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Types
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There are two types of membrane-based keyboards, flat-panel
membrane keyboards and full-travel membrane keyboards:
Flat-panel membrane keyboards are most often found on appliances
like microwave ovens or photocopiers. A common design consists of
three layers. The top layer (and the one the user touches) has the labels
printed on its front and conductive stripes printed on the back. Under this
it has a spacer layer, which holds the front and back layer apart so that
they do not normally make electrical contact. The back layer has
conductive stripes printed perpendicularly to those of the front layer.
When placed together, the stripes form a grid. When the user pushes
down at a particular position, their finger pushes the front layer down
through the spacer layer to close a circuit at one of the intersections of
the grid. This indicates to the computer or keyboard control processor
that a particular button has been pressed.
Generally, flat-panel membrane keyboards do not have much of a "feel",
so many machines which use them issue a beep or flash a light when
the key is pressed. They are often used in harsh environments where
water or leak proofing is desirable. Although used in the early days of
the personal computer (on the Sinclair ZX80, ZX81 and Atari 400), they
have been supplanted by the more tactile dome and mechanical switch
keyboards. However, membrane keyboards with interchangeable key
layouts, such as the IntelliKeys and Discover:board are still commonly
used by people with physical, visual, or cognitive disabilities as well as
people who require assistive technology to access a computer.
Full-travel membrane-based keyboards are the most common computer
keyboards today. They have one-piece plastic keytop/switch plungers
which press down on a membrane to actuate a contact in an electrical
switch matrix.
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How a dome-switch keyboard works: Finger depresses the dome to complete the circuit

Dome switches mesh with keys (keyboard is upside down in this image)

Dome switch keyboards are a hybrid of flat-panel membrane and

mechanical keyboards. They bring two circuit board traces together
under a rubber or silicone keypad using either metal "dome" switches or
polyester formed domes. The metal dome switches are formed pieces of
stainless steel that, when compressed, give the user a crisp, positive
tactile feedback. These metal types of dome switches are very common,
are usually reliable to over 5 million cycles, and can be plated in either
nickel, silver or gold. The rubber dome switches, most commonly
referred to as polydomes, are formed polyester domes where the inside
bubble is coated in graphite. While polydomes are typically cheaper than
metal domes, they lack the crisp snap of the metal domes, and usually
have a lower life specification. Polydomes are considered very quiet, but
purists tend to find them "mushy" because the collapsing dome does not
provide as much positive response as metal domes. For either metal or
polydomes, when a key is pressed, it collapses the dome, which
connects the two circuit traces and completes the connection to enter
the character. The pattern on the PC board is often gold-plated.
]oth are common switch technologies used in mass market keyboards
today. This type of switch technology happens to be most commonly
used in handheld controllers, mobile phones, automotive, consumer
electronics and medical devices. Dome switch keyboards are also called
direct-switch keyboards.
½ : Chiclet keyboard
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A special case of the computer keyboard dome-switch is the scissor-
switch. The keys are attached to the keyboard via two plastic pieces that
interlock in a "scissor"-like fashion, and snap to the keyboard and the
key. It still uses rubber domes, but a special plastic 'scissors' mechanism
links the keycap to a plunger that depresses the rubber dome with a
much shorter travel than the typical rubber dome keyboard. Typically
scissor-switch keyboards also employ 3-layer membranes as the
electrical component of the switch. These stabilizing scissor-like devices
extend the lifespan of the membrane to as much as 10 million
keystrokes.[
 
] They also usually have a shorter total key travel
distance (2 mm instead of 3.5 ± 4 mm for standard dome-switch
keyswitches). This type of keyswitch is often found on the built-in
keyboards on laptops and keyboards marketed as 'low-profile'. These
keyboards are generally quiet and the keys require little force to press.
Scissor-switch keyboards are typically slightly more expensive. They are
harder to clean (due to the limited movement of the keys and their
multiple attachment points) but also less likely to get debris in them as
the gaps between the keys are often less (as there is no need for extra
room to allow for the 'wiggle' in the key as you would find on a
membrane keyboard).[1]
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In this type of keyboard, pressing the key changes the capacitance of a
pattern of capacitor pads. Unlike "dome switch" keyboards, the pattern
consists of two D-shaped capacitor pads for each switch, printed on
a printed circuit board (PC board) and covered by a thin, insulating film
of soldermask which plays the role of a dielectric. The mechanism of
capacitive switches is very simple, compared to mechanical ones. Its
movable part is ended with a flat foam element (of dimensions near to
a tablet of Aspirin) finished with aluminium foil below. The opposite side
of the switch is a PC board with the capacitor pads.
When a key is pressed, the foil tightly clings to the surface of the PC
board, forming a daisy chain of two capacitors between contact pads
and itself separated with thin soldermask, and thus "shorting" the contact
pads with an easily detectable drop of capacitive reactance between
them. Usually this permits a pulse or pulse train to be sensed. The keys
do not need to be fully pressed to be fired on, which enables some
typists to work faster.
As of 2008 they are a rare find in generic PC keyboards[
 

]
. Vintage PCs may in some cases be equipped with this type of
keyboard, because the original I] keyboards for the Personal
Computer, Personal Computer XT, and Personal Computer AT
were odel F keyboards, which used the buckling spring mechanism to
actuate a capacitative switch, unlike the 101-key Enhanced Keyboard,
also known as the odel , which also had the buckling spring
mechanism, but a membrane contact switch. At the present time, the
best-known keyboard for use with desktop personal computers that uses
a capacitative switch is that made by Topre, either under its own name,
or for Fujitsu, which sells a keyboard custom-manufactured for it to its
specifications as the Happy Hacking Keyboard. The Topre mechanism
uses a spring underneath a rubber dome, and the depression of the
spring causes a change in capacitance between the underlying capacitor
pads.
There are also industrial makes of flat-panel capacitive keyboards that
are inexpensive[
 
], and they resist wear, water, foreign objects
and dirt.
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echanical-switch keyboards use real switches underneath every key.
Depending on the construction of the switch, such keyboards have
varying response and travel times. Notable keyboards utilizing this
technology are the Apple Extended Keyboard (the original and/or the
"II"), as well as its modern imitator, the atias Tactile Pro. These two
keyboards use ALPS switches. On PCs, the OmniKey series
from Northgate Computers was popular, and the line is now carried
by Creative Vision Technologies under the Avant brand.
Cherry Corporation of Germany also makes mechanical switches used
in special-purpose and high-end keyboards. Their popular X series of
keyswitches are available in five distinct designs, often referred to by the
color of the center stem to which the keycap attaches: Cherry X ]lack
switches present a linear feel where the force increases as the key is
pressed, Cherry X ]rown switches provide tactile feedback as the
switch travels over a physical bump as the key hits its actuation point,
Cherry X ]lue switches utilize a tactile feel and also an audible click
sound just before reaching their actuation point, Cherry X Clear
switches contain a similar design as X ]rowns but require more force
to depress and do not provide the audible click as found in the X
]lues, and, lastly, Cherry X Red switches possess an identical
construction as X ]lacks but require less force to depress. Each of the
switch designs is desirable for specific objectives: With games, having a
tactile bump is useless, so a smooth, linear switch is best, as found in
the X ]lacks and Reds. However, because the X Reds require less
force to depress, they are less desirable in a gaming environment when
compared against the X ]lacks. X ]rowns, ]lues and Clears are
designed more with typing tasks in mind, owing to their tactile bump
either before or right at the actuation point. The ]rowns and Clears do
not contain an audible "click" sound as found in the ]lues, and as such
are not quite as desirable in a straightforward typing scenario, instead
being considered as more of a "middle-ground" between typing and
gaming.
In India, the TVS Gold mechanical keyboard is very popular despite
costing about five times as much as a membrane keyboard.
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any typists prefer buckling-spring keyboards.[2] The buckling
spring mechanism (expired U.S. Patent 4,118,611) atop the switch is
responsible for the tactile and aural response of the keyboard. This
mechanism controls a small hammer that strikes a capacitive or
membrane switch.[3]
In 1993, two years after spawning Lexmark, I] transferred its keyboard
operations to the daughter company. New odel keyboards continued
to be manufactured for I] by Lexmark until 1996,
when Unicomp purchased the keyboard technology.
Today, new buckling-spring keyboards are manufactured by Unicomp.
Unicomp also repairs old I] and Lexmark keyboards.
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Hall effect keyboards use magnets and Hall effect sensors instead of an
actual switch. When a key is depressed, it moves a magnet, which is
detected by the solid-state sensor. These keyboards are extremely
reliable, and are able to accept millions of keystrokes before failing. They
are used for ultra-high reliability applications, in locations like nuclear
powerplants or aircraft cockpits. They are also sometimes used in
industrial environments. These keyboards can be easily made totally
waterproof. They also resist large amounts of dust and contaminants.
]ecause a magnet and sensor is required for each key, as well as
custom control electronics, they are very expensive.
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A laser projection device approximately the size of a computer mouse
projects the outline of keyboard keys onto a flat surface, such as a table
or desk. This type of keyboard is portable enough to be easily used with
PDAs and cellphones, and many models have retractable cords and
wireless capabilities. However, sudden or accidental disruption of the
laser will register unwanted keystrokes. Also, if the laser malfunctions,
the whole unit becomes useless, unlike conventional keyboards which
can be used even if a variety of parts (such as the keycaps) are
removed. This type of keyboard can be frustrating to use since it is
susceptible to errors, even in the course of normal typing, and its
complete lack of tactile feedback makes it even less user-friendly than
the cheapest membrane keyboards.
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 ost keyboards are rigid, but this foldable keyboard demonstrates one of many variations from the usual.

Some keyboards are designed out of flexible materials that can roll up in
a moderately tight bundle. Normally the external materials are either
silicone or polyurethane. It is important to note that although many
manufacturers claim that the keyboards are foldable, they cannot be
folded without damaging the membrane that holds the circuitry. Typically
they are completely sealed in rubber, making them watertight like
membrane keyboards. Like membrane keyboards, they are reported to
be very hard to get used to, as there is little tactile feedback.
As of 2005, roll-up keyboards include:

‰ the Cool ac keyboard [1],

‰ the Eumax keyboard,
‰ the VIK ("virtually indestructible keyboard") [2], [3],
‰ the pocket VIK [4],
‰ the Flexboard keyboard [5],
‰ the Cool IR keyboard [6], and
‰ theWhitelite FX100 Keyboard [7].
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Also known as photo-optical keyboard, light responsive keyboard, photo-
electric keyboard and optical key actuation detection technology.
The optical keyboard technology has been introduced in 1962 by Harley
E. Kelchner ± for use in a typewriter machine with the purpose of
reducing the noise generating by actuating the typewriter keys.
An optical keyboard technology utilizes light-emitting devices and photo
sensors to optically detect actuated keys. ost commonly the emitters
and sensors are located in the perimeter, mounted on a small PC].
The light is directed from side to side of the keyboard interior and it can
only be blocked by the actuated keys. ost optical keyboards require at
least 2 beams (most commonly vertical beam and horizontal beam) to
determine the actuated key. Some optical keyboards use a special key
structure that blocks the light in a certain pattern, allowing only one
beam per row of keys (most commonly horizontal beam).
The mechanism of the optical keyboard is very simple ± a light beam is
sent from the emitter to the receiving sensor, the actuated key
blocks, reflects, refracts or otherwise interacts with the beam, resulting in
an identified key.
Some earlier optical keyboards were limited in their structure and
required special casing to block external light, no multi-key functionality
was supported and the design was very limited to a thick rectangular
case. None of the known optical technologies were ever developed to a
mass production stage, with the exception of O]]AL Keyboard
Technology by Aymer International. O]]AL Technology allows almost
any shape and design of the keyboard, and can be used for laptop and
desktop keyboards, AT keypads etc.
The advantage of the optical keyboard technology is that it offers a real
waterproof keyboard, resilient to dust and liquids, it is electromagnetic
emissions free (thus cannot be eavesdropped to wirelessly) and it uses
about 20% PC] volume, compare with the membrane keyboard or dome
switch keyboards, significantly reducing the electronic waste. The
advantage of the optical keyboard technology over other keyboards such
as Hall effect keyboard, laser keyboard, roll-up keyboard and
transparent keyboard lies in cost (Hall effect keyboard) and feel ± the
optical keyboard technology do not require different key mechanism,
typing tactile feeling remains to offer its user the same known feeling of
the keyboard, for over 60 years.
The specialist Datahand keyboard uses optical technology to sense
keypresses, with a single light beam and sensor per key. The keys are
held in their rest position by magnets; when the magnetic force is
overcome to press a key, the optical path is unblocked and the keypress
is registered.
[edit]Debouncing

When striking a keyboard key, the key oscillates against its contacts
several times before settling. When released, it bounces again until it
reverts to its rest state. Although it happens on such a small scale as to
be invisible to the naked eye, it's sufficient for the computer to register
multiple key strokes inadvertently.
To resolve this problem, the processor in a keyboard (or computer)
"debounces" the keystrokes, by aggregating them across time to
produce one "confirmed" keystroke that (usually) corresponds to what is
typically a solid contact. Early membrane keyboards limited typing speed
because they had to do significant debouncing. This was a noticeable
problem on the ZX81.[
 
]
[edit]Keytops

Keytops are used on full-travel keyboards. While modern keycaps are

typically surface-printed, they can also be 2-shot molded, laser printed,
sublimation printed, engraved, or they can be made of transparent
material with printed paper inserts.
There are also Keycaps, which are thin shells that are placed over
keytop bases. These were especially used on I] PC keyboards.
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