suggesting that an older brother tends to be more extroverted (
x =17 .13 ) than his corresponding younger brother ( x =14 .13 ).

e. The confidence intervals of the difference between the µs should be used to determine
whether or not this is a scientifically important relationship.

*20. An independent samples t-test was performed to study the effects of some
independent variable on some dependent variable. The results were significant
(t[40] = 4.55, p < .05), indicating that the independent variable does indeed affect the
dependent variable in the way that was originally hypothesized.

*no H0 / H1 or IV/DV

*22. a. N = 59; design: independent samples; statistical procedure performed:

independent samples t-test; *result: significant difference ; relationship:
the mean for women is higher than the mean for men ;
possible Type I error (rejected null)
b. N = 41; design: related samples/repeated measures; statistical procedure performed:
related samples t-test; result: significant reduction ; relationship: dieting
helps reduce weight ; possible Type I error (rejected null)

24. The difference between an experiment and a correlational study in terms of…
a. the design depends on whether or not the independent variable is directly manipulated.
In an experiment, this is the case, but this variable is already “set” in a correlational
design (i.e., gender).
*b. In a study where we directly affect what we are measuring (experiment), we might
conclude that our manipulation may have either contributed to or skewed the results,
whereas in a correlational study, the preset independent variable may be viewed as the
reason for the results.

c. Sampling error can certainly occur in both experiments and correlational designs, but

26. a. The three types of confidence intervals are CI for difference between two µs, CI for
µD , and CI for a single µ.
b. All three confidence intervals are similar in that they convey researchers’ level of
confidence about how accurate their results are.

c. CI for difference between two µs yields a range between two µs in which researchers
feel the actual µ exists; CI for µD describes a range of values of µD , one of which our
sample mean is likely to represent; CI for a single µ describes a range of values for µ, one
of which our sample mean is likely to represent.

28. a. There are four ways to attempt to maximize power: to maximize differences
between groups, increase the sensitivity of the dependent variable, minimize the impact
of extraneous variables, and increase the sample size.
b. Maximizing power increases our ability to detect a relationship if one actually exists in
addition to reducing Type II error.
c.

*30. a. Related samples t-test; same group using one eye and both eyes (being measured
on both conditions of the IV)

*b. Independent samples t-test; predicting national µ based on sample mean

c. Related samples t-test; for every child without siblings, there is a corresponding child
with siblings (scores are in pairs)

*d. No inferential procedure – ordinal data

e. Independent samples t-test; two separate groups, each in a different condition of the IV

f. Independent samples t-test;