REVIEW PAPER 1417

Advances in the turning process for productivity

improvement – a review
V S Sharma1*, M Dogra2, and N M Suri3
1
Department of Industrial Engineering, NIT Jalandhar, Punjab, India
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSG Panjab University Regional Centre, Punjab, India
3
Department of Production Engineering, Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh, India

The manuscript was received on 16 April 2008 and was accepted after revision for publication on 3 July 2008.

DOI: 10.1243/09544054JEM1199

Abstract: Increasing productivity and reducing manufacturing cost have always been keys to
successful business. In machining, higher values of cutting parameters offer opportunities for
increasing productivity, but this also involves greater risk of deterioration in surface quality and
tool life. During the past decade significant advances have been made in the development of
cutting tool materials for machining of ‘difficult-to-cut’ materials. The cost involved in the
production of new turning tools is very high. To overcome this cost factor researchers have tried
to bring about modifications in the turning process using existing tool materials. A good
understanding of the cutting conditions, temperature generation, failure modes, and cutting
forces leads to efficient control of the turning process. The literature reveals that modifications in
the tool geometry (such as grooved/restricted contact tools (RCTs) and chamfered/honed
edges), applications of cooling techniques, ultrasonic assisted turning (UAT), hot machining,
and cryogenic treatment of inserts have led to efficient and economic machining of modern
materials used for aerospace, steam turbine, bearing industry, nuclear, and automotive appli-
cations. This paper presents a review of the different techniques involved in turning which can
supplement the performance of cutting tools for improved economics, good surface finish, and
surface integrity during machining of the latest materials.

Keywords: ultrasonic assisted turning (UAT), cryogenic treatment, minimum quantity lubri-
cation (MQL), cryogenic, restricted contact tools (RCT), hot machining

1 INTRODUCTION over US $100 billion is spent annually on metal-part-

While technological advancements continue to take
place throughout the manufacturing industry, turn-
ing still remains the most important process used to
shape metals because in turning, the conditions of
operations are most varied [1]. Most metals and
alloys – hard or soft, cast or wrought, ductile or brit-
tle, with high or low melting point – are machined [2].
Most of the shapes used in engineering are produced
by machining and, in terms of size, components from
watch parts to aircraft wing spares (over 30 m long) or
ship propeller shafts are machined. All over the world
*Corresponding author: Department of Industrial Engineering,
National Institute of Technology, Near Surranussi, Jalandhar,
Punjab, 144011, India. email: vishal_sim@yahoo.com;
sharmavs@nitj.ac.in
finishing processes such as turning, milling, boring,
and other cutting operations. It is also known that 10
per cent of material produced by the machining
industry goes to waste. This wastage can be reduced
to a minimum by using better tooling and machining
conditions [3].
One of the primary aims in machining is to produce
the parts in the most economical way [4]. A wrong
decision causes high production cost and decreases
the machining quality. The materials that are fre-
quently used in the aerospace and nuclear industries
have high tensile strength and wear resistance. Wear-
resistant materials are difficult to machine. During
machining of ‘hard-to-cut’ materials, the cutting tool
often encounters extreme thermal and mechanical
stress close to the cutting edge [1]. At the present
time, mainly heat-resisting alloys with high melting

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1418
temperatures are used in the manufacture of aero
engines and steam turbines, in the bearing industry,
and for other automotive-related applications. To
design the optimum, high-performance metal-
cutting tool, all the principal factors such as tool wear
rate, tool fracture probability, and quality of the
machined products should be considered. Over the
years, many techniques have been developed for
improving tool life and surface finish for hard-to-cut
materials, e.g. cryogenic treatment of tools, cryogenic
cooling, ultrasonically assisted turning (UAT),
chamfered/honed/curvilinear edge tools, minimum
quantity lubrication (MQL), high-pressure coolant
(HPC), self-propelled rotary tooling (SPRT), restricted
contact tools (RCTs), solid lubricants, and hot
machining, as shown in Fig. 1. Advances in machin-
ing techniques have resulted in a significant increase
in material removal rate (MRR) and enhancement of
tool life and surface quality.
The production of exotic and smart materials has
become indispensable in satisfying the robust design
requirements for the aerospace and defence sectors.
The machining of these materials has posed a great
challenge to industry, requiring cutting tools of high
strength, which are very costly and sometimes
impracticable [2]. The non-conventional machining
process, another viable method, is mostly restricted
to small-scale removal of material. High temperature
and catastrophic friction in the cutting zone are
characteristic features of traditional machining (such
as turning); these conditions have motivated re-
searchers to look for new cutting tool materials to
withstand the high temperatures and friction. New
tool materials such as cubic boron nitride (CBN) and
polycrystalline diamond (PCD) are costly alternatives
for turning; however, higher MRR and better product
qualities have been obtained by using cutting tools
made from these new materials [5]. This cost factor of
Hot machining
Chamfer/Honed/
Curvilinear edge
assisted turning
tools
Cryogenic.
treatment of
turning tools
Turning
performance
parameter
improvement
Cryogenic
cooling
Minimum Self propelled
quantity rotary tooling
lubrication/MQL
High pressure
coolant (HPC)
Fig. 1 Techniques in turning for productivity improvements
Proc. IMechE Vol. 222 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
V S Sharma, M Dogra, and N M Suri
new tool materials has motivated researchers to look
for alternative arrangements in existing tool materi-
als. For bulk removal of material, instead of using
new tool materials, there has been a growing interest
in approaches that help to improve the machining
performance while using existing tool materials.
1.1 Tool wear
There are primarily three problems faced by all cut-
ting tools: wear at the cutting edge, heat generated
during the cutting process, and thermomechanical
shock [6]. The formation of chips by shearing action
at the shear plane is one aspect of metal cutting. The
power consumed in metal cutting is largely converted
into heat near the cutting edge of the tool. The work
done in deforming the bar to form the chip, moving
the chip, and moving the freshly cut work surface
over the tool is nearly all converted into heat. The
very large amount of plastic strain means that it is
unlikely that more than 1 per cent of the work done is
stored as elastic energy; the remaining 99 per cent
is expanded in heating the chip, the tool, and the
work material. During cutting, the tool acts as a heat
sink into which the heat flows from the flow zone,
and a stable temperature gradient is built up within
the tool [1]. The amount of heat lost from the flow
zone into the tool depends on the thermal con-
ductivity of the tool, the tool shape, and any cooling
method used to lower its temperature. The tem-
perature generated at the flank surface may be higher
than that on the rake surface of the same tool,
because the work material moves across this surface
at the cutting speed of the operation, while the chip
speed over the rake face may be one-half or one-third
of this speed. This gives a strong indication that
during continuous cutting, the flank portion requires
more cooling when compared with the rake face.
The real solid surfaces are never completely flat on
a molecular scale and therefore make contact only at
the top of the hills, while the valleys are separated by
a gap [7]. The force required to move one body over
Ultrasonic
the other becomes that required to shear the weaker
of the two materials across the whole area. Evidence
from quick stop sections and from chips shows that
Restricted contact
/ Grooved tools
the contact between tool and workpiece is so nearly
complete over a large part of the total area of the
interface that sliding at the interface is impossible
under most cutting conditions. Sliding only occurs
Solid coolants/
Lubricants when the interfacial bond is weak, particularly
when soft metals are cut. Conditions of seizure are
encouraged by the high cutting speed and the long
cutting time, where difference in hardness between
(SPRT)
tool and work material is relatively low and the bond
strength between them is high. Seizure between tool
and work material is the main cause of formation of
both the built-up edge and the flow zone [1]. During
JEM1199
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 Advances in the turning process for productivity improvement
cutting, when the shear plane angle is small, the
shearing force may be more than five times that at
the minimum, where the shear plane angle a ¼ 45
.
With the variation in a, the area of shear plane also
varies, which affects the cutting forces. At low values
of a, the chip is thick, the area of the shear plane
becomes larger, and therefore the cutting force Fc
becomes larger and affects the tool wear drastically.
The feed force Ff imposes a shearing stress on the tool
over the area of contact on the rake face.
Tool wear is an important criterion in determining
the economics of turning. Most tool wear can be
described by a few mechanisms, which include
abrasion, adhesion, chemical reaction, plastic defor-
mation, and fracture. Theses mechanisms produce
wear scars that are referred to as flank wear, crater
wear, notch wear, edge chipping, cracking, plastic
deformation, and breakage, as shown in Fig. 2.
Among the various types of wear indicated, flank
wear and crater wear are gradual in nature but the
remaining types are abrupt in nature [8]. For the
purpose of study, the main focus is on gradual wear
(flank and crater) of the tool, whereas abrupt changes
on the tool are easy to detect. Abrasive wear results
from sliding of hard abrasive inclusions in the work-
piece material across the face of a cutting tool. This
mechanism can dominate while machining metals
with carbide or oxide inclusions, metal matrix com-
posites, carbide, and ceramics. Adhesion results from
friction welding of the workpiece and the tool mate-
rial, which can cause a portion of the cutting tool to
be plucked out. Anisotropic properties of ceramic can
cause cracking along grain boundaries, which assist
grain pluck-out [9]. Some amount of abrasive and
adhesive wear is desired to allow gradual tool wear
and prevent premature fracture or chipping of the
cutting edge. Chemical reactions between the cutting
tool and the workpiece can also lead to accelerated
Fig. 2 Types of tool wear (FW: flank wear; N: notch; CH:
chipping; CR: cracking; PD: plastic deformation; BR:
breakage; CW: crater wear)
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tool wear or premature tool fracture [10]. A good
example is cutting steel with PCD tools, where diffu-
sion of carbon into the steel dramatically decreases
the tool life. Cutting fluid applied to the chip forma-
tion zone improves the machining conditions by
acting as a coolant and lubricant. Lubrication is more
important at low-speed cutting conditions, whereas
the cooling effect is more important at higher cutting
speeds owing to the large increase in heat generation
by the chip removal process. Modes by which cutting
fluids can be applied to the cutting zone are as fol-
lows: manual application, flood application, jet
application, mist application, and ‘through-the-tool’
application [1, 11]. Major advances in turning of
modern materials are now described.
2 ULTRASONICALLY ASSISTED TURNING
Ultrasonically assisted turning is a technique for
improving machining operations, where a high-
frequency vibration (f  20 kHz) with amplitude a 
10 mm is superimposed on the continuous movement
of the cutting tool. Compared with conventional turn-
ing this technique allows significant improvements in
machining intractable materials such as hard metal
alloys, brittle plastics, high-strength aerospace alloys,
composites, and ceramics. However, different
researchers have reported significant improvements in
noise reduction, tool wear reduction, and surface finish
improvement, by applying ultrasonic vibration during
machining operations, in particular during the turning
process. The high accuracy in UAT is the result of
reduction in elastic deformation of both the cutting
tools and workpieces, as well as reduction in cutting
heat and work material adherence to the cutting edge of
the tool [12]. Ultrasonic technology sets new standards
for machining time, contour accuracy, and surface
quality. There are three independent principal direc-
tions in which ultrasonic vibration can be applied dur-
ing the turning process, as shown in Fig. 3: feed
direction (or horizontal vibration), direction of cutting
velocity (or tangential direction), and radial direction
[13].
Possible advantages of applying ultrasonic vibra-
tion simultaneously both in the tangential and radial
directions have also been explored. However, when
the cutting tip is vibrated ultrasonically, the following
limitations are imposed: cutting velocity direction,
V ¼ pnd < Vt ¼ 2paf; where V is cutting speed, n is
rotational speed, d is diameter of workpiece, Vt is tip
velocity, a is amplitude, f is frequency; feed direction,
sn < Vt. The calculations show that for the con-
temporary commercially available bolted Langevin-
type transducers (a  20 mm, f  20 kHz) the vibration
tip velocity must not exceed 150 m/min [14]. More-
over, reduction of tip velocity also occurs during the
Proc. IMechE Vol. 222 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
1420 V S Sharma, M Dogra, and N M Suri
cutting process owing to the cutting tip interaction
with the workpiece, so the upper limit on surface
speed is further reduced. Thus efficient ultrasonic
cutting occurs when vibration is applied in the
direction of the cutting velocity. Vt > V can be
achieved only for low-diameter workpieces or low
rotational speeds [15]. However, application of
ultrasonic vibration along the feed direction enables
the cutting parameters used in the manufacturing
industry for most materials to be reached indepen-
dently of the workpiece diameter. The other impor-
tant issue with respect to ultrasonic machining is the
choice of transducer control system. In most cases
the generator drives the transducer directly. How-
ever, this simple implementation is not adequate for
most industrial applications for the following rea-
sons. Fitting different tool holders or cutting tips
requires readjustment of the oscillator frequency to
match the changes in mechanical properties of the
vibrating system. In addition, the cutting tip dynamic
load is changed through the cutting process, which
affects the dynamics of the cutting process (e.g. it
leads to a decrease in the vibration level) [16].
Fig. 3 Principal directions of ultrasonic vibration on cut-
ting tool
Fig. 4 Surface profiles of ultrasonically machined (left) and conventionally machined (right) workpieces
at (ap ¼ 0:8 mm, s ¼ 0.05 mm/rev): (a) C263 (v ¼ 14 m/min); (b) Inconel-718 (v ¼ 17 m/min)
Proc. IMechE Vol. 222 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
A substantial decrease in cutting forces, as well as
an improvement in surface finish up to 50 per cent
compared with conventional turning, was achieved
during superimposed ultrasonic vibration turning
(UVT) of two modern high-grade nickel-based alloys,
C263 and Inconel-718, at constant depth of cut and
feed. During UAT, by applying the vibration in
the feed direction (parallel placement of the transdu-
cer to the workpiece in the horizontal plane), surface
roughness measurements were used to identify the
characteristics of the ultrasonic turning process
compared with conventional turning. Figure 4 shows
the spectrum analysis of surface profiles of the
machined surfaces of C263 and Inconel-718 mea-
sured in the axial direction at cutting velocities of 14
and 17 m/min. By this method, macro and micro
morphological differences between ultrasonically
machined surfaces and surfaces produced under
conventional cutting can be compared. It is clear from
Fig. 4 that the magnitudes of roughness profiles are
reduced by nearly 50 per cent in the cases of Inconel-
718 and C263 with the application of ultrasonic
vibration, and the surface becomes smoother along
the axial direction. The reason for this is that the
conventional cutting process has been transformed
into a high-frequency vibro-impact process, which
in turn increases the dynamic stiffness of the
lathe–tool–workpiece system as a whole and improves
the accuracy of turning. Also, abolishing the built-up
edge (BUE) through the application of ultrasonic
vibration at low cutting speeds helps to reduce the
surface roughness [16].
There are various shortcomings with respect to the
transducer control system, as explained by Skelton
[15]. To overcome those shortcomings an auto-
resonant system for the control of vibration in the
feed direction was implemented in this work. The
autoresonant system maintains the resonant mode of
vibration during the dynamic changes of the load.
The autoresonant system proved the possibility of
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 Advances in the turning process for productivity improvement 1421

keeping the controlled signal under the resonant chip, and cooling owing to the convective heat
conditions during the cutting process [15]. transfer to the environment.
For turning of high-strength aerospace alloys, UAT According to the results, the width of the hardened
has shown great benefits by producing a noticeable surface layer is half the size for the UAT (40 mm)
decrease in cutting forces and a superior surface specimen when compared with conventional turning
finish. A reduction in the cutting force can result (80 mm). Furthermore, the hardness of this layer for
in the extension of the tool life, improved surface UAT (about 15 GPa) is half that for conventional
finish, increased MRR, and improved roundness of turning and considerably closer to the hardness of
machined workpieces. During the turning of aged the untreated material, as shown in Fig. 6. Compar-
Inconel-718 with tungsten carbide inserts using ison of simulated residual strains in the machined
Electrolube HDC400 as the cutting fluid, cutting for- layer shows 20 per cent lower values for UAT. This
ces were measured and dependence of the cutting agrees well with the results of the nano indentation
force on the feed rate in turning was studied. The tests, demonstrating twice the smaller hardened
measured cutting force in UAT (FUAT) is invariably surface layer with half the hardness for UAT when
much lower than the cutting force in conventional compared with conventional turning [18]. Tangential
turning (FCT). The ratio FUAT/FCT is considerably vibration cutting direction (also called the perpendi-
lower at the low feed rate (0.25–0.33) and stabilizes cular direction) has shown good results in ultrasonic
at about 0.6 at higher feed rates. With an increase vibration cutting (UVC) of low-alloy steel (DF2) with
in the feed rate from 0.03 to 0.1 r/min, the FCT
a CBN tool. The maximum vibrating speed of the tool
doubles, whereas the FUAT grows about five-fold,
tip can be calculated as V ¼ 2paf ¼ 107.4 m/min. The
but numerically still remains much lower than the
UVC process improved the surface finish and resul-
FCT. The average reduction in the cutting force with
ted in reduction of tool flank wear, which reduces by
application of the lubricant on to the surface of the
approximately one-fifth under all cutting conditions
workpiece for UAT was about 30 per cent, which was
as shown in Fig. 7. Breakage of the cutting edge
about double the reduction observed for conven-
caused by the BUE is one reason why flank wear is
tional turning. Thus lubrication during cutting in
UAT helps to improve the cutting performance. By enhanced subsequently, but the BUE does not occur
increasing the cutting speed, the cutting forces tend
to increase. The growing force in UAT with speed is
caused by the increased time of contact between the
cutting tool and chip, with the cutting speed growing
closer to its critical value (Vt ¼ 2paf ) [17]. A three-
dimensional finite element (FE) model was also
developed which predicts an increase in the vibration
frequency from 10 to 30 kHz, and results in a 47 per
cent drop in the level of average cutting forces, which
could be attributed to an increased velocity of the
tool vibration. Finite element analysis (FEA) calcula-
tions also show that vibration in the tangential
direction causes a lower cutting force than that
obtained with vibration in the feed direction [18]. Fig. 5 Tool tip temperature in UAT and conventional
The evaluation of cutting tool temperatures was turning
carried out for conventional turning and UAT in
terms of FEA. A steady increase in the cutting tip
temperature is observed in simulations from the
moment of the initial contact between the tool and
workpiece. Figure 5 shows that the maximum tem-
perature attained at the cutting tip during conven-
tional turning is about 12 per cent greater than the
value obtained in UAT. Significantly lower tool tem-
peratures during UAT can be explained by the fact
that the cutting tool separates from the chip within
each cycle of ultrasonic vibration, staying in contact
only for 40 per cent of the period for the chosen
vibration and cutting parameters. Such an inter-
mittent contact leads to a reduction in the total time Fig. 6 Nano indentation analysis of UAT and conventional
of thermal conduction between the cutting tool and turning

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IMechE 2008 Proc. IMechE Vol. 222 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
1422 V S Sharma, M Dogra, and N M Suri

Fig. 7 Tool flank wear at 50, 70, and 90 m/min in UVC and conventional turning, at 1 mm/rev feed (a, b, c
are cutting speeds 50, 70, 90 m/min respectively, and subscript u indicates UVC, while subscript c
indicates conventional turning)

in UVC so tool life is greater in UVC compared with 140

conventional turning.
T angenti al forc e (N)
120
As UVC is a discontinuous process, from Fig. 8 it 100
is clear that the UVC process requires approximately 80
60
50 per cent of the cutting forces at all cutting speeds 40
for the same feed rate of 0.1 mm/rev or 0.2 mm/rev 20
when compared with conventional turning. Another 0
observation was that the main cutting force (i.e. tan- 30 50 70 90 110

gential force) was the highest in all cases followed by Cutting speed (m/min)

axial (feed) force. Compared with the conventional UVC .1mm/rev CT .1mm/rev

method, the UVC method resulted in lower roughness UVC .2mm/rev CT .2mm/rev

values as shown in Fig. 9, because the BUE rarely

occurs when using the UVC method, as reported by Fig. 8 Comparison of main cutting force at different speed
and feed rates
various researchers. In the analysis it was observed
that the surface roughness value was at a maximum at
0.2 mm/rev. Thus in UVC, increasing the feed dete-
Sur fac e r oughnes s ( mic r ons )

6
riorates the machining performance [13].
5
Some of the drawbacks of UAT were removed by
4
the development of a high-rigidity UAT tool and
3
by providing an inclination to the vibrating direction 2
towards the Z-axis during cutting, as shown in 1
Fig. 10. In the turning of stainless steel using carbide 0
tools, it was reported that during UAT of difficult- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
to-cut materials, owing to chipping, unusual wear Cutting Speed(m/min)
occurs at the tool edge caused by colliding or rubbing
between the flank of the tool and the newly formed UVC CT
surface of the work; when the vibrating tool leaves the
cutting point of the work, reverse directional cutting Fig. 9 Analysis of surface roughness at a feed rate of
force arises and therefore tensile stress acts on the 2 mm/rev
cutting edge. The authors [19], developed a new
ultrasonic vibrating cutting tool as shown in Fig. 11, mode is mounted on two nodal points using tool-
which has vibrating direction stability and high fixing blocks and clamping screws. The longitudinal
rigidity so as not to change the vibrating direction of vibration mode, in which the vibration direction is
the cutting force. A conventional ultrasonic cutting stable, is applied and the tool is strongly attached to
tool system with the longitudinal vibration mode for the tool post at four nodal points on the tool shanks.
comparison is mounted at one nodal flange and the It was also reported that a stable finish cutting could
cutting insert is held on the tip of the tool shank by be carried out without tool chipping by using an
means of a clamping screw. In addition, the con- inclined vibrating direction, at a level of about 30

ventional UVC tool system with bending vibration towards the Z-axis direction [19].

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IMechE 2008
 Advances in the turning process for productivity improvement
Fig. 10 Illustrations of inclined directions of vibrations for
ultrasonically vibrated cutting tool (F is angle of
inclination to feed direction (Z-axis), C is angle of
inclination of depth of cut (Y-axis))
Fig. 11 Illustration of newly fabricated ultrasonic vibration
cutting tool system with high rigidity (1: bolted
Langevin-type transducer, 2: ultrasonic vibration
generator, 3: tool shank, 4: cutting insert, 5: tool
holder, 6: tool fixing blocks, 7: clamping bolts,
8: tool post)
2.1 Benefits of UAT
The major benefits of UAT are listed below.
1. The UVC method results in low tool flank wear
owing to lower abrasive wear effects when com-
pared with the conventional turning process with
CBN tools, while turning at low feed and vibrat-
ing speeds below the critical value.
2. It is found that tool wear acceleration in UVC is
very low compared with that in conventional
turning. In addition, in UVC the wear rate in-
creases very slowly when compared with the
conventional turning method. This is mainly as a
result of the intermittent cutting mechanism of
the UVC method.
3. Ultrasonic vibration cutting always requires lower
cutting forces compared with conventional turn-
ing; applying lubricants during machining can
further decrease these forces.
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1423
4. The surface finish with UAT improves dramati-
cally, as the BUE rarely occurs. Good surface
finish can be achieved with vibration cutting at
lower feed rates; even nano-finished surface
qualities (Ra < 1 mm) can be generated with UAT.
5. An increase in either vibration frequency or
amplitude leads to a decrease in cutting forces in
the UAT process, which is beneficial for increas-
ing the accuracy of the cutting.
6. By increasing the cutting speed, the forces
increase owing to the increased time of contact
between the cutting tool and chip; also the cut-
ting speed approaches its critical value. Thus
vibrating tip velocity should not exceed the cri-
tical value.
2.2 Limitations of UAT
There are a few drawbacks of the UAT methodology.
The initial cost of set-up is high. In addition, fitting
different tool holders or cutting tips requires readjust-
ment of the oscillator frequency to match the changes
in mechanical properties of the vibrating system. This
can affect machine utilization time. A highly rigid
machine tool/tool post is required for UAT. At high
rotational speeds, ultrasonic cutting is not effective
owing to the restriction on maximum tip velocity
(150 m/min) with Langevin-type transducers.
3 CRYOGENIC TREATMENT OF TOOL
MATERIAL
Cryogenic treatment refers to subjecting materials to
very low temperatures. This process is not limited in
application to metals, but can also be used for a wide
range of materials, with differing results. It is believed
that the life of cutting tools extends substantially with
cryogenic treatment. It is a one-time permanent
treatment affecting the entire section of a component,
unlike coatings [20]. The literature reveals that the
basic reason behind enhanced performance of cryo-
genically treated carbide tools may be the fact that
cryogenic treatment not only facilitates the carbide
formation (carbide refinement) but also makes the
carbide distribution more homogeneous. High wear
resistance of cryogenically treated tool steel is attri-
butable to reduction of the retained austenite, which
is achieved by transformation of the retained auste-
nite into martensite during cryogenic treatment [21].
Researchers have tested several cryogenic pro-
cesses. These include a combination of deep freezing
and tempering cycles. Generally, these can be
described as a controlled lowering of temperature
from room temperature to the boiling point of liquid
nitrogen (196
C), maintenance of this temperature
for about 24 h, followed by a controlled raising of the
Proc. IMechE Vol. 222 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
1424
temperature back to room temperature. Subse-
quently tempering processes may follow [22].
The general procedure of cryogenic treatment for
turning tools follows.
1. Inserts are placed in a chamber.
2. Temperature is gradually lowered over a period
of 6 h from room temperature to about 184
C.
3. Temperature is held steady for about 18 h.
4. Temperature is gradually raised over a period of
6 h to room temperature.
5. Inserts are tempered at the end.
A proprietary cryogenic treatment cycle with tem-
perature reduced to very low levels as mentioned in
the literature is shown in Fig. 12. As coatings are
currently sought after to improve tribological prop-
erties and wear resistance, it is considered reasonable
to compare the effect of cryogenic treatment with the
effects of coatings. Most of the research on cryogenic
treatment in the area of machining tools and cutting
tool materials has concentrated mainly on tool
steels, especially high-speed steel. The mechanisms
responsible for the improvement in properties of tool
steel have also been well documented. However, little
research has been done on other cutting tool mate-
rials. So far, few researchers have proposed other
mechanisms that explain the effect of cryogenic
treatment on tungsten carbide [22]. Bryson [23]
attributes the wear resistance, and hence the increase
in tool life, of carbide tools to the improvement in the
holding strength of the binder after cryogenic treat-
ment. He believes that cryogenic treatment also acts
to relieve the stresses introduced during the sintering
process under which carbide tools are produced.
However, Bryson also warned that under certain
conditions, cryogenic treatment would have little or
no effect on carbide tools, such as when reprocessed
carbides are used. In the heat treatment of tool
steel the problem of retained austenite occurs; it is
unstable and likely to transform into martensite
under certain conductive conditions. Freshly formed
martensite is also brittle, and only tempered mar-
tensite is acceptable. To further aggravate this pro-
blem the transformation of austenite to martensite
350
Temperature (K)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0 After tempering, some of the samples were cryo-
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Time (Hrs)
Fig. 12 General cryogenic treatment cycle for tool inserts
Proc. IMechE Vol. 222 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
V S Sharma, M Dogra, and N M Suri
yields a 4 per cent volume expansion, causing dis-
tortion; thus retained austenite should be alleviated
to the maximum extent possible before any tool is
put into service [24].
Cryogenically treated tungsten carbide tools have
much greater resistance to chipping compared with
untreated ones. Also, the cryo-treated tools per-
formed better than the untreated versions at higher
cutting speeds. Finally, it was concluded that increase
in wear resistance was attributable to an increase in
the number of Z-phase particles after cryogenic
treatment, and this was confirmed on the basis of
photographs taken by scanning electron microscope
(SEM) [25].
Flank wear was measured during orthogonal turn-
ing of medium-carbon steel (ASSAB 760) using tung-
sten carbide square inserts with chip breakers
(Sumitomo SNGG 230408RUM) at various cutting
speeds. In addition, turning tests were performed for
continuous and repeated cuts. When metal cutting
was continuous, without any breaks, the depth of cut
and feed were kept constant, while cutting speed
was varied between 150 m/min and 300 m/min.
Figures 13(a) and (b) show the comparison between
the untreated and cryogenically treated tools for flank
wear analysis. The cryogenically treated inserts
experience less flank wear than the untreated inserts
during the earlier part of the cutting operation, unless
the cutting speed is very high (300 m/min). As the
duration of cut increases, the treated insert gradually
loses its wear resistance and at some point has almost
the same wear resistance as the untreated insert [22].
This phenomenon of continuous cutting shows
that prolonged heating of the cutting tool interface
has a detrimental effect on the wear resistance of the
cryogenically treated tool. So it is possible to con-
clude that cryogenically treated tools perform better
if used for short periods of time or with repeated cuts,
with breaks in between, both in terms of decreased
tool wear and increased resistance to chipping. In
light of the fact that cryogenically treated tools per-
form best when the tool temperature is kept low,
their effectiveness can be extended if coolants or
suitable methods of cooling are used to keep the tool
temperature low.
Different heat/cryogenic treatments on samples of
M2, T1, and D3 steel tool were performed for turning
of mild steel material under dry conditions. The tool
samples were heat treated as prescribed in American
Society for Metals (ASM) standards; after conven-
tional quenching some samples were tempered and
some were directly subjected to cryogenic treatment.
24 27 30 33 genically treated; of these some were left without
further treatment and some were coated with TiN
using the physical vapour deposition technique.
Some samples were coated with TiN and then
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 Advances in the turning process for productivity improvement 1425

Fig. 13 (a) Flank wear at cutting speed 150 m/min; (b) flank wear at cutting speed 300 m/min

0.6

0.5
Flank wear in mm

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

CT SHT Machning timeCT(133/24)

in Sec TCT(133/24)
CT(163/24) CT(93/6) TCT(93/24) CT(93/6) +LN2

Fig. 14 Tool life up to 0.4 mm flank wear of different cryogenic/heat treated D3 samples (SHT: standard
heat treated; CT: cryogenic treated; CT(163/24): cryo-treated at 163 K for 24 h; CT(133/24):
cryotreated at 133 K for 24 h; CT(93/6): cryo-treated at 93 K for 6 h; CT(93/6 þ LN2): cryo-treated
at 93 K for 6 h and quenched in LN2 for 2 h; TCT (133/24): tempered and cryo-treated at 133 K for
24 h; TCT(93/24): tempered and cryo-treated at 93 K for 24 h)

cryogenically treated. The objective was to study the
effect of cryogenic treatment on tool steel when there
was no retained austenite. The absence of retained
austenite above the 0.1 per cent level after conven-
tional heat treatment was ascertained through X-ray
diffraction pattern studies [26].
It can be seen from Figs 14 and 15 that TCT
(93/24)-M2 and -D3 steel has imparted a 69 per cent
and 33.9 per cent improvement respectively, while
CT (93/24)-M2/D3 steel has imparted a 86.6 per cent
and 48 per cent improvement; hence tempering
before cryogenic treatment is not desirable. This can
be attributed to the stabilization of carbides and
microstructural phases during the tempering pro-
cess, which inhibits further transformation during
the cryogenic treatment. The tempered M2 samples
subjected to CT (133/24) have only 13.3 per cent
improvement whereas those tempered and subjected
to CT (93/24) have 69 per cent improvement, which
may improve further if cooled below 93 K. Thus it is
inferred that it is desirable to avoid tempering before
cryogenic treatment; also low-temperature temper-
ing at 423 K after cryogenic treatment is carried out to
relieve any brittleness remaining.
It is clear from Fig. 16 that CT (93/24) T1 samples
yield 110.2 per cent improvement when compared
with standard heat treated tools. In T1, M2, and D3
tools CT þ TiN yields a life improvement of 205.3, 153,
and 146 per cent respectively, while TiN coating fol-
lowed by CT yielded improvement of only 104 and 109
per cent on M2 and D3 steels. Also TiN coating alone
imparts 48.4, 42, and 41 per cent improvement, while
cryogenic alone imparts 110.2, 86.6, and 48 per cent
improvement in T1, M2, and D3 steels. So from these
results it is inferred that cryogenic treatment on TiN
coating is not favourable, as it has resulted in shorter

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1426 V S Sharma, M Dogra, and N M Suri

0.6

0.5

Flank wear in mm
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Machining time in sec
CT TCT93/24 CT(93/6+LN2) CT(133/24)
CT(163/24) SHT TCT(133/24)

Fig. 15 Tool life up to 0.4 mm flank wear of different cryogenic/heat treated M2 samples (SHT: standard
heat treated; CT: cryogenic treated; CT(163/24): cryo-treated at 163 K for 24 h; CT(133/24):
cryotreated at 133 K for 24 h; CT(93/6 þ LN2): cryo-treated at 93 K for 6 h and quenched in LN2 for
2 h; TCT(133/24): tempered and cryo-treated at 133 K for 24 h; TCT(93/24): tempered and cryo-
treated at 93 K for 24 h)

0.6 extended if coolants or suitable methods of cool-

0.5
ing are used to keep the tool temperature low.
2. The samples cryogenically treated showed a
Flank Wear in mm

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1000 2000 3000
Machining Time in Seconds
SHT TiN
Fig. 16 Tool life comparison of cryogenically treated tools
compared with TiN coated tools (CT(93/24): cryo-
genic treated at 93 K for 24 h; CT þ TiN: cryogenic
treated then coated; TiN þ CT: titanium nitride
coated then cryogenic treated)
tool life. The uneven contraction of the coated mate-
rial and the substrate during cryogenic treatment
results in incipient cracks appearing at the interface.
The cryogenic treatment imparts better wear resis-
tance throughout the section and therefore it is
superior to any coatings. Tempered samples if treated
at lower temperatures may yield better results [26].
3.1 Benefits of cryogenic treatment of tool
material
The cryogenic treatment of tool material provides the
following benefits.
1. Cryogenically treated tools perform better in
terms of tool wear resistance when the tool tem-
perature is kept low. Their effectiveness can be
fraction very close to 0 per cent of retained aus-
tenite. This means that practically 25 per cent in
volume of the retained austenite observed in the
untreated sample was transformed into marten-
site by the cryogenic treatment.
4000 5000 6000 7000 3. Cryogenic treatment not only facilitates carbide
formation (carbide refinement) but also can make
the carbide distribution more homogeneous, thus
CT(93/24) CT+TiN increasing the wear resistance of carbide tools.
4. Cryogenic treatment has shown good results with
die steel, high-speed steel, and carbide tools in
terms of improved wear resistance of the tool
materials. Coating on cryogenically treated base
material is favourable for improved performance.
It is further suggested that tempering before cryo-
genic treatment is not desirable as the stabilization of
carbides and microstructural phases during the
tempering process inhibits further transformation
during cryogenic treatment.
3.2 Limitations of cryogenic treatment
of tool material
There are a few drawbacks of the cryogenic treatment
methodology; for example, in continuous cutting the
performance of the cryogenically treated tool dete-
riorates and comes down to the performance level of
the untreated version. At higher depth of cut or in
rough turning operations, the performance of the
cryo-treated tool can be maintained by supporting
the turning process with certain cooling methods,

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 Advances in the turning process for productivity improvement 1427

which involves extra cost. Treatment is not effective
on coated tools, as this results in shorter tool life.
The uneven contraction of the coated material and
the substrate during cryogenic treatment can cause
incipient cracks to appear at the interface.
4 HOT MACHINING
Tigham first innovated the process of hot machining
in 1889, with the idea of softening the workpiece
material whereby part or all of the workpiece is
heated. Heating is performed before or during the
machining. Researchers utilize various methods for
heating the workpiece, such as flame heating, plasma
heating, electrical resistance heating [27] and laser-
assisted heating. The hot machining process prevents
cold work-hardening by heating the workpiece above
the recrystallization temperature, thereby reducing
the resistance to cutting and favouring machining.
The general set-up for flame heating of a workpiece is
given in Fig. 17 [28].
In the machining of high-manganese steel (56 HRC
in the Rockwell scale) with a carbide tool by con-
tinuously heating the workpiece using flame heating,
tool flank wear was measured. The torch burned a
mixture of liquid petroleum gas and oxygen. The
variation of mean chip reduction coefficient with
respect to temperature of the workpiece is shown in
Fig. 18. It is observed that the chip reduction coeffi-
cient reduces with increase in temperature. Hence
the machinability of the material improves with
increase in temperature. The chip produced at high
temperature is of the continuous type, whereas it is of
discontinuous type at room temperature. From
Fig. 19 it quite evident that a flank wear value of
0.4 mm in low-temperature heating is reached in
9 min of cutting time, while this value in the case of
high-temperature heating is reached at around
20 min of cutting time, with the same feed and depth
of cut. Thus the effect of the temperature of the
workpiece is clearly found to be the most significant
on tool life [28].
Plasma enhanced machining (PEM) has improved
the machining performance of Inconel when turning
with silicon carbide whisker-reinforced aluminium-
oxide inserts. During experimentation with a fixed
value of plasma gas flowrate, shield gas flowrate, and
cathode set-back, the flank wear was measured; the
experiments also considered the effects of (a) plasma
current I, (b) initial bulk temperature of the work-
piece T0, (c) workpiece diameter D, (d) cutting speed
V, and (e) feed rate F based on the empirical equation
I 0:584 T00:06
Ts ¼ 80:3275 ð1Þ
V 2:206 D0:405 F 0:2026
where Ts is the surface temperature (K).
The influence of the nozzle height above the
workpiece was also considered. There was no pro-
tection applicable to avoid the heat on the tool cut-
ting edge. Furthermore, the tool notching wear was
another problem associated with PEM. Thus, in
Fig. 18 Analysis of chip reduction coefficient with
temperature

0.8
0.7
Flank wear in mm

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Fig. 17 Flame heating system: ((a) lathe head stock; (b) 0 10 20 30 40
chuck; (c) workpiece; (d) torch; (e) oxygen flow Time in minutes
valve; (f) oxygen cylinder; (g) liquid petroleum gas Vc43m/min,S=.7mm/rev,200C
(LPG) flow valve; (h) LPG cylinder; (i) oxygen pipe; Vc21m/min,S.5mm/rev,600C
Vc43m/min,S=.5mm/rev,200C
(j) LPG pipe; (k) temperature indicator; (l) tail Vc43m/min,S=.05mm/rev,600C
stock; (m) thermocouple; (n) wire; (o) distance
adjustment handle; (p) cutting tool) Fig. 19 Analysis of flank wear with time at d ¼ 1.5 mm

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1428 V S Sharma, M Dogra, and N M Suri
addition to plasma heating of the workpiece, a liquid
nitrogen cooling system was added to cool the tool,
i.e. hybrid machining [29].
From Fig. 20 it is clear that, compared with con-
ventional machining, hybrid machining increases
tool life by 156 per cent. Compared with PEM, the tool
life in hybrid machining was prolonged by about 170
per cent. The experimental data suggest that PEM
alone did not extend tool life. It is reasonable to con-
clude that during plasma heating the heat flow
inevitably increases the temperature in the cutting
zone and leads to increase in tool temperature as well.
These experiments indicate that the tool wear was
consistently reduced in the hybrid machining. The
surface roughness value was less in PEM compared
with conventional machining, owing to a decrease in
workpiece hardness by heating. The tool life has
increased greatly in hot machining of manganese
steel specimens compared with that of room tem-
perature machining. The longest tool life has been
obtained at 600
C machining. The tool life obtained
at 600
C machining is approximately the same as the
tool life obtained at 400
C machining. Consequently,
400
C machining is the optimum heating tempera-
ture if the microstructure of the workpiece and the
cost of heating are considered. In hot machining,
therefore, the effect of heating on microstructure of
the workpiece and the economics of heating must be
taken into consideration also [30].
During turning of Inconel-718 with ceramic inserts
under laser-assisted machining (LAM), better cutting
performance has been achieved by using the materi-
al’s high absorptivity of CO2 laser energy. This high
absorptivity of CO2 is achieved by choosing a suitable
coating type, the right coating condition, and opti-
mum processing parameters. Also, with changing
workpiece diameters, the laser power and r/min have
been varied as appropriate to obtain the required
thermal fields. The specific cutting energy is reduced
to 25 per cent by increasing the temperature from 0
C
(conventional machining) to 620
C. The surface
roughness decreases as the material removal tem-
perature is increased, from 1.7 mm in conventional
machining to 0.9 mm during LAM at 540
C. Increasing
Fig. 20 Comparison of flank wear with cutting length
Proc. IMechE Vol. 222 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
the velocity from 1 to 3 m/s is beneficial during LAM,
in that notch wear is decreased by one-half; also, with
increase in temperature the amount of notch wear
decreases from 0.58 mm in conventional machining
to 0.36 mm using LAM at 540
C. It is known that
turning processes usually yield tensile residual stres-
ses; the compressive residual stresses in the axial
direction indicate that LAM does not yield any adverse
effect on the resultant subsurface. The average flank
wear during LAM is significantly lower than conven-
tional machining. There are large economic benefits of
LAM, as the cost of machining a 1 m length of Inconel-
718 with carbide tools under LAM decreases by 66 per
cent compared with conventional machining, and by
almost 50 per cent with ceramic tools compared with
conventional machining at 3.0 m/s [31].
4.1 Benefits of hot machining
1. Effectiveness of the LAM process can be achieved
by having a high absorptivity of CO2 laser energy
in the metals, which has been accomplished by
choosing a suitable coating type (for example
aerodag, aquadag, and graphite adhesive, as well
as oxide and black paint coating were reported
giving absorptivity of 1 in the case of Inconel
718), the right coating condition, and optimum
processing parameters. With the use of LAM,
specific cutting energy, surface roughness, and
tool notch wear all are reduced. Also, there is no
adverse effect on the resultant subsurface.
2. In hot machining, the limiting highest tempera-
ture will be the recrystallization temperature of
the workpiece, as higher heating temperature
may induce unwanted structural changes in the
workpiece material and even increase the cost of
heating.
3. The effect of temperature of the workpiece is
found to be the most significant with respect to
tool life. The chip-reduction coefficient decrea-
ses with increase in temperature, thus enhancing
machinability. However, the recrystallization
temperature of the workpiece limits the max-
imum value of temperature in hot machining.
4. If, with hot machining, tool cooling is applied it
will improve the overall machining performance
as in the case of hybrid PEM.
4.2 Limitations of hot machining
There are a few drawbacks of the hot machining
methodology; for example, during heating of the
workpiece, it is very difficult to orient the direction of
the heating process exactly on the work material,
because sometimes tool heating also takes place,
which leads to deteriorated performance of the tool.
This external heating action also affects micro-
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 Advances in the turning process for productivity improvement
structure of the newly generated workpiece surface
if the intensity of heat applied is not properly
controlled.
5 CRYOGENIC COOLING
The heat generation becomes more intense in
machining of hard materials because the machining
process requires more energy than for cutting a low-
strength material [1,11]. In addition, the thermal
conductivity of advanced materials such as silicon
nitride (about 13 W/m
C), titanium alloy (about
15 W/m
C), and Inconel (about 11 W/m
C) is much
lower than that of commonly used alloy steels. As a
result, the cutting temperature in the tool and the
workpiece rises significantly during machining of
these advanced materials. The most practical and
effective way to enhance machining performance in
cutting of difficult-to-cut materials is therefore to
reduce the temperature generated during cutting
[32]. Cryogenic cooling is the efficient way of main-
taining the temperature well below the softening
temperature of the cutting tool material. Cryogenic
cooling is an environmentally safe alternative to
conventional emulsion cooling. In the past, common
cryogenic cooling approaches included pre-cooling
the workpiece, indirect cooling, general flooding, and
enclosed bath. The liquid nitrogen absorbs the heat,
evaporates quickly, and forms a fluid gas cushion
between the chip and the tool face that functions as a
lubricant [33]. Reduction in tool temperature during
cryogenic cooling is by lubrication and cooling the
hottest spot, which in turn reduces the crater and
flank wear. Cryogenic cooling, if properly employed,
can provide (besides environmental friendliness) sig-
nificant improvement in both productivity and pro-
duct quality, and hence overall machining economy
even after covering the additional cost of the cryo-
genic cooling system and cryogen [34]. The beneficial
effect of cryogenic cooling by liquid nitrogen may be
attributed to effective cooling, retention of tool hard-
ness, and favourable interactions of the cryogenic
fluid with the chip–tool and work–tool interfaces [35].
A specially designed tool holder as shown in Fig. 21
was used, in which liquid nitrogen is converted into
the gaseous state before coming in contact with the
tool. Nitrogen is made to flow just beneath the insert
through a small hole. During turning of stainless steel
with coated carbide tools, tool life with a cutting
speed of 100–300 m/min was plotted, as shown in
Fig. 22. The results show that with conventional
coolant the tool life was 13.45 min at 100 m/min
cutting speed and 0.5 mm depth of cut, whereas
under the same cutting conditions in cryogenic
cooling the tool life was 57.45 min [32]. Maximum
flank wear reduces by 3.4 times in cryogenic cooling
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Fig. 21 Tool for cryo-cooling. 1: screw head, 2: insert, 3:
liquid nitrogen passage, 4: inlet of liquid nitrogen,
5: tool holder, 6: hole for nitrogen exit, 7: expand-
ing chamber, 8: length of screw
Tool life in minute s
80
Cryogenic,
60
d=.5mm
40 Conventional,
20 d=.5mm
Cryogenic,
0
d=1mm
0 100 200 300
Conventional,
Cutting speed in m/min.
d=1mm
Fig. 22 Tool life at different cutting speeds (f ¼
0.1 mm/rev)
when compared with dry turning and two times when
compared with wet turning (soluble oil) during the
machining of Ti-6Al-4V alloy using uncoated micro-
crystalline K20 tungsten carbide inserts at 70 m/min
cutting speed, 0.2 mm/rev feed rate, and 2 mm depth
of cut. Such reduction in wear is seemingly due to
reduction of temperature-sensitive wear phenomena
such as diffusion and adhesion, enabled by direct and
indirect cooling with the liquid nitrogen jet. It was
observed that such benefits decreased under high
velocities of 100 and 117 m/min, possibly because of
improper penetration of the liquid nitrogen into the
chip–tool interface. Flaking of the rake surface just at
the end of the crater wear region was observed,
especially under the cryogenic machining condition.
This is attributed to higher thermal gradient at the
end of the crater contact [36].
During the machining of reaction-bonded silicon
nitride (RBSN) with polycrystalline boron nitride
(PCBN) tools under dry cutting and cryogenic cooling
conditions, the maximum temperature experienced
with cryogenic cooling is only 829
C as opposed to
1153
C in dry cutting. A special cup-type arrange-
ment of tool holder is used and there is little vapor-
ization and no frozen ice blocking in the coolant
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1430 V S Sharma, M Dogra, and N M Suri
circulation system, which frequently occurs with the
external spray method. Also, in this method liquid
nitrogen does not come directly into contact with the
workpiece, so there is no extra size change or poor
accuracy caused by serious temperature changes on
the machined surface. There is an increase of rough-
ness value by 16 mm with dry cutting when compared
with cryogenic cooling; this variation of surface
roughness is attributable to an increase in tool wear
under dry conditions [37]. The cutting force with
cryogenic cooling is less than that with dry cutting.
This is because application of cryogenic fluid reduces
the coefficient of friction at the interface of the
tool–chip over the rake face [38].
It is observed that during machining of steel rods
(AISI 1040 and E4340C steel) with carbide inserts
having grooves along the cutting edges and hills on
the tool rake face, as shown in Fig. 23, cryogenic
cooling reduces the average cutting temperature,
because the aforementioned geometry has helped
the cryogenic jet to come closer to the chip–tool
interface, thus effectively cooling the interface [39].
Two different designs for cryogenic cooling with a
modified tool holder were proposed. In design I, the
gas is directed towards the tool cutting edge, to cool
the newly generated chips. This will enhance the chip
brittleness for easy chip breaking. The cryogenic fluid
exit is formed closer to the tip of the cutting tool. In
design II, the fluid exit is formed away from the tip of
the cutting tool; as a result discharging gas is directed
away from the workpiece. This design is useful for
Fig. 23 Carbide insert with grooves along the cutting edge
Fig. 24 Tool wear for different designs
Proc. IMechE Vol. 222 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
those materials in which excessive cooling has a
negative effect on their ductility.
Analysing Fig. 24, it can be clearly seen that design
II exhibited better wear resistance compared with
design I. This is owing to the fact that, in the case of
cryogenic tool design II, the workpiece is cooled by
the nitrogen outflow, which discharges the evapo-
rated gas away from the cutting edge and the chip.
This will maintain the workpiece ductility, while
keeping the tool insert itself at a very low tempera-
ture, thus achieving better wear resistance. This
design is recommended for cutting materials that
have strong temperature–ductility relations [34].
Cryogenic cooling reduced main flank and auxiliary
flank wear as expected because the liquid nitrogen jet
impinged particularly along the auxiliary cutting
edge. During the turning of AISI-4037 steel under
cryogenic conditions, the liquid nitrogen jet has been
used mainly to target the rake surface and flank sur-
face along the auxiliary cutting edge [40].
5.1 Benefits of cryogenic cooling
Cryogenic cooling provides the following benefits.
1. Optimization of the flowrate and application
pressure of liquid nitrogen is important to obtain
continuous flow of liquid nitrogen without over-
cooling the workpiece. If overcooling of the
workpiece takes place, a greater cutting force is
required. Further, this may lead to embrittlement
of the work material. Proper positioning of the
nozzle is also required to protect the flank, rake,
and auxiliary flank face.
2. The cutting force required in cryogenic cooling is
less than that required for dry cutting. This is
because application of cryogenic fluid reduces
the coefficient of friction at the interface of the
tool–chip over the rake face.
3. The cryogenic cooling effect decreases slightly at
higher cutting speed; this may be attributed to
the fact that with the increase in cutting speed,
the chip–tool contact tends to become fully
plastic, obstructing penetration of the cryogen
into the hot chip–tool interface. Grooves along
the cutting edge of the tool may be advantageous
in high-speed cryogenic cutting.
4. At a higher feed rate chip thickness is higher;
plastic deformation at the shear zone takes place
at a faster rate, generating more heat. Therefore,
cryogenic cooling is more effective at higher feed
rate.
5. By selectively applying liquid nitrogen to the chip
and tool rake face through using a well-controlled
jet, tool life can be enhanced. Microtemperature
manipulation with cryogenic cooling is the
best means of chip control in the machining of
difficult-to-cut materials.
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 Advances in the turning process for productivity improvement
6. During turning with carbide tools under cryo-
genic cooling, notching, abrasion, adhesion, and
diffusion-type wear can be retarded effectively,
leading to remarkable improvement in tool wear.
5.2 Limitations of cryogenic cooling
There are a few drawbacks of the cryogenic cooling
methodology. The cost of the set-up is high. Some-
times frozen action at the nozzle obstructs the flow
of the fluid and overcooling of workpiece can even
take place, which can affect the performance of the
process.
6 CHAMFERED/HONED/CURVILINEAR
EDGE TOOLS
The design of cutting edge geometry and its influence
on machining performance has been a research topic
in metal cutting for some time. Emerging machining
techniques such as hard turning, hard milling, and
micromechanical machining, where the uncut chip
thickness and the tool edge dimension are of the
same order of magnitude, require cutting edges
which can withstand high mechanical and thermal
stresses, hence wear resistance, for a prolonged
machining time [41]. Research on metal cutting
mainly focuses on machining with sharp edge
inserts/tools. The investigation of tool geometry
focuses on categories such as (a) the tool edge geo-
metry and (b) the tool rake geometry. Tools with a
chamfered edge are used for machining hard mate-
rials owing to their edge strength. A chamfered cut-
ting tool traps the work material over the chamfered
edge and the formed dead metal acts like a cutting
edge, which increases the tool edge strength and
reduces tool wear [42]. In PCBN cutting tools, several
types of edge preparation can be made for hard
turning operations, including sharp edge (with no
additional edge processing to strengthen the edge),
chamfers, hones, and chamfers plus edge hones, as
shown in Fig. 25. However, in most cases, chamfer
with edge hones is the preferred edge preparation in
hard turning [43]. The cutting tool edge geometry,
which means the chamfer angle, chamfer width, and
edge hone, has a significant influence on tool life and
Fig. 25 Chamfered/honed edge tools and their function
during cutting
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1431
to a large extent determines the surface finish and
surface integrity of the machined part. Tool wear, on
both flank and rake face, constitutes a change in edge
geometry. The feeds and depths of cut used in finish
hard turning are relatively small (0.2 mm), and gen-
erally of the same magnitude as that of tool edge
geometry. As a result, cutting is confined to a small
area on the nose radius and edge. Owing to the
extreme hardness of the workpiece in hard turning, a
negative rake angle with strong edge geometry with a
chamfer and hone is employed to withstand the high
cutting forces, stress, and temperature that are gen-
erated during turning [44].
As the material is harder, specific cutting forces are
larger than in conventional turning and thus the
engagement between cutting tools and the workpiece
must be limited. The small cutting depth required
means that cutting takes place on the nose radius of
cutting tools, and the tools are prepared with cham-
fered or honed edges to provide a stronger edge
geometry that is less prone to premature fracture
[45]. Cutting with a chamfered or honed edge equates
to a large negative effective rake angle, while neutral
or positive rake angles are typical in conventional
machining. The large negative rake angle yields
increased cutting forces compared with machining
using positive rake tools, and also induces larger
compressive loads on the machined surface. During
the finish turning of AISI 52100 bearing steel (hard-
ness 60HRC with PCBN inserts having chamfered
geometry 0, 10, 20, 30
, honed edge radius 0.01 mm,
and chamfered width 0.1 mm), a very small feed rate
and depth of cut are used. Cutting area is confined to
a small area in the front tip of the cutting edge, or in
the area of the chamfer zone. As shown in Fig. 26,
cutting forces increase with the increase of the
chamfer angle. The passive forces (Fp) in the passive
direction are higher than the primary cutting forces
(Fc) in the cutting direction and increase more
rapidly with the increase in chamfer angle [6].
There is an optimum value of chamfer angle where
the tool life has maximum value. As shown in Fig. 27
tool life reaches its maximum up to a 15
chamfer
angle and after that it reduces drastically. The tool life
was measured up to the value of 0.2 mm flank wear to
avoid the excessive white layer induced on the
workpiece surface owing to the higher temperature
under large flank wear. As determined by FEA the
cutting edge with a 15
chamfer angle has the smal-
lest value of flank wear when compared with other
cutting tools [46].
The benefits of honed/chamfered edge tools seem
more obvious when turning commercially available
Inconel-718 using PCBN tools. Different cutting edge
geometries are used during turning. The cutting edge
preparations employed include large chamfer
(100 mm · 30
) CWI, small chamfer (100 mm · 20
)
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1432 V S Sharma, M Dogra, and N M Suri
Fig. 26 Correlation of cutting force and chamfer angle
Fig. 27 Analysis of tool life with chamfer angle
CWII, and large chamfer plus honed edge (100 mm ·
30
) CH to eliminate edge-related problems during
machining such as edge chipping, cracks, and
breakage. It is observed that the cutting force com-
ponent is significantly higher (2–3 times) in magni-
tude than the other force components. The cutting
forces reduce considerably at 475 m/min cutting
speed, whereas the magnitude of forces is higher at
125 m/min cutting speed. This can be attributed to
the increased thermal softening of the work material
at higher cutting speeds [47].
As shown in Fig. 28, it is observed that the overall
magnitude of radial force is not affected because it
acts more or less parallel to the chamfered cross-
section on the cutting edge. As the tool wear
progresses it affects the rake angle negatively and
thus increases cutting force; even by increasing the
cutting speed the force component does not reduce.
Increasing tool tip radius causes the main cutting
force to increase [48].
The geometry of the cutting edge and its pre-
paration can play a significant role in insert perfor-
mance, directly affecting tool life, surface finish, and
surface integrity. Turning tests were performed on
nickel-based alloy Inconel-718, with Al2O3-based,
Proc. IMechE Vol. 222 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
Fig. 28 Undeformed chips and cutting forces with the
chamfered tool
Al2O3-based þ SiC, and PCBN inserts having modified
edges. The round edge inserts were best in terms
of tool wear and surface roughness. The round cera-
mic inserts produced a compressive layer on the
machined surface, which is beneficial for fatigue
resistance. Notching was a common phenomenon
observed on all the inserts. It was possible to produce
surface roughness Ra below 0.5 mm when turning
Inconel-718 at 500 m/min. Such results strongly
encourage the use of modified edges for work mate-
rials where better fatigue resistance is required [49].
The influence of hone radius and chamfer angle is
such that when the values of both the variables
increase, burnishing at the cutting edge becomes a
dominant factor in chip formation. The burnishing
process is prone to produce material side flow, leading
to the deterioration of the final surface quality. It was
also observed that hone radius had more of an influ-
ence on the cutting edge temperature than chamfer.
When hone radius increases from 20 to 100 mm (at a
chamfer angle of 20
), the maximum edge tempera-
ture increases to more than 90
C. Therefore, using
chamfer plus hone for cutting edge preparation is
better from the tool wear point of view, if the required
residual stress level can be reached [50].
The chamfered tool helps to increase compressive
residual stress but its effect is less than that of
increasing the hone radius. It is recommended that
chamfer plus hone radius be used to obtain the best
residual stress profile. The best approach is to use
large-hone-radius cutting tools [51]. The finishing
condition of Ra 0.2 mm is attained only for feed rates
smaller than 0.06 mm/rev while machining with the
chamfered tools. Increase in productivity together
with good finish can be achieved with these tools, if
only the last pass of the cutting is made using these
conditions. The cutting forces developed in hard
metal turning with chemical vapour deposited (CVD)
diamond tools increase with the bluntness of the
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 Advances in the turning process for productivity improvement
cutting edge in the following order: sharp < chamfer <
hone [52].
During the orthogonal turning of AISI 4340 steel,
waterfall-hone (oval-like edge) tools yielded lower
forces than honed and chamfered tools. Waterfall
hone with 20:40 mm edge dimension yielded the
lowest thrust forces. It was clear from the experi-
mental results that, as edge radius increases, thrust
forces increase. A large edge radius is not suitable for
machining low uncut chip thickness. The purpose of
using cutting tools with curvilinear edges is to protect
the cutting edge from chipping, to improve its impact
resistance, and to increase surface area of heat
transfer on the cutting zone [41].
Chamfered tools are usually used in rough and
interrupted turning. The stable trapped material
(dead metal zone (DMZ) or cap) in front of the
chamfered cutting edge increases the strength of the
tool tip; however, it also increases cutting forces [53].
Honed tools are employed in finish-turning opera-
tions since the application of hone to the tool tip
increases the impact resistance. Waterfall hone edge
geometry combines the appropriate characteristics of
chamfered and honed tools such as increased tool tip
strength and increased rake angle; the oval-like geo-
metry eases the flow of work material in front of the
tool [54].
6.1 Benefits of chamfered/honed/curvilinear
edge tools
The following benefits are provided by chamfered/
honed/curvilinear edge tools.
1. The chamfer angle has a great influence on the
cutting force and tool stress. All cutting force
components increase with an increase in the
chamfer angle, especially the level of passive
force.
2. An increase of chamfer angle will increase tool
life up to a certain value; after that the tool life
decreases. This increase of tool life is attribu-
table to the increase in wedge strength of the
PCBN tool.
3. The magnitude of all the cutting forces is lower
at higher cutting speed than at lower speed; this
means the honed and chamfered cutting edge
geometry influences the cutting forces only
when the MRR is low.
4. A higher value of chamfer angle produces low
surface roughness at higher cutting speed.
5. During turning with ceramic tools, increasing
the tool-tip radius causes the main cutting force
to increase.
6. Edge radius must be selected according to cut-
ting conditions. Large edge radius is not sui-
table for machining low uncut chip thickness.
The ratio of uncut chip thickness to edge radius,
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which is approximately equal to 3, seems to be
an appropriate ratio for edge preparations used
in the cutting tests.
7. Curvilinear edges protect the cutting edge from
chipping, improve its impact resistance, and
increase surface area for heat transfer from
the cutting zone. Curvilinear edge preparation
affects the chip formation mechanism owing to
increased cyclical plastic deformations along
the face of these edges.
8. Round inserts made of alumina-based ceramic
C50 were the best, in terms of tool wear and
surface roughness. All edges presented notch
wear and flank wear. Wear was less severe on
round inserts with modified (M) edge. The
round ceramic inserts produced a compressive
layer on the machined surface, which is bene-
ficial for fatigue resistance.
9. If the required residual stress profile can be
assured, use of medium hone radius plus
chamfer in cutting edge preparation is a good
option to keep tool temperature and cutting
force low. As the effect of chamfer is equivalent
to the increasing hone radius, medium hone
radius (0.02–0.05 mm) plus chamfer angle of 20

is recommended.
10. A chamfered tool helps to increase compressive
residual stress but its effect is less than that of
increasing the hone radius. Therefore, it is
recommended that chamfer plus hone radius be
used to obtain the best residual stress profile for
turning thorough hardened AISI-52100 bearing
grade steel.
11. The cutting forces developed in hard metal
turning with CVD diamond tools increase with
the bluntness of the cutting edge in the follow-
ing order: sharp < chamfer < hone.
6.2 Limitations of chamfered/honed/
curvilinear edge tools
There are a few drawbacks to the methodology; for
example, the amount of force involved in cutting
increases with these configurations of tools, which in
turn demands high-rigidity machine tools.
7 RESTRICTED CONTACT/GROOVED TOOLS
With the development of advanced manufacturing
technology, metal machining operations are now
being carried out at high speed to secure maximum
productivity. The disposal of long continuous chips
produced at high cutting speeds has posed a problem
for industry in the age of automation. For easy dis-
posal of chips, the volume of chips relative to the
volume of the same material in bulk should be as low
Proc. IMechE Vol. 222 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
1434 V S Sharma, M Dogra, and N M Suri
as possible. It is reported that well-broken chips have
a volume ratio of between 3 and 10, whereas entirely
unbroken chips have a volume ratio of 50. Long chips
curl around the tool and can pose serious hazards
to the workpiece surface, the operator, and the
machine-tool operations. The situation becomes
more critical in the environment of automated
machine loading, unloading, and in-process inspec-
tion of the machined parts [55]. To overcome this
difficulty, a number of researchers have investigated
effective control of chip flow and chip breaking.
Using an obstacle across the chip flow direction,
commonly known as a chip breaker or chip former,
chip curl can be controlled. Broadly speaking there
are two types of chip breakers: obstruction type and
groove type. The obstruction type is further divided
into two categories: the step-type chip breaker and
the ram-type chip breaker. An experimental investi-
gation of metal turning with a ram-type chip breaker
was carried out by Nakayama [56]. The effect of
increasing feed was an increase in length of contact
between chip and tool, which resulted in extension of
the heated area further from the edge to the rake face,
accompanied by an increase in the maximum tem-
perature. The artificial reduction of chip–tool contact
length substantially reduces the power consumed by
the cut and as a result, heat generated is reduced [57].
Restricted contact tools are also called artificially
controlled contact tools. Their land length is less than
the natural tool–chip contact length for a given set of
cutting conditions [58]. As seen in Fig. 29 the area of
contact is less; thus RCTs offer several advantages for
machining processes, such as substantial reduction
in power consumption, lower tool–chip interface
temperatures, and improved surface integrity of the
machined parts [57]. On the basis of turning tests
under a wide range of cutting conditions with
commercially available grooved tools, the results
achieved are quite satisfactory. Many groove-type
chip breaker tools, which have a primary rake land
between the cutting edge and the chip-groove, have
been widely applied in modern automatic machining
operations [59]. These tools are also referred to as
restricted contact grooved tools. The restricted con-
tact effect in machining with grooved tools forms a
Fig. 29 Restricted contact cut-away and grooved-type
chip-breaker tools
Proc. IMechE Vol. 222 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
basis for the generated chip to back-flow into the
chip-groove, and hence it provides favourable con-
ditions for the chip to be broken. In this study,
restricted contact grooved tools produced from sin-
tered carbides P20 were used to cut medium-carbon
steel under dry conditions. The results of experi-
mentation are validated through the developed
model. The chip back-flow angle is defined first.
Considering the contact between the chip and the
chip-groove back wall, the predicted chip back-flow
angles are compared with their experimental results
for a given set of machining conditions. The impor-
tance of chip back-flow angle is that it directly gov-
erns the tool–chip contact pattern. Experimentally,
chip back-flow angle is measured by using a high-
speed filming technique. If the chip back-flow angle
is less than the tool secondary rake angle, the gener-
ated chip will be in contact with the primary rake face
only; otherwise, the chip will be in contact with both
the primary and secondary rake faces, which adds to
the complexity of the machining processes. Study
shows that the state of stresses in the plastic defor-
mation region is one of the most important factors
governing chip back-flow. Chip form/chip break-
ability and tool wear/tool life are two of the major
machining performance measures that have been the
subject of extensive study over several decades.
Understanding the chip flow and curl mechanisms is
essential for predictive assessment of the chip
breaking process. In practical machining operations
such as turning, grooved tools are used rather than
flat-faced tools, effectively to curl and break the chips
into small sizes and shapes for handling and disposal
purposes. It has been shown that the nature of chip
curl and breaking contributes to the decrease in tool
life and reduction in cutting forces [60].
The beneficial effect of controlled contact cutting
with respect to energy reduction became more pro-
nounced with an increase in feed rate and depth of
cut. During the turning of C45 carbon steel, chro-
mium alloy steel, and austenitic steel with coated
indexable inserts of triangle negative molded chip-
breaker geometry (TNMG) having four different chip
groove geometries, results reveal that specific cutting
energy seems to be governed (remarkably) by the
contact length. Chip breaking increases steadily at
higher feed rates, and savings in cutting power con-
sumption can be achieved by controlling the contact
length at higher feed rate and depth of cut [61].
To obtain an optimum tool performance for pro-
viding good chip breakability and tool life, it appears
that the contact length should be in the range of
55–65 per cent of the natural contact length. The
associated benefits resulting from the effects of
restricted tool contact are a tendency towards mini-
mum power consumption, lower cutting forces, and
reduced cutting temperature [62]. Figure 30 shows
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 Advances in the turning process for productivity improvement
actual temperature distribution at various points in
the groove, during the machining of AISI 1045 steel
with coated (TiN/TiCN/TiC) grooved tools. It was
observed that after 50 s of machining, the maximum
temperature was located at the secondary face of
the tool and after an additional 190 s the back wall
area temperature increased by approximately 13 per
cent and the location of the maximum temperature
would be an area of high tool wear rate. Thus tem-
perature distribution clearly indicates the advantage
of grooved tools [63].
Inappropriate design of the chip grooves or
obstructions can cause ‘unfavourable’ flow of the
chip, resulting in wear of the obstruction and con-
sequent tool failure. At low feed conditions, i.e. for
cases where the tool face land is large with respect to
the feed, chip groove utilization is very low and the
chip strikes the back wall directly and leads to abra-
sive wear, when the feed is very high compared with
the tool face land. Smallness of the land not only
makes the tool edge vulnerable to chipping, but also
the high feed conditions force the chip to have a
much larger back-flow. The chip in this case is forced
to remain in contact with a larger section of the rake
and groove-face (inner wall) and therefore curls
naturally before coming in contact with the back
wall. The uneven wear pattern results in failure of the
tool edge without significant wear of the back wall. In
such cases, extremely high contact pressure at the
tool nose results in accelerated nose wear.
Fig. 30 Tool tip temperature distribution after 50 s and 240 s of cutting
Fig. 31 Different tool wear mechanisms in grooved tools
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As shown in Fig. 31(c) there is an optimum utili-
zation of the chip groove, in which a major part of the
chip groove is utilized. The uniform pressure on the
tool edge and the back wall normally results in a
combination of wear of the nose, rake face, and the
back wall. This combination wear generally results in
more predictable tool wear and longer tool life. For
conditions involving lesser side-curl, the chip defor-
mation on the inside surface is less. This results in
lower formation of burrs and, consequently, lesser
depth of notch wear [60].
The target for a tool designer in using restricted
contact length is to produce acceptable chip form
and to reduce cutting forces. The common factor
affecting both tool life and chip form is the contact
length. In general, tool–chip contact length decreases
if the cutting speed is increased; tool–chip contact
length increases if the feed increases; and tool–chip
contact length increases with increasing depth of cut.
During turning of carbon steel with carbide tools with
various restricted contact lengths, reduction of the
contact from the natural length leads to reduction in
flank wear. If the contact length is too heavily
restricted, tool wear will increase rapidly. Extreme
reduction in contact length also leads to a con-
centration of high specific compressive stress on this
small area. The optimum contact length would
appear to be in the range 55–65 per cent of the nat-
ural contact length. For a low combination of cutting
speed and feed, the tools with restricted contact
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1436 V S Sharma, M Dogra, and N M Suri
Fig. 32 Analysis of cutting speed with specific cutting
energy (where Kcc is the specific force for Fc, Kcf is
the specific cutting force for Ff, Kcp is the specific
cutting force for Fp)
length show a low too1 temperature. For a high
combination of these cutting data, tools give better
performance for less time and, after that, perfor-
mance deteriorates [64]. Deshayes reported that the
tool with chip-breaker geometry has the smallest
friction angle. For restricted contact length tools, the
minimum and maximum speed ranges were decided
on the basis of stability in the specific cutting energy
as shown in Fig. 32 [65].
7.1 Benefits of restricted contact/grooved tools
The following benefits have been derived by use of
restricted contact/grooved tools.
1. The optimum performance of RCTs mainly
depends on selection of chip-breaker groove
geometry and combination of different cutting
parameters. Using a restricted contact length in
the low range of the feed produces a natural
contact length which is smaller than the restric-
ted contact length, and the chip does not reach
the chip-breaker groove. This means that the
function of the chip-breaker groove is suspended
and the tool with the groove behaves like a tool
with a natural contact length. Also, using a
restricted contact length in the high range of the
feed produces a natural contact length, which is
several times larger than the restricted contact
length. In this case the chip breaks into a short
segment of dark blue colour combined with
vibration and high cutting forces. Thus the use of
restricted contact length in the correct range of
cutting data leads to a controlled chip form and a
favourable process in the sense of low cutting
forces, low tool temperature, and long tool life.
2. The beneficial effect of controlled contact cutting
with respect to energy reduction becomes more
pronounced with an increase in feed rate and
depth of cut.
Proc. IMechE Vol. 222 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
3. While machining with RCTs, the cutting tem-
peratures corresponding with efficient chip con-
trol are in general higher than for chips, which is
assumed to be unacceptable. This is due to the
fact that chip breaking is usually related to an
increase in feed rate, which in turn results in an
increase in the chip–tool interface temperature.
4. The failure of grooved tools is mainly attributable
to improper groove utilization by the chip and
this has resulted from either poor chip groove
design or inappropriate application of the cutting
conditions for a particular chip groove.
Further it is suggested that the secondary edge form
of wear can be averted by causing the chip-flow angle
to be larger (e.g. by reducing depth of cut, and so on),
so that the chip strikes the back wall instead of the
minor edge.
7.2 Limitations of restricted contact/grooved
tools
There are a few drawbacks of this methodology; for
example the technique is only feasible in tool inserts
produced through powder metallurgy. Also, the use
of restricted contact length in a high range of cutting
data leads to the cutting edge being exposed to a high
concentration of specific compressive stress and
temperature, which in turn leads to shorter tool life
caused by the rapid plastic deformation of the cutting
edge.
8 MINIMUM QUANTITY LUBRICATION
Metal cutting fluids change the performance of
machining operations because of their lubrication,
cooling, and chip-flushing functions, but the use of
cutting fluid has become more problematic in terms
of both employee health and environmental pollu-
tion. The minimization of cutting fluid also leads to
economic benefits by way of saving lubricant costs
and workpiece/tool/machine cleaning cycle time [1].
Nearly a decade ago the concept of MQL was sug-
gested as a means of addressing the issues of envir-
onmental intrusiveness and occupational hazards
associated with airborne cutting fluid particles on
factory shop floors.
As far as lubrication is concerned, the load applied
and the working conditions, which characterize the
cut, suggest that it is impossible to lubricate the
cutting area continuously by fluid film lubrication.
So, to guarantee lubrication, it is necessary to use
lubricant with additives that react chemically with
the workpiece and tool material to generate chemical
compounds that allow lubrication of the cutting
surface. Moreover, workpiece cooling is necessary to
remove the heat generated during the chip formation
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 Advances in the turning process for productivity improvement 1437

and by the friction between tool and workpiece. To

reach the cutting surface is not easy; in fact the high
cutting pressure in the contact area and the small
space between chip and tool do not allow the cutting
fluid to access this zone. To obtain a good cooling
action, the cutting area is generally flooded with
lubricant. Finally, the cutting fluid flow can be used
to prevent the chip remaining in the cutting zone,
thereby reducing the possibility of damaging the
workpiece. Many application methods can be used
for this and each method is selected depending on
the advantages that it provides [66].
The main types of application are listed as follows.
Fig. 33 Different methods of mixing lubricant in MQL
1. Hand application: this type of application is used
only in small batch production, because when
using this lubrication method it is not easy to
apply the cutting fluid continuously and suffi-
ciently to cool the workpiece. A low level of
lubrication, cooling, and chip removal are guar-
anteed.
2. Flooding: this application is the most common. A
very good level of lubrication, cooling, and chip
removal are guaranteed. Applying this method of
lubrication, it is also possible to orient the nozzle
to the clearance tool surface, thereby reducing
the flank wear, especially when the cutting speed
is slow. Fig. 34 Holes in the tool holder for MQL
3. Minimal quantity lubrication: in MQL a very
small lubricant flow (ml/h instead of l/min) is equal to or often better than traditional wet
used. In this case, the lubricant is directly machining in terms of tool life [67].
sprayed on the cutting area. A good level of During finish turning of Inconel-718 with coated
lubrication is guaranteed, but the cooling action carbide tools (with chip breakers) under MQL (bio-
is very small and the chip removal mechanism is
degradable synthetic ester as lubricant), the cutting
obtained by the airflow used to spread the
fluid was supplied to the cutting point with com-
lubricant.
pressed air through oil holes on both the flank and
Two different mixing methods can be used for rake faces of the tool, as shown in Fig. 34. Compara-
MQL: mixing inside the nozzle and mixing outside tive analysis of oxygen and argon as carrier gas
the nozzle. Using equipment with mixing inside the reveals that the poor heat capacity, poor thermal
nozzle, pressurized air and lubricant are mixed into conductivity, and poor lubrication characteristics of
the nozzle by a mixing device, as shown in Fig. 33(a). argon gas have increased cutting temperature and
The lubricant performs the lubrication action, while tool wear. Extending the quantity of lubricant can
the pressurized air that reaches the cutting surface only help in improving the surface finish.
performs the cooling action. This method has several In turning normalized 100Cr6 steel using com-
advantages. Mist and dangerous vapours are reduced mercial triple-coated carbide tips with a negative
and the mixture setting is very easy to control. In the rake angle, tool flank wear was studied under MQL
method of mixing outside the nozzle, as shown in (inside nozzle mixing device) and dry cutting as per
Fig. 33(b), the mixture is obtained in a mixing device guidelines of the ISO 3685 standard. Comparison of
positioned in a specific tank. Also, in this case, dry, rake MQL, and flank MQL for surface roughness
lubrication between workpiece and tool can be and tool wear was made as mentioned in Figs 35(a)
achieved. and (b). Under similar cutting conditions, the
In MQL machining, a small amount of vegetable oil volumes removed with flank MQL are equal to or
or biodegradable synthetic ester is sprayed on to the greater than those achieved with the other condi-
tool tip with compressed air. The consumption of oil tions. For fixed cutting length, a rise in feed rate
in industrial applications is in the range of approxi- always causes a reduction in tool lifetime, but with
mately 10–100 ml/h. Machining using MQL is nearly flank MQL, tool life lies consistently above the others.

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1438 V S Sharma, M Dogra, and N M Suri
Fig. 35 Tool lives and surface finishes of the three coated tools in MQL, wet, and dry cutting: (a) tool life;
(b) surface finish at tool life
Also, it is observed that dry cutting and rake face
MQL generally have the same behaviour. It is
assumed that when MQL is applied on the rake sur-
face, the lubricant does not reach the cutting surface.
Furthermore, energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis
of tips used in rake MQL conditions does not show
any presence of chemical compounds on the worn
surfaces. This means that, when MQL is applied on
the rake surface, lubricant does not reach the cutting
area. Under this condition it is impossible to reduce
the tool wear. As far as the influence of cutting length
is concerned, the mean tool life in flank MQL condi-
tions increases with cut length, whereas in dry and
rake MQL conditions, cutting length does not influ-
ence life. Traces of lubricant compounds have been
found on the worn surfaces only when MQL has been
applied on the flank surface [68].
The MQL jet has been used mainly to target the
rake and flank surface and to protect the auxiliary
flank to enable better dimensional accuracy. The rate
of average principal flank wear is decreased by MQL.
This is attributable to reduction in the flank tem-
perature by MQL, which helps in reducing abrasion
wear by retaining tool hardness, and also adhesion
and diffusion types of wear, which are highly sensi-
tive to temperature. Also temperature control by
MQL reduces the growth of notch and groove wear
on the main cutting edge. Surface roughness during
MQL reduces mainly through controlling the dete-
rioration of the auxiliary cutting edge by abrasion,
chipping, and BUE formation [69].
8.1 Benefits of MQL
The benefits of MQL are listed as follows.
1. During turning with coated tools under MQL,
optimization of air pressure is needed if oxygen is
used as the carrier gas for applying MQL to finish
turning, because by increasing the air pressure
the oxidation of the coating is accelerated by
abundant oxygen.
2. The cooling efficiency depends on the specific
heat of the coolant gas. A coolant of higher
Proc. IMechE Vol. 222 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
specific heat can receive more heat from the tool
and workpiece. Thus air acts as a better carrier
gas in comparison with argon.
3. With the MQL technique, a remarkable reduction
of machining costs can be obtained because the
quantity of lubricant used is small.
4. Lubricating the rake surface of a tip by the
MQL technique does not produce evident wear
reduction.
5. Lubricating the flank surface of a tip by the MQL
technique reduces the tool wear and increases
the tool life.
8.2 Limitations of MQL
There are a few drawbacks of the MQL methodology,
for example, if the mixture is not properly controlled
it may lead to the formation of mist or dangerous
vapours, and thus contamination of the working
environment.
9 HIGH-PRESSURE COOLANT
High-pressure coolant delivery is an emerging tech-
nology that delivers a high-pressure fluid to the tool
and machined material. The high fluid pressure
allows a better penetration of the fluid into the
tool–workpiece and tool–chip contact regions, thus
providing a better cooling effect and decrease in tool
wear through lubrication of the contact areas.
In finish turning of AISI 1045 steel using coated
carbide tools under high-pressure fluid (with high
and low flowrates), dry cutting, and conventional
fluid application (low pressure, high flowrate), the
tool wear was studied. For HPC three directions of
high-pressure fluid were used: (a) towards the
chip–tool interface (tool rake face); (b) towards the
workpiece–tool interface (flank face); and (c) towards
both flank and rake face.
The longest tool lives were obtained when fluid was
applied either simultaneously on the rake and flank
faces with high pressure and high flowrate, or when it
was applied solely on the flank face with high pres-
sure and low flowrate. When fluid was injected on the
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 Advances in the turning process for productivity improvement
rake face, the adhesion between chip and tool was
strong, causing the removal of tool particles. When
the adhered chip material was removed from the tool
by the chip flow, this resulted in a large crater wear.
The fluid was not able to penetrate between chip and
tool to perform lubrication, since no fluid elements
were found on the crater wear region in the energy
dispersive X-ray analysis [70].
Tool life generally increases with increase in cool-
ant supply pressure. This can be attributed to the
ability of the high-pressure coolant to lift the chip
and gain access closer to the cutting interface. This
action leads to a reduction of the seizure region, thus
lowering the friction coefficient, which in turn results
in reduction in cutting temperature and cutting for-
ces. Compared with conventional coolant supplies,
tool life improved as much as 740 per cent, while
machining at 203 bar coolant pressure at a speed of
50 m/min. Chip segmentation depends on the cut-
ting conditions employed and further, to a greater
extent, on the coolant pressure [71]. Lower cutting
forces were generated while machining Inconel-718
with a whisker-reinforced ceramic tool at higher
coolant supply pressure, owing to improved cooling
and lubrication at the cutting interface. This
improvement may be the result of chip segmentation
caused by the high-pressure coolant jet. Tool life
decreased with 20.3 MPa coolant supply pressure
owing to accelerated notching of the tool [72].
9.1 Benefits of HPC
The following are the major benefits of HPC.
1. Tool life increases with increasing coolant pres-
sure supply; once a critical value of pressure has
been reached, any further increase in coolant
pressure will only result in marginal increase in
tool life.
2. During machining of aerospace alloys at high
coolant pressure, well-segmented C-shaped
chips are generated. Thus it is clear that chip
segmentation depends to a greater extent on the
coolant pressure employed.
3. Low cutting forces are generated owing to
improved cooling and lubrication with HPC.
Surface finish is acceptable and free from physi-
cal damage such as tears, laps, or cracks in
almost all the cutting conditions.
4. During turning of hard metals with CBN tools,
low-CBN-content tools give better performance
under HPC in terms of tool life and reduced
notch wear.
9.2 Limitations of HPC
Drawbacks of this methodology include the fact that
pressure generated by the fluid in the nozzle may
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IMechE 2008
1439
produce certain subsurface defects on the newly
generated surface.
10 CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions with respect to the various technologies
used in turning which have been reviewed in this
paper are listed below.
1. Many researchers have reported their work on
supplementary techniques in turning, which can
help in improving the efficiency of commonly
used turning tool materials such as HSS, carbides
(coated/uncoated), ceramics, and even for CBN.
It has been clearly indicated in the literature that
the use of these supplementary techniques such
as cryogenic treatment, UAT, hot machining,
grooved tools, MQL, HPC, cryogenic cooling,
chamfered/honed/curvilinear edges, and use of
solid lubricants has improved the machining
productivity of difficult-to-cut materials and
super alloys.
2. The application of cryogenic cooling for turning
of difficult-to-cut materials has resulted in a
several-fold increase in tool life without com-
promising the environmental conditions. Tool
life improves dramatically owing to the fact that
cryogen is able to penetrate the chip–tool inter-
face and perform both lubrication and cooling
functions satisfactorily. Productivity is also high,
as cryogenic cooling shows better results at
higher feed rates.
3. Low tool flank wear and cutting forces in UAT
have helped in improving cutting efficiency. As a
result of the non-occurrence of BUE in UAT,
surface finish is improved compared with con-
ventional turning.
4. Cryogenic treatment has enhanced the wear
resistance of HSS and carbide tools by bringing
about metallurgical changes in the micro-
structure of these tool materials. If these tools are
supplemented with additional cooling, tool life
improves dramatically.
5. In hot machining the effect of the temperature of
the workpiece is found to be the most significant
on tool life. However, the recrystallization tem-
perature of the workpiece limits the maximum
value of the temperature of hot machining. If the
cutting tool is simultaneously cooled during hot
machining, the effectiveness of the turning pro-
cess improves. This process, commonly known
as hybrid machining, has shown good potential
in turning of super alloys.
6. During the turning of hard alloy steels with cer-
amic/CBN tools, with chamfer plus honed, cur-
vilinear edges, the tool geometry protects the
cutting edge from chipping, to improve its
Proc. IMechE Vol. 222 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
1440 V S Sharma, M Dogra, and N M Suri
impact resistance. It also helps in increasing the
surface area for heat transfer from the cutting
zone.
7. Machining with RCTs having proper chip
groove design and optimum selection of cutting
parameters in a particular moderate feed rate
will lead to efficient chip control, energy re-
duction, less heat generation, and lower cutting
forces.
8. With the MQL technique, a remarkable reduction
of machining cost, quantity of lubricant used,
and surface roughness can be achieved by prop-
erly orienting the nozzle on the flank face of the
tool.
9. Turning with the HPC technique gives rise to
formation of segmented chips and better pene-
tration at the interface, and thus lower cutting
forces, better tool life, and acceptable surface
finish.
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