Master of Computer Application (MCA) – Semester 2

MC0066 – OOPS using C++ – 4 Credits

(Book ID: B0681 & B0715)
Assignment Set – 1 (40 Marks)

Answer all Questions Each Question carries FIVE Marks

1. Describe the steps in compiling and executing a C++ program

with programmatic illustration.
Ans.
There are three steps in executing a c++ program: Compiling, Linking and
Running the program. The c++ programs have to be typed in a compiler. All
the programs discussed in the book will be compiled on turbo c++ compiler.
The turbo c++ compiler comes with an editor to type and edit c++ program.
After typing the program the file is saved with an extension .cpp. This is
known as source code. The source code has to be converted to an object
code which is understandable by the machine. This process is known as
compiling the program. You can compile your program by selecting compile
from compile menu or press Alt+f9. After compiling a file with the same
name as source code file but with extension .obj. is created.

Second step is linking the program which creates an executable file

.exe (filename same as source code) after linking the object code and the
library files (cs.lib) required for the program. In a simple program, linking
process may involve one object file and one library file. However in a project,
there may be several smaller programs. The object codes of these programs
and the library files are linked to create a single executable file. Third and
the last step is running the executable file where the statements in the
program will be executed one by one.

When you execute the program, the compiler displays the output of
the program and comes back to the program editor. To view the output and
wait for user to press any key to return to the editor, type getch() as the last
statement in the program. Getch() is an inbuilt predefined library function
which inputs a character from the user through standard input. However you
should include another header file named conio.h to use this function.
Conio.h contains the necessary declarations for using this function. The
include statement will be similar to iostream.h.
Compiling and Linking

During compilation, if there are any errors that will be listing by the compiler.
The errors may be any one of the following

1. Syntax error

This error occurs due to mistake in writing the syntax of a c++

statement or wrong use of reserved words, improper variable names, using
variables without declaration etc. Examples are : missing semi colon or
paranthesis, type integer for int datatype etc. Appropriate error message and
the statement number will be displayed. You can see the statement and
make correction to the program file, save and recompile it.

2. Logical error

This error occurs due to the flaw in the logic. This will not be identified
by the compiler. However it can be traced using the debug tool in the editor.
First identify the variable which you suspect creating the error and add them
to watch list by selecting Debug ->Watches->Add watch. Write the variable
name in the watch expression. After adding all the variables required to the
watch list, go to the statement from where you want to observe. If you are
not sure, you can go to the first statement of the program. Then select
Debug ->Toggle Breakpoint (or press ctrl + f8). A red line will appear on the
statement. Then Run the program by selecting Ctrl + f9 or Run option from
run menu. The execution will halt at the statement where you had added the
breakpoint. The watch variables and their values at that point of time will be
displayed in the bottom in the watch window. Press F8 to execute the next
statement till you reach the end of the program. In this way you can watch
closely the values in the watch variables after execution of each and every
statement in the program. If you want to exit before execution of the last
statement press Ctrl + Break. To remove the breakpoint in the program go
to the statement where you have added breakpoint select Debug ->Toggle
Breakpoint (or press ctrl + f8). Select Debug -> watch ->remove watches to
remove the variables in the watch list. This tool helps in knowing the values
taken by the variable at each and every step. You can compare the expected
value with the actual value to identify the error.

3. Linker error

This error occur when the files during linking are missing or mispelt

4. Runtime error
This error occurs if the programs encounters division by zero, accessing a
null pointer etc during execution of the program

2. Describe the theory with programming examples the selection control statements in
C++.
Ans.

If statement

Syntax : if (expression or condition)

{ statement 1;
statement 2;
}
else
{ statement 3;
statement 4;
}

The expression or condition is any expression built using relational

operators which either yields true or false condition. If no relational operators
are used for comparison, then the expression will be evaluated and zero is
taken as false and non zero value is taken as true. If the condition is true,
statement1 and statement2 is executed otherwise statement 3 and
statement 4 is executed. Else part in the if statement is optional. If there is
no else part, then the next statement after the if statement is exceuted, if
the condition is false. If there is only one statement to be executed in the if
part or in the else part, braces can be omitted.

Following example program implements the if statement.

// evenodd.cpp
# include <iostream.h>
# include <conio.h>
void main()
{
int num;
cout<<”Please enter a number”<<endl;
cin>>num;
if ((num%2) == 0)
cout<<num <<” is a even number”;
else
cout<<num <<” is a odd number”;
getch();
}
 The above program accepts a number from the user and divides it by 2
and if the remainder (remainder is obtained by modulus operator) is zero, it
displays the number is even, otherwise as odd. We make use of the
relational operator == to compare whether remainder is equal to zero or not.

Nested If statement

If statement can be nested in another if statement to check multiple

conditions.

If (condition1)
{ if (condition 2)
{ statement1;
Statement2;
}
else if (condition3)
{statement3;
}
}
else statement4;

The flowchart of the above example is shown below

Multiple conditions can be checked using logical && operator(AND) and ||

operator (OR).

If ((condition1) && (condition2))

statement1;
else
statement2;

In the above example statement1 will be executed if both the condition1 and
condition2 are true and in all other cases statement2 will be executed.
If ((condition1 || (condition2))
statement1;
else
statement2;

In the above example statement1 will be executed if either condition1

or condition2 are true and even if both are true. Statement2 will be executed
if both the conditions are false. The following program demonstrates the use
of && operator and nested if statement.

//Large.cpp
# include <iostream.h>
void main()
{ int a,b,c;
cout<<”Please enter three numbers”;
cin>>a>>b>>c;
if ((a>b) && (b>c))
cout<<a<< “ is the largest number”;
else if ((b>a) && (b>c))
cout<<b<< “ is the largest number”;
else if ((c>a) && (c>b))
cout<<c<< “ is the largest number”;
}

The above program accepts three numbers from the user and displays
which is the largest number among the three.( assumption is that all the
numbers are unique, the program has to be modified if you would like to
allow same number twice)

B) switch statements

Switch statement

Nested ifs can be confusing if the if statement is deeply nested. One

alternative to nested if is the switch statement which can be used to
increase clarity in case of checking the different values of the same variable
and execute statements accordingly.

Syntax :

Switch (variablename)
{ case value1: statement1;
break;
case value2: statement2;
break;
case value3: statement3;
break;
default: statement4;
}

If the variable in the switch statement is equal to value1 then

statement1 is executed, if it is equal to value2 then statement2 is executed,
if it is value3 then statement3 is executed. If the variable value is not in any
of the cases listed then the default case statement or statement4 is
executed. The default case specification is optional, however keeping it is a
good practice. It can also be used for displaying any error message. Each
case can have any number of statements. However every case should have a
break statement as the last statement. Break statement takes the control
out of the switch statement. The absence of the break statement can cause
execution of statements in the next case. No break is necessary for the last
case. In the above example, default case does not contain a break
statement.

The flowchart for the switch statement is shown below

The following program implements the switch statement

position.cpp

# include<iostream.h>
void main()
{ char pos;
int x=15, y=15;
cout << “ you are currently located at” <<x<<” “<<y<<endl;
cout>>”please choose the letter to move l for left, r for right, u for up and d
for down” <<endl;
cin>>pos;
switch (pos)
{ case ‘l’: x–;
break;
case ‘r’: x++;
break;
case ‘u’: y++;
break;
case ‘d’: y–;
break;
default: cout<<”You selected a wrong option”;
}
cout<<“ you are now located at” <<x<<” “<<y;
}

The above program asks the user to enter l,r,u,d for allowing him to
move left,right,up and down respectively. The position is initialised to 15 and
15 which are x and y coordinates of his position. Depending upon the what
user has selected the the x and y co-ordinates are incremented or
decremented by one(x++ is same as x=x+1). If the user types a letter other
than l,r,u,d, he gets an error message. Since the switch variable is a
character, l,u,r,d and enclosed within single quote.

++ and — operator can be used as postfix or as prefix operator which

has no effect if used as an independent statement. However if it used as part
of an expression, the prefix operator will be operated and then the
expression will be evaluated whereas the postfix operated will be evaluated
later.

For example in the statement x= a+ (b++), a will be added to b and

then stored in x and then the value of b will be incremented. If the same
expression is written as x=a+(++b), the the b will be incremented and then
added to a and stored in x.

3. Given a RxC Matrix, A, i.e. R rows and C columns we define a Saddle-Point as

Saddle_Pt (A(i,j)) = A(i,j) is the minimum of Row i and the maximum of Col j.
e.g.
123
456
789
-- 7 is Saddle_Pt. at position (3,1)
Write a program in C++ to check and print for saddle points in a matrix.

Ans.
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
int a[3][3],i,j,k,sp,minr,pos,flag=1;
cout<<"Enter the contents of the array ";
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
cin>>a[i][j];
}
cout<<"
The matrix representation of array is: ";
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
cout<<"
";
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
cout<<a[i][j]<<" ";
}
cout<<endl;

for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
flag=1;
sp=a[i][0],pos=0;
for(j=1;j<3;j++)
{
if(a[i][j]<sp)
{ sp=a[i][j];
pos=j;
}
}
for(k=0;k<3;k++)
{
if(a[k][pos]<sp)
{
flag=0;
 break;
}
}
if(flag==1)
cout<<"The saddle point of row "<<i+1<<" is "<<sp<<endl;

}
getch();
}

4. Describe and Demonstrate the concept of Pass by Value and Pass

By Reference using appropriate programming examples of your
own.
Ans.

Pass by Value

Consider a pair of C++ functions defined in Program. The function One calls
the function Two. In general, every function call includes a (possibly empty)
list of arguments. The arguments specified in a function call are called actual
parameters . In this case, there is only one actual parameter y.
void Two(int x)
{
x=2;
cout << r << endl;
}

void One()
{
int y=1;
Two(y);
cout << y << endl;
}
Program: Example of Pass-By-Value Parameter Passing
The method by which the parameter is passed to a function is determined by
the function definition. In this case, the function Two is defined as accepting
a single argument of type int called x. The arguments which appear in a
function definition are called formal parameters . If the type of a formal
parameter is not a reference , then the parameter passing method is pass-
by-value.
The semantics of pass-by-value work like this: The effect of the formal
parameter definition is to create a local variable of the specified type in the
given function. E.g., the function Two has a local variable of type int called x.
When the function is called, the values (r-values) of the actual parameters
are used to initialize the formal parameters before the body of the function is
executed.

Since the formal parameters give rise to local variables, if a new value is
assigned to a formal parameter, that value has no effect on the actual
parameters. Therefore, the output obtained produced by the function One
defined in Program is:

Pass by Reference

Consider the pair of C++ functions defined in Program . The only difference
between this code and the code given in Program is the definition of the
formal parameter of the function Two: In this case, the parameter x is
declared to be a reference to an int. In general, if the type of a formal
parameter is a reference, then the parameter passing method is pass-by-
reference .
void Two(int& x)
{
x=2;
cout << r << endl;
}
void One()
{
int y=1;
Two(y);
cout << y << endl;
}
Program: Example of Pass-By-Reference Parameter Passing
A reference formal parameter is not a variable. When a function is called that
has a reference formal parameter, the effect of the call is to associate the
reference with the corresponding actual parameter. I.e., the reference
becomes an alternative name for the corresponding actual parameter.
Consequently, this means that the actual parameter passed by reference
must be variable.
A reference formal parameter can be used in the called function everywhere
that a variable can be used. In particular, if the reference formal parameter
is used where a r-value is required, it is the r-value of actual parameter that
is obtained. Similarly, if the reference parameter is used where an l-value is
required, it is the l-value of actual parameter that is obtained. Therefore, the
output obtained produced by the function one defined in Program is:
2
2

5. Describe the theory of Derivation and Inheritance.

Ans.

Derivation

Inheritance is implemented in C++ through the mechanism of derivation.

Derivation allows you to derive a class, called a derived class, from another
class, called a base class.

Derived class syntax

Derived class syntax

>>-derived_class--:--------------------------------------------->
.-,---------------------------------------------------------.--------
V |
>----+----------------------------+--qualified_class_specifier-+-><
+-virtual--+-----------+-----+
| +-public----+ |
| +-private---+ |
| '-protected-' |
'-+-public----+--+---------+-'
+-private---+ '-virtual-'
'-protected-'

In the declaration of a derived class, you list the base classes of the derived
class. The derived class inherits its members from these base classes.

The qualified_class_specifier must be a class that has been previously

declared in a class declaration.
An access specifier is one of public, private, or protected.

The virtual keyword can be used to declare virtual base classes.

The following example shows the declaration of the derived class D and the
base classes V, B1, and B2. The class B1 is both a base class and a derived
class because it is derived from class V and is a base class for D:

class V { /* ... */ };
class B1 : virtual public V { /* ... */ };
class B2 { /* ... */ };

class D : public B1, private B2 { /* ... */ };

Classes that are declared but not defined are not allowed in base lists.

For example:
class X;
// error
class Y: public X { };

The compiler will not allow the declaration of class Y because X has not been
defined.

When you derive a class, the derived class inherits class members of the
base class. You can refer to inherited members (base class members) as if
they were members of the derived class. For example:

class Base {
public:
int a,b;
};
class Derived : public Base {
public:
int c;
};

int main() {
Derived d;
d.a = 1; // Base::a
d.b = 2; // Base::b
d.c = 3; // Derived::c
}
The derived class can also add new class members and redefine existing
base class members. In the above example, the two inherited members, a
and b, of the derived class d, in addition to the derived class member c, are
assigned values. If you redefine base class members in the derived class,
you can still refer to the base class members by using the :: (scope
resolution) operator. For example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Base {
public:
char* name;
void display() {
cout << name << endl;
}
};

class Derived: public Base {

public:
char* name;
void display() {
cout << name << ", " << Base::name << endl;
}
};

int main() {
Derived d;
d.name = "Derived Class";
d.Base::name = "Base Class";

// call Derived::display()
d.display();

// call Base::display()
d.Base::display();
}

The following is the output of the above example:

Derived Class, Base Class

Base Class

You can manipulate a derived class object as if it were a base class object.
You can use a pointer or a reference to a derived class object in place of a
pointer or reference to its base class. For example, you can pass a pointer or
reference to a derived class object D to a function expecting a pointer or
reference to the base class of D. You do not need to use an explicit cast to
achieve this; a standard conversion is performed. You can implicitly convert
a pointer to a derived class to point to an accessible unambiguous base
class. You can also implicitly convert a reference to a derived class to a
reference to a base class.

The following example demonstrates a standard conversion from a pointer to

a derived class to a pointer to a base class:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class Base {
public:
char* name;
void display() {
cout << name << endl;
}
};

class Derived: public Base {

public:
char* name;
void display() {
cout << name << ", " << Base::name << endl;
}
};

int main() {
Derived d;
d.name = "Derived Class";
d.Base::name = "Base Class";

Derived* dptr = &d;

// standard conversion from Derived* to Base*

Base* bptr = dptr;

// call Base::display()
bptr->display();

The following is the output of the above example:

Base Class

The statement Base* bptr = dptr converts a pointer of type Derived to a

pointer of type Base.

The reverse case is not allowed. You cannot implicitly convert a pointer or a
reference to a base class object to a pointer or reference to a derived class.
For example, the compiler will not allow the following code if the classes
Base and Class are defined as in the above example:

int main() {
Base b;
b.name = "Base class";

Derived* dptr = &b;

}

The compiler will not allow the statement Derived* dptr = &b because the
statement is trying to implicitly convert a pointer of type Base to a pointer of
type Derived.

If a member of a derived class and a member of a base class have the same
name, the base class member is hidden in the derived class. If a member of
a derived class has the same name as a base class, the base class name is
hidden in the derived class.

Inheritance

Inheritance is a mechanism of reusing and extending existing classes without

modifying them, thus producing hierarchical relationships between them.

Inheritance is almost like embedding an object into a class. Suppose that you
declare an object x of class A in the class definition of B. As a result, class B
will have access to all the public data members and member functions of
class A. However, in class B, you have to access the data members and
member functions of class A through object x. The following example
demonstrates this:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class A {
int data;
public:
void f(int arg) { data = arg; }
 int g() { return data; }
};

class B {
public:
A x;
};

int main() {
B obj;
obj.x.f(20);
cout << obj.x.g() << endl;
// cout << obj.g() << endl;
}
In the main function, object obj accesses function A::f() through its data
member B::x with the statement obj.x.f(20). Object obj accesses A::g() in a
similar manner with the statement obj.x.g(). The compiler would not allow
the statement obj.g() because g() is a member function of class A, not class
B.
The inheritance mechanism lets you use a statement like obj.g() in the above
example. In order for that statement to be legal, g() must be a member
function of class B.

Inheritance lets you include the names and definitions of another class's
members as part of a new class. The class whose members you want to
include in your new class is called a base class. Your new class is derived
from the base class. The new class contains a sub object of the type of the
base class. The following example is the same as the previous example
except it uses the inheritance mechanism to give class B access to the
members of class A:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

class A {
int data;
public:
void f(int arg) { data = arg; }
int g() { return data; }
};

class B : public A { };

int main() {
B obj;
obj.f(20);
 cout << obj.g() << endl;
}
Class A is a base class of class B. The names and definitions of the members
of class A are included in the definition of class B; class B inherits the
members of class A. Class B is derived from class A. Class B contains a
subobject of type A.

You can also add new data members and member functions to the derived
class. You can modify the implementation of existing member functions or
data by overriding base class member functions or data in the newly derived
class.

You may derive classes from other derived classes, thereby creating another
level of inheritance. The following example demonstrates this:

struct A { };
struct B : A { };
struct C : B { };

Class B is a derived class of A, but is also a base class of C. The number of

levels of inheritance is only limited by resources.

Multiple inheritance allows you to create a derived class that inherits

properties from more than one base class. Because a derived class inherits
members from all its base classes, ambiguities can result. For example, if
two base classes have a member with the same name, the derived class
cannot implicitly differentiate between the two members. Note that, when
you are using multiple inheritance, the access to names of base classes may
be ambiguous.

A direct base class is a base class that appears directly as a base specifier in
the declaration of its derived class.

An indirect base class is a base class that does not appear directly in the
declaration of the derived class but is available to the derived class through
one of its base classes. For a given class, all base classes that are not direct
base classes are indirect base classes. The following example demonstrates
direct and indirect base classes:

class A {
public:
int x;
};
class B : public A {
public:
int y;
};
class C : public B { };

Class B is a direct base class of C. Class A is a direct base class of B. Class A

is an indirect base class of C. (Class C has x and y as its data members.)

Polymorphic functions are functions that can be applied to objects of more

than one type. In C++, polymorphic functions are implemented in two ways:

•Overloaded functions are statically bound at compile time.

•C++ provides virtual functions. A virtual function is a function that can be
called for a number of different user-defined types that are related through
derivation. Virtual functions are bound dynamically at run time

6. Describe the Friend functions and friend classes with

programming examples.
Ans

Friend function

When a data is declared as private inside a class, then it is not accessible

from outside the class. A function that is not a member or an external class
will not be able to access the private data. A programmer may have a
situation where he or she would need to access private data from non-
member functions and external classes. For handling such cases, the
concept of Friend functions is a useful tool.

A friend function is used for accessing the non-public members of a class. A

class can allow non-member functions and other classes to access its own
private data, by making them friends. Thus, a friend function is an ordinary
function or a member of another class.

The friend function is written as any other normal function, except the
function declaration of these functions is preceded with the keyword friend.
The friend function must have the class to which it is declared as friend
passed to it in argument.

Some important points to note while using friend functions in C++:

The keyword friend is placed only in the function declaration of the friend
function and not in the function definition.

It is possible to declare a function as friend in any number of classes.

When a class is declared as a friend, the friend class has access to the
private data of the class that made this a friend.

A friend function, even though it is not a member function, would have the
rights to access the private members of the class.

It is possible to declare the friend function as either private or public.

The function can be invoked without the use of an object. The friend function
has its argument as objects, seen in example below.

#include
class exforsys
{
private:
int a,b;
public:
void test()
{
a=100;
b=200;
}
friend int compute(exforsys e1)

//Friend Function Declaration with keyword friend and with the object of class
exforsys to which it is friend passed to it
};

int compute(exforsys e1)

{
//Friend Function Definition which has access to private data
return int(e1.a+e2.b)-5;
}

main()
{
exforsys e;
e.test();
cout<<"The result is:"< //Calling of Friend Function with object as argument.
}

The output of the above program is

The result is:295

The function compute() is a non-member function of the class exforsys. In
order to make this function have access to the private data a and b of class
exforsys , it is created as a friend function for the class exforsys. As a first
step, the function compute() is declared as friend in the class exforsys as:

friend int compute (exforsys e1)

Friend Class

C++ provides the friend keyword to do just this. Inside a class, you can
indicate that other classes (or simply functions) will have direct access to
protected and private members of the class. When granting access to a
class, you must specify that the access is granted for a class using the class
keyword:
friend class aClass;

Note that friend declarations can go in either the public, private, or protected
section of a class--it doesn't matter where they appear. In particular,
specifying a friend in the section marked protected doesn't prevent the
friend from also accessing private fields. Here is a more concrete example of
declaring a friend:

class Node
{
private:
int data;
int key;
// ...

friend class BinaryTree; // class BinaryTree can now access data directly
};

Now, Node does not need to provide any means of accessing the data stored
in the tree. The BinaryTree class that will use the data is the only class that
will ever need access to the data or key. (The BinaryTree class needs to use
the key to order the tree, and it will be the gateway through which other
classes can access data stored in any particular node.) Now in the
BinaryTree class, you can treat the key and data fields as though they were
public:

class BinaryTree
{
private:
Node *root;

int find(int key);

};
int BinaryTree::find(int key)
{
// check root for NULL...
if(root->key == key)
{
// no need to go through an accessor function
return root->data;
}
// perform rest of find
}

7. Illustrate with suitable examples various file handling methods in

C++.

Ans.

Opening a File – Different Methods

So far we have seen just one way to open a file, either for reading,
either for writing. But it can be opened another way too. So far, you should
be aware of this method:

ifstream OpenFile(“cpp-home.txt”);

Well, this is not the only way. As mentioned before, the above code
creates an object from class ifstream, and passes the name of the file to be
opened to its constructor. But in fact, there are several overloaded
constructors, which can take more than one parameter. Also, there is
function open() that can do the same job. Here is an example of the above
code, but using the open() function:

ifstream OpenFile;

OpenFile.open(“cpp-home.txt”);

Other use of open() is for example if you open a file, then close it, and
using the same file handle open another file. This way, you will need the
open() function.

Consider the following code example:

#include <fstream.h>
void read(ifstream &T) { //pass the file stream to the function
//the method to read a file
char ch;
while(!T.eof()) {
T.get(ch);
cout << ch;
}
cout << endl << "——–" << endl;
}
void main() {
ifstream T("file1.txt");
read(T);
T.close();
T.open("file2.txt");
read(T);
T.close();
}

So, as long as file1.txt and file2.txt exists and has some text into, you will
see it.

ifstream OpenFile(char *filename, int open_mode);

You should know that filename is the name of the file (a string). What
is new here is the open_mode. The value of open_mode defines how to a file
can be opened. Here is a table of the open modes:

ios::in Open file to read

ios::out Open file to write
ios::app All the date you write, is put at the end of the file. It calls
ios::out
ios::ate All the date you write, is put at the end of the file. It does not
call ios::out
ios::trunc Deletes all previous content in the file. (empties the file)
ios::nocreat If the file does not exists, opening it with the open() function
e gets impossible.
ios::norepla If the file exists, trying to open it with the open() function,
ce returns an error.
ios::binary Opens the file in binary mode.

All these values are int constants from an enumerated type. But for
making your life easier, you can use them as you see them in the table. Here
is an example on how to use the open modes:

#include <fstream.h>
void main() {
ofstream SaveFile("file1.txt", ios::ate);
SaveFile << "That’s new!n";
SaveFile.close();
}

As you see in the table, using ios::ate will write at the end of the file. If
it wasn’t used, the file would have been overwritten. So, if file1.txt has this
text:

Hi! This is test from www.cpp-home.com!

Running the above code, will add “That’s new!” to it, so it will look this way:

Hi! This is test from www.cpp-home.com!That’s new!

If you want to set more than one open mode, just use the OR operator (|).
This way:

ios::ate | ios::binary

Using different open modes helps make file handling an easy job. Having

the liberty to choose a combination of these, in a sane way, comes in very

handy in using streams effectively, and to the requirements of the project.

Moving on to something more intriguing and important; we can create a file

stream handle, which you can use to read/write file, in the same time. Here
is how it works:

fstream File(“cpp-home.txt”, ios::in | ios::out);

In fact, that is only the declaration. The code line above creates a file
stream handle, named File. As you know, this is an object from class fstream.
When using fstream, you should specify ios::in and ios::out as open modes.
This way, you can read from the file, and write in it, in the same time,
without creating new file handles. Well, of course, you can only read or write.
Here is the code example:

#include <fstream.h>
void main() {
fstream File("test.txt", ios::in | ios::out);
File << "Hi!"; //put “Hi!” in the file
static char str[10]; //when using static, the array is automatically
//initialized, and very cell NULLed
File.seekg(ios::beg); //get back to the beginning of the file
//this function is explained a bit later
File >> str;
cout << str << endl;
File.close();
}

Let us now understand the above program:

fstream File(“test.txt”, ios::in | ios::out);

This line, creates an object from class fstream. At the time of execution, the
program opens the file test.txt in read/write mode. This means, that you can
read from the file, and put data into it, at the same time.

File << “Hi!”;

I am sure the reader is aware of this and hence the explanation for this
statement is redundant.

static char str[10];

This makes a char array with 10 cells. The word static initializes the array
when at the time of creation.

File.seekg(ios::beg);

To understand this statement, let us go back and recollect some basics. We

have seen this before:

while(!OpenFile.eof()) {
OpenFile.get(ch);
cout << ch;
}

This is a while loop, that will loop until you reach the end of the file.
But how does the loop know if the end of the file is reached? The answer is;
when you read the file, there is something like an inside-pointer (current
reading/writing position) that shows where you are up to, with the reading
(and writing, too). Every time you call OpenFile.get(ch) it returns the current
character to the ch variable, and moves the inside-pointer one character
after that, so that the next time this function is called, it will return the next
character. And this repeats, until you reach the end of the file.

Going back to the code line; the function seekg() will put the inside-pointer to
a specific place (specified by you). One can use:

· ios::beg – to put it in the beginning of the file

· ios::end – to put it at the end of the file

Or you can also set the number of characters to go back or after. For
example, if you want to go 5 characters back, you should write:

File.seekg(-5);

If you want to go 40 characters after, just write:

File.seekg(40);
It is imperative to mention that the seekg() function is overloaded, and it can
take two parameters, too. The other version is this one:

File.seekg(-5, ios::end);

In this example, you will be able to read the last 4 characters of the text,
because:

· You go to the end (ios::end)

· You go 5 characters before the end (-5)

Why you will read 4 but not 5 characters? One character is lost, because the
last thing in the file is neither a character nor white space. It is just position
(i.e., end of file).

Why this function was used the program above. After putting “Hi!” in the file,
the inside-pointer was set after it, i.e., at the end of the file. And as we want
to read the file, there is nothing that can be read at the end. Hence, we have
to put the inside-pointer at the beginning. And that is exactly what this
function does.

File >> str;

I believe this line reminds us of cin >>. In fact, it has much to do with it. This
line reads one word from the file, and puts it into the specified array. For
example, if the file has this text:

Hi! Do you know me?

Using File >> str, will put just “Hi!” to the str array. And, as what we put in
the file was “Hi!” we don’t need to do a while loop, that takes more time to
code. That’s why this technique was used. By the way, in the while loop for
reading, that was used so far, the program reads the file, char by char. But
you can read it word by word, this way:
char str[30]; //the word can’t be more than 30 characters long
while(!OpenFile.eof()){
OpenFile >> str;
cout << str;
}
You can also read it line by line, this way:
char line[100]; //a whole line will be stored here
while(!OpenFile.eof()) {
OpenFile.getline(line,100); //where 100 is the size of the array
cout << line << endl;
}

8. Explain the concept of class templates in C++ with some real time
programming examples.

Ans.
A class template definition looks like a regular class definition, except it is
prefixed by the keyword template. For example, here is the definition of a
class template for a Stack.
template <class T>
class Stack {
public:
Stack(int = 10);
~Stack() { delete [] stackPtr ; }
int push(const T&);
int pop(T&);
int isEmpty()const { return top == -1; }
int isFull() const { return top == size – 1; }
private:
int size; // number of elements on Stack.
int top;
T* stackPtr;
};

T is a type parameter and it can be any type. For example,

Stack<Token>, where Token is a user defined class. T does not have to be a
class type as implied by the keyword class. For example, Stack<int> and
Stack<Message*> are valid instantiations, even though int and Message*
are not "classes".

Implementing Class Template Member Functions

 Implementing template member functions is somewhat different
compared to the regular class member functions. The declarations and
definitions of the class template member functions should all be in the same
header file. The declarations and definitions need to be in the same header
file.

Consider the following:

//B.H //B.CPP //MAIN.CPP

template <class t> #include "B.H" #include "B.H"
class b { template <class void main() {
public: t> b<int> bi;
b(); b<t>::b() { b <float> bf;
~b(); } }
}; template <class
t>
b<t>::~b() {
}

When compiling B.cpp, the compiler has both the declarations and the
definitions available. At this point the compiler does not need to generate
any definitions for template classes, since there are no instantiations. When
the compiler compiles main.cpp, there are two instantiations: template class
B<int> and B<float>. At this point the compiler has the declarations but no
definitions.

While implementing class template member functions, the definitions

are prefixed by the keyword template. Here is the complete implementation
of class template Stack:

//stack.h
#pragma once
template <class T>
class Stack {
public:
Stack(int = 10);
~Stack() { delete [] stackPtr; }
int push(const T&);
int pop(T&); // pop an element off the stack
int isEmpty()const { return top == -1; }
int isFull() const { return top == size – 1; }
private:
int size; // Number of elements on Stack
int top;
T* stackPtr;
};
//constructor with the default size 10
template <class T>
Stack<T>::Stack(int s) {
size = s > 0 && s < 1000 ? s : 10;
top = -1; // initialize stack
stackPtr = new T[size];
}
// push an element onto the Stack
template <class T>
int Stack<T>::push(const T& item) {
if (!isFull())
{
stackPtr[++top] = item;
return 1; // push successful
}
return 0; // push unsuccessful
}
// pop an element off the Stack
template <class T>
int Stack<T>::pop(T& popValue) {
if (!isEmpty())
{
popValue = stackPtr[top--];
return 1; // pop successful
}
return 0; // pop unsuccessful
}

Using a class template

Using a class template is easy. Create the required classes by plugging

in the actual type for the type parameters. This process is commonly known
as "Instantiating a class". Here is a sample driver class that uses the Stack
class template.

#include <iostream>
#include "stack.h"
using namespace std;
void main() {
typedef Stack<float> FloatStack;
typedef Stack<int> IntStack;
FloatStack fs(5);
float f = 1.1;
cout << "Pushing elements onto fs" << endl;
while (fs.push(f))
 {
cout << f << ‘ ‘;
f += 1.1;
}
cout << endl << "Stack Full." << endl
<< endl << "Popping elements from fs" << endl;
while (fs.pop(f))
cout << f << ‘ ‘;
cout << endl << "Stack Empty" << endl;
cout << endl;
IntStack is;
int i = 1.1;
cout << "Pushing elements onto is" << endl;
while (is.push(i))
{
cout << i << ‘ ‘;
i += 1;
}
cout << endl << "Stack Full" << endl
<< endl << "Popping elements from is" << endl;
while (is.pop(i))
cout << i << ‘ ‘;
cout << endl << "Stack Empty" << endl;
}

Output:

Pushing elements onto fs

1.1 2.2 3.3 4.4 5.5
Stack Full.
Popping elements from fs
5.5 4.4 3.3 2.2 1.1
Stack Empty
Pushing elements onto is
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Stack Full
Popping elements from is
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Stack Empty

In the above example we defined a class template Stack. In the driver

program we instantiated a Stack of float (FloatStack) and a Stack of
int(IntStack). Once the template classes are instantiated you can instantiate
objects of that type (for example, fs and is.)
There are two advantages:

· typedef’s are very useful when "templates of templates" come into usage.
For example, when instantiating an STL vector of int’s, you could use:

typedef vector<int, allocator<int> > INTVECTOR;

· If the template definition changes, simply change the typedef definition. For
example, currently the definition of template class vector requires a second
parameter.

typedef vector<int, allocator<int> > INTVECTOR;

INTVECTOR vi1;
In a future version, the second parameter may not be required, for example,
typedef vector<int> INTVECTOR;
INTVECTOR vi1;

Master of Computer Application (MCA) – Semester 2

 MC0066 – OOPS using C++ – 4 Credits
(Book ID: B0681 & B0715)
Assignment Set – 2 (40 Marks)

Answer all Questions Each Question carries FIVE Marks

1. Explain the concept of constructors and destructors with suitable

examples.

Ans.

Constructor

The main use of constructors is to initialize objects. The function of

initialization is automatically carried out by the use of a special member
function called a constructor.

Constructor is a special member function that takes the same name as the
class name. The syntax generally is as given below:

<class name> { arguments};

The default constructor for a class X has the form

X::X()

In the above example the arguments is optional.

The constructor is automatically named when an object is created. A

constructor is named whenever an object is defined or dynamically allocated
using the "new" operator.

There are several forms in which a constructor can take its shape namely:

Default Constructor:

This constructor has no arguments in it. Default Constructor is also called as

no argument constructor.

For example:

class Exforsys
{
private:
int a,b;
 public:
Exforsys();
...
};

Exforsys :: Exforsys()
{
a=0;
b=0;
}

Copy constructor:

This constructor takes one argument. Also called one argument constructor.
The main use of copy constructor is to initialize the objects while in creation,
also used to copy an object. The copy constructor allows the programmer to
create a new object from an existing one by initialization.

For example to invoke a copy constructor the programmer writes:

Exforsys e3(e2);
or
Exforsys e3=e2;

Both the above formats can be sued to invoke a copy constructor.

For Example:

#include <iostream.h>
class Exforsys()
{
private:
int a;
public:
Exforsys()
{}
Exforsys(int w)
{
a=w;
}
Exforsys(Exforsys& e)
{
a=e.a;
cout<<” Example of Copy Constructor”;
}
 void result()
{
cout<< a;
}
};

void main()
{
Exforsys e1(50);
Exforsys e3(e1);
cout<< “\ne3=”;e3.result();
}

In the above the copy constructor takes one argument an object of type
Exforsys which is passed by reference. The output of the above program is

Example of Copy Constructor

e3=50

Some important points about constructors:

A constructor takes the same name as the class name.

The programmer cannot declare a constructor as virtual or static, nor can the
programmer declare a constructor as const, volatile, or const volatile.

No return type is specified for a constructor.

The constructor must be defined in the public. The constructor must be a

public member.

Overloading of constructors is possible. This will be explained in later

sections of this tutorial.

Destructors

Destructors are also special member functions used in C++ programming

language. Destructors have the opposite function of a constructor. The main
use of destructors is to release dynamic allocated memory. Destructors are
used to free memory, release resources and to perform other clean up.
Destructors are automatically named when an object is destroyed. Like
constructors, destructors also take the same name as that of the class name.

Syntax
~ classname();

The above is the general syntax of a destructor. In the above, the symbol
tilda ~ represents a destructor which precedes the name of the class.

Some important points about destructors:

Destructors take the same name as the class name.

Like the constructor, the destructor must also be defined in the public. The
destructor must be a public member.

The Destructor does not take any argument which means that destructors
cannot be overloaded.

No return type is specified for destructors.

class Exforsys
{
private:
……………
public:
Exforsys()
{}
~ Exforsys()
{}
}

2. Describe the following:

Ans.

A. Types of Inheritance

Single Inheritance
In "single inheritance," a common form of inheritance, classes have only one
base class.
class CFather
{
public:
void Gender () {cout<<"Male" ;}
void Blood () {cout<<"Red";}
void Initial (){cout<<"Angajala";}
void Address (){cout <<"******" ;}

};
Class CDerived:public CBase
{
};

Multilevel Inheritance
It is the enhancement of the concept of inheritance. When a subclass is
derived from a derived class then this mechanism is known as the multilevel
inheritance. The derived class is called the subclass or child class for its
parent class and this parent class works as the child class for it's just above
(parent) class. Multilevel inheritance can go up to any number of levels.
The best example is Say we have 3 classes
ClassA, ClassB and ClassC. ClassB is derived from ClassA and ClassC is
derived ClassB
This is multi level inheritance..
ClassA
^
|
ClassB
^
|
ClassC

. class CFather
{
public:
void Gender () {cout<<"Male" ;}
void Blood () {cout<<"Red";}
void Initial (){cout<<"Angajala";}
void Address (){cout <<"******" ;}

};
Class CDerived:public CBase
{
};
Class C2Derived:public CDerived
{
};

Multiple Inheritances
You can derive a class from any number of base classes. Deriving a class
from more than one direct base class is called multiple inheritances.
In the following example, classes A, B, and C are direct base classes for the
derived class X:
class A { /* ... */ };
class B { /* ... */ };
class C { /* ... */ };
class X : public A, private B, public C { /* ... */ };

Hierarchical Inheritance
It is a type of inheritance where one or more derived classes is derived from
common( or one ) base class
E.g.

class A
{
// definition of class A
};
class B : public A //derived from A
{
// definition of class B
};
class C : public A //derived from A

{
// definition of class c
};

Hybrid Inheritance
In this type of inheritance, we can have mixture of number of inheritances
but this can generate an error of using same name function from no of
classes, which will bother the compiler to how to use the functions.
Therefore, it will generate errors in the program. This has known as
ambiguity or duplicity.

B. Object and Pointers.

An object is a component of a program that knows how to perform certain
actions and to interact with other pieces of the program. Functions have
previously been described as "black boxes" that take an input and spit out
an output. Objects can be thought of as "smart" black boxes. That is, objects
can know how to do more than one specific task, and they can store their
own set of data. Designing a program with objects allows a programmer to
model the program after the real world. A program can be broken down into
specific parts, and each of these parts can perform fairly simple tasks. When
all of these simple pieces are meshed together into a program, it can
produce a very complicated and useful application.

Let's say that we are writing a text-based medieval video game. Our video
game will have two types of characters: the players and the monsters. A
player has to know the values of certain attributes: health, strength, and
agility. A player must also know what type of weapon and what type of armor
they possess. A player must be able to move through a maze, attack a
monster, and pick up treasure. So, to design this "player object", we must
first separate data that the player object must know from actions that the
player must know how to execute. The definition for a player object could be:

Player Object:
data:
health
strength
agility
type of weapon
type of armor
actions:
move
attack monster
get treasure
END;
Data that an object keeps track of is called member data and actions that an
object knows how to do are called member functions. Member data is very
similar to variables in a regular function in the sense that no other object can
get access to that data (unless given permission by the object). Member data
keeps its values over the life of an object
There is a very important distinction between an object and an instance of
an object. An object is actually a definition, or a template for instances of
that object. An instance of an object is an actual thing that can be
manipulated. For instance, we could define a Person object, which may
include such member data as hair color, eye color, height, weight, etc. An
instance of this object could be "Dave" and Dave has values for hair color,
eye color, etc. This allows for multiple instances of an object to be created.
Let's go back to the medieval video game example and define the monster
object.

A pointer is a way to get at another object. Essentially it is a way to grab an

instance of an object and then either pass that instance a message or
retreive some data from that object. A pointer is actually just an address of
where an instance is held in memory.

Some piece of your program can either possess an instance of an object, or

know where an instance of an object is. An instance of an object is a chunk of
memory that is big enough to store all the member data of that object. A
pointer is an address that explains how to get to where the instance is
actually held in memory. Here's a quick example:

Our Player object has three pieces of data that it owns: strength, agility, and
health. These are a part of the player object. That makes sense in real world
terms. The player knows about two other pieces of data: the weapon and the
armor that the player possesses. Here's a diagram for an instance of the
player object.

So that is how to conceptually think of pointers. Now what's really going on?
Memory in a computer is a complicated thing, but let's reduce it to it's
simplest form: one large string of slots with addresses that data can be put
in. As in the following picture:
If we were to access the spot in memory with address 3, we would get the
value 45. If we were to access the spot in memory with address 2 we would
get the value "Dave". The previous diagram over simplifies two important
concepts, however

3. Describe the theory behind Virtual Functions and Polymorphism along with suitable
programming examples for each.

Virtual, as the name implies, is something that exists in effect but not in
reality. The concept of virtual function is the same as a function, but it does
not really exist although it appears in needed places in a program. The
object-oriented programming language C++ implements the concept of
virtual function as a simple member function, like all member functions of
the class.

The functionality of virtual functions can be over-ridden in its derived

classes. The programmer must pay attention not to confuse this concept
with function overloading. Function overloading is a different concept and
will be explained in later sections of this tutorial. Virtual function is a
mechanism to implement the concept of polymorphism (the ability to give
different meanings to one function).

The vital reason for having a virtual function is to implement a different

functionality in the derived class.

Properties of Virtual Functions:

Dynamic Binding Property:

Virtual Functions are resolved during run-time or dynamic binding. Virtual

functions are also simple member functions. The main difference between a
non-virtual C++ member function and a virtual member function is in the
way they are both resolved. A non-virtual C++ member function is resolved
during compile time or static binding. Virtual Functions are resolved during
run-time or dynamic binding
 Virtual functions are member functions of a class.
Virtual functions are declared with the keyword virtual, detailed in an
example below.
Virtual function takes a different functionality in the derived class.

Virtual functions are member functions declared with the keyword virtual.

For example, the general syntax to declare a Virtual Function uses:

class classname //This denotes the base class of C++ virtual function
{
public:
virtual void memberfunctionname() //This denotes the C++ virtual function
{
.............
............
}
};

Eg.

class BaseClass{
public:
virtual void who(void)
{
cout << "Base\n";
}
};
class Derived1 : public BaseClass
{
public:
void who (void)
{
cout << "Derived Class 1 \n";
}
};

class Derived2 : public BaseClass

{
public:
void who (void)
{
cout << "Derived Class 2\n";
}
};
int main(void)
{
BaseClass b;
BaseClass *bp;
Derived1 d1;
Derived2 d2;

bp = &b;
bp ->who();//Executes the base class who function

bp = &d1;
bp ->who();//Executes the Derived1 class who function

bp = &d2;
bp ->who();//Executes the Derived2 class who function
}
//Out put
//Base
//Derived Class 1
//Derived Class 2

Polymorphism is the ability to use an operator or function in different ways.

Polymorphism gives different meanings or functions to the operators or
functions. Poly, referring to many, signifies the many uses of these operators
and functions. A single function usage or an operator functioning in many
ways can be called polymorphism. Polymorphism refers to codes, operations
or objects that behave differently in different contexts.

Below is a simple example of the above concept of polymorphism:

6 + 10

The above refers to integer addition.

The same + operator can be used with different meanings with strings:

"Exforsys" + "Training"

The same + operator can also be used for floating point addition:

7.15 + 3.78
Polymorphism is a powerful feature of the object oriented programming
language C++. A single operator + behaves differently in different contexts
such as integer, float or strings referring the concept of polymorphism. The
above concept leads to operator overloading. The concept of overloading is
also a branch of polymorphism. When the exiting operator or function
operates on new data type it is overloaded. This feature of polymorphism
leads to the concept of virtual methods.

Polymorphism refers to the ability to call different functions by using only

one type of function call. Suppose a programmer wants to code vehicles of
different shapes such as circles, squares, rectangles, etc. One way to define
each of these classes is to have a member function for each that makes
vehicles of each shape. Another convenient approach the programmer can
take is to define a base class named Shape and then create an instance of
that class. The programmer can have array that hold pointers to all different
objects of the vehicle followed by a simple loop structure to make the
vehicle, as per the shape desired, by inserting pointers into the defined
array. This approach leads to different functions executed by the same
function call. Polymorphism is used to give different meanings to the same
concept. This is the basis for Virtual function implementation.

In polymorphism, a single function or an operator functioning in many ways

depends upon the usage to function properly. In order for this to occur, the
following conditions must apply:

All different classes must be derived from a single base class. In the above
example, the shapes of vehicles (circle, triangle, rectangle) are from the
single base class called Shape.

The member function must be declared virtual in the base class. In the
above example, the member function for making the vehicle should be made
as virtual to the base class.

Types of Polymorphism:
C++ provides three different types of polymorphism.

•Virtual functions
•Function name overloading
•Operator overloading

In addition to the above three types of polymorphism, there exist other kinds
of polymorphism:
•run-time
•compile-time
•ad-hoc polymorphism
•parametric polymorphism
4. Write a program in C++ for copying and printing the contents of files.
Ans.
#include<iostream.h>
#include<fstream.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
#include<process.h>
#include<string.h>

struct student
{ int rollno;
char name[20];
int marks;
}s;

void main()
{ ifstream fin;
ofstream fout;
int ch,no;
do
{ clrscr();
cout<<"\nMenu\n";
cout<<"\n1. Add";
cout<<"\n2. Search";
cout<<"\n3. Display";
cout<<"\n4. Exit";
cout<<"\n\nEnter your choice: ";cin>>ch;
switch(ch)
{ case 1:
{ cout<<"\nEnter rollno. :";cin>>s.rollno;
cout<<"\nName: ";gets(s.name);
cout<<"\nMarks: ";cin>>s.marks;
fout.open("student.dat",ios::binary|ios::app);
fout.write((char*)&s,sizeof(student));
fout.close();
break;
}
case 2:
{ cout<<"\nEnter rollno. to be searched: ";cin>>no;
fin.open("student.dat",ios::binary|ios::in);
while(!fin.eof())
 { fin.read((char*)&s,sizeof(student));
if (s.rollno==no)
{ cout<<"\nRollno: "<<s.rollno;
cout<<"\nName: "<<s.name;
cout<<"\nMarks: "<<s.marks;
getch();
break;
}
}
fin.close();
break;
}

case 3:
{ fin.open("student.dat",ios::binary|ios::in);
while(!fin.eof())
{ clrscr();
fin.read((char*)&s,sizeof(student));
cout<<"\nRoll No. :"<<s.rollno;
cout<<"\nName: "<<s.name;
cout<<"\nMarks: "<<s.marks;
getch();
}
fin.close(); break;
}

case 4:exit(0);
} while (ch<=4);
}

5. Explain Class templates and function templates.

Ans.

Many C++ programs use common data structures like stacks, queues and
lists. A program may require a queue of customers and a queue of
messages. One could easily implement a queue of customers, then take the
existing code and implement a queue of messages. The program grows, and
now there is a need for a queue of orders. So just take the queue of
messages and convert that to a queue of orders (Copy, paste, find,
replace????). Need to make some changes to the queue implementation?
Not a very easy task, since the code has been duplicated in many places. Re-
inventing source code is not an intelligent approach in an object oriented
environment which encourages re-usability. It seems to make more sense to
implement a queue that can contain any arbitrary type rather than
duplicating code. How does one do that? The answer is to use type
parameterization, more commonly referred to as templates.

C++ templates allow one to implement a generic Queue<T> template that

has a type parameter T. T can be replaced with actual types, for example,
Queue<Customers>, and C++ will generate the class Queue<Customers>.
Changing the implementation of the Queue becomes relatively simple. Once
the changes are implemented in the template Queue<T>, they are
immediately reflected in the classes Queue<Customers>,
Queue<Messages>, and Queue<Orders>.

Templates are very useful when implementing generic constructs like

vectors, stacks, lists, queues which can be used with any arbitrary type. C++
templates provide a way to re-use source code as opposed to inheritance
and composition which provide a way to re-use object code.

C++ provides two kinds of templates: class templates and function

templates. Use function templates to write generic functions that can be
used with arbitrary types. For example, one can write searching and sorting
routines which can be used with any arbitrary type. The Standard Template
Library generic algorithms have been implemented as function templates,
and the containers have been implemented as class templates.

Class Templates

Implementing a class template

A class template definition looks like a regular class definition, except it is

prefixed by the keyword template. For example, here is the definition of a
class template for a Stack.

template <class T>

class Stack
{
public:
Stack(int = 10) ;
~Stack() { delete [] stackPtr ; }
int push(const T&);
int pop(T&) ;
int isEmpty()const { return top == -1 ; }
int isFull() const { return top == size - 1 ; }
private:
int size ; // number of elements on Stack.
 int top ;
T* stackPtr ;
};

T is a type parameter and it can be any type. For example, Stack<Token>,

where Token is a user defined class. T does not have to be a class type as
implied by the keyword class. For example, Stack<int> and
Stack<Message*> are valid instantiations, even though int and Message*
are not "classes".

Implementing template member functions is somewhat different compared

to the regular class member functions. The declarations and definitions of
the class template member functions should all be in the same header file.
The declarations and definitions need to be in the same header file. Consider
the following.

//B.H
template <class t>
class b
{
public:
b() ;
~b() ;
};

// B.CPP
#include "B.H"
template <class t>
b<t>::b()
{
}
template <class t>
b<t>::~b()
{
}

//MAIN.CPP
#include "B.H"
void main()
{
 b<int> bi ;
b <float> bf ;
}

When compiling B.cpp, the compiler has both the declarations and the
definitions available. At this point the compiler does not need to generate
any definitions for template classes, since there are no instantiations. When
the compiler compiles main.cpp, there are two instantiations: template class
B<int> and B<float>. At this point the compiler has the declarations but no
definitions!

While implementing class template member functions, the definitions are

prefixed by the keyword template. Here is the complete implementation of
class template Stack:

//stack.h
#pragma once
template <class T>
class Stack
{
public:
Stack(int = 10) ;
~Stack() { delete [] stackPtr ; }
int push(const T&);
int pop(T&) ; // pop an element off the stack
int isEmpty()const { return top == -1 ; }
int isFull() const { return top == size - 1 ; }
private:
int size ; // Number of elements on Stack
int top ;
T* stackPtr ;
};

//constructor with the default size 10

template <class T>
Stack<T>::Stack(int s)
{
size = s > 0 && s < 1000 ? s : 10 ;
top = -1 ; // initialize stack
stackPtr = new T[size] ;
}
// push an element onto the Stack
template <class T>
int Stack<T>::push(const T& item)
{
if (!isFull())
 {
stackPtr[++top] = item ;
return 1 ; // push successful
}
return 0 ; // push unsuccessful
}

// pop an element off the Stack

template <class T>
int Stack<T>::pop(T& popValue)
{
if (!isEmpty())
{
popValue = stackPtr[top--] ;
return 1 ; // pop successful
}
return 0 ; // pop unsuccessful
}

Using a class template is easy. Create the required classes by plugging in the
actual type for the type parameters. This process is commonly known as
"Instantiating a class". Here is a sample driver class that uses the Stack class
template.

#include <iostream>
#include "stack.h"
using namespace std ;
void main()
{
typedef Stack<float> FloatStack ;
typedef Stack<int> IntStack ;

FloatStack fs(5) ;
float f = 1.1 ;
cout << "Pushing elements onto fs" << endl ;
while (fs.push(f))
{
cout << f << ' ' ;
f += 1.1 ;
}
cout << endl << "Stack Full." << endl
<< endl << "Popping elements from fs" << endl ;
while (fs.pop(f))
cout << f << ' ' ;
cout << endl << "Stack Empty" << endl ;
cout << endl ;
 IntStack is ;
int i = 1.1 ;
cout << "Pushing elements onto is" << endl ;
while (is.push(i))
{
cout << i << ' ' ;
i += 1 ;
}
cout << endl << "Stack Full" << endl
<< endl << "Popping elements from is" << endl ;
while (is.pop(i))
cout << i << ' ' ;
cout << endl << "Stack Empty" << endl ;
}

Function Templates

To perform identical operations for each type of data compactly and

conveniently, use function templates. You can write a single function
template definition. Based on the argument types provided in calls to the
function, the compiler automatically instantiates separate object code
functions to handle each type of call appropriately. The STL algorithms are
implemented as function templates.

Function templates are implemented like regular functions, except they are
prefixed with the keyword template. Here is a sample with a function
template.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std ;
//max returns the maximum of the two elements
template <class T>
T max(T a, T b)
{
return a > b ? a : b ;
}

Using function templates is very easy: just use them like regular functions.
When the compiler sees an instantiation of the function template, for
example: the call max(10, 15) in function main, the compiler generates a
function max(int, int). Similarly the compiler generates definitions for
max(char, char) and max(float, float) in this case.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std ;
//max returns the maximum of the two elements
template <class T>
T max(T a, T b)
{
return a > b ? a : b ;
}
void main()
{

cout << "max(10, 15) = " << max(10, 15) << endl ;
cout << "max('k', 's') = " << max('k', 's') << endl ;
cout << "max(10.1, 15.2) = " << max(10.1, 15.2) << endl ;
}

6. Discuss the theory of Exception specifications with suitable code snippets for each.
Ans.
C++ provides a mechanism to ensure that a given function is limited to
throwing only a specified list of exceptions. An exception specification at the
beginning of any function acts as a guarantee to the function's caller that the
function will throw only the exceptions contained in the exception
specification.

For example, a function:

void translate() throw(unknown_word,bad_grammar) { /* ... */ }explicitly

states that it will only throw exception objects whose types are
unknown_word or bad_grammar, or any type derived from unknown_word or
bad_grammar.

Exception specification syntax

>>-throw--(--+--------------+--)-------------------------------><
'-type_id_list-'

The type_id_list is a comma-separated list of types. In this list you cannot

specify an incomplete type, a pointer or a reference to an incomplete type,
other than a pointer to void, optionally qualified with const and/or volatile.
You cannot define a type in an exception specification.

A function with no exception specification allows all exceptions. A function

with an exception specification that has an empty type_id_list, throw(), does
not allow any exceptions to be thrown.

An exception specification is not part of a function's type.

An exception specification may only appear at the end of a function

declarator of a function, pointer to function, reference to function, pointer to
member function declaration, or pointer to member function definition. An
exception specification cannot appear in a typedef declaration. The following
declarations demonstrate this:

void f() throw(int);

void (*g)() throw(int);
void h(void i() throw(int));
// typedef int (*j)() throw(int); This is an error.The compiler would not allow
the last declaration, typedef int (*j)() throw(int).

Suppose that class A is one of the types in the type_id_list of an exception

specification of a function. That function may throw exception objects of
class A, or any class publicly derived from class A. The following example
demonstrates this:

class A { };
class B : public A { };
class C { };

void f(int i) throw (A) {

switch (i) {
case 0: throw A();
case 1: throw B();
default: throw C();
}
}

void g(int i) throw (A*) {

A* a = new A();
B* b = new B();
C* c = new C();
switch (i) {
case 0: throw a;
case 1: throw b;
default: throw c;
 }
}Function f() can throw objects of types A or B. If the function tries to throw
an object of type C, the compiler will call unexpected() because type C has
not been specified in the function's exception specification, nor does it derive
publicly from A. Similarly, function g() cannot throw pointers to objects of
type C; the function may throw pointers of type A or pointers of objects that
derive publicly from A.

A function that overrides a virtual function can only throw exceptions

specified by the virtual function. The following example demonstrates this:

class A {
public:
virtual void f() throw (int, char);
};

class B : public A{
public: void f() throw (int) { }
};

/* The following is not allowed. */

/*
class C : public A {
public: void f() { }
};

class D : public A {
public: void f() throw (int, char, double) { }
};
*/The compiler allows B::f() because the member function may throw only
exceptions of type int. The compiler would not allow C::f() because the
member function may throw any kind of exception. The compiler would not
allow D::f() because the member function can throw more types of
exceptions (int, char, and double) than A::f().

Suppose that you assign or initialize a pointer to function named x with a

function or pointer to function named y. The pointer to function x can only
throw exceptions specified by the exception specifications of y. The following
example demonstrates this:

void (*f)();
void (*g)();
void (*h)() throw (int);

void i() {
f = h;
// h = g; This is an error.
}The compiler allows the assignment f = h because f can throw any kind of
exception. The compiler would not allow the assignment h = g because h can
only throw objects of type int, while g can throw any kind of exception.

Implicitly declared special member functions (default constructors, copy

constructors, destructors, and copy assignment operators) have exception
specifications. An implicitly declared special member function will have in its
exception specification the types declared in the functions' exception
specifications that the special function invokes. If any function that a special
function invokes allows all exceptions, then that special function allows all
exceptions. If all the functions that a special function invokes allow no
exceptions, then that special function will allow no exceptions. The following
example demonstrates this:

class A {
public:
A() throw (int);
A(const A&) throw (float);
~A() throw();
};

class B {
public:
B() throw (char);
B(const A&);
~B() throw();
};

class C : public B, public A { };The following special functions in the above

example have been implicitly declared:

C::C() throw (int, char);

C::C(const C&); // Can throw any type of exception, including float
C::~C() throw();The default constructor of C can throw exceptions of type int
or char. The copy constructor of C can throw any kind of exception. The
destructor of C cannot throw any exceptions.

7. Explain the theory and applications of Sequence containers.

Ans:

The term "sequence analysis" in biology implies subjecting a DNA or peptide sequence to
sequence alignment, sequence databases, repeated sequence searches, or other bioinformatics
methods on a computer.
Since the development of methods of high-throughput production of gene and protein sequences
during the 90s, the rate of addition of new sequences to the databases increases continuously.
Such a collection of sequences does not, by itself, increase the scientist's understanding of the
biology of organisms. However, comparing sequences with known functions with these new
sequences is one way of understanding the biology of that organism from which the new
sequence comes. Thus, sequence analysis can be used to assign function to genes and proteins by
the study of the similarities between the compared sequences. Nowadays there are many tools
and techniques that provide the sequence comparisons (sequence alignment) and analyze the
alignment product to understand the biology.

Sequence analysis in molecular biology and bioinformatics is an automated, computer-based

examination of characteristic fragments, e.g. of a DNA strand. It basically includes relevant
topics:

1. The comparison of sequences in order to find similarity and dissimilarity in compared

sequences (sequence alignment)
2. Identification of gene-structures, reading frames, distributions of introns and exons and
regulatory elements
3. Finding and comparing point mutations or the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in
organism in order to get the genetic marker.
4. Revealing the evolution and genetic diversity of organisms.
5. Function annotation of genes.

8. Write about the following with respect to:

A. Instance Diagrams

Interaction diagrams are composed mainly of instances and messages. An

instance is said to be the realization of a class that is if we have a class
Doctor, than the instances are Dr. Jones, Dr. Smith, etc. In an object oriented
application, instances are what exist when you instantiate a class (create a
new variable with the class as its datatype).

In the UML, instances are represented as rectangles with a single label

formatted as:

instanceName: datatype

You can choose to name the instance or not, but the datatype should
always be specified. Below the name, you can also list the attributes and
their values. In Visual Case, you can map attributes from your class and
enter new values specific to that instance. Attributes need only be shown
when they are important and you don’t have to specify and show all of the
attributes of a class.
 Messages represent operation calls. That is, if an instance calls an
operation in itself or another class, a message is passed. Also, upon the
completion of the operation a return message is sent back to the instance
that initiated the call.

The format for message labels is:

Sequence Iteration [Guard] : name (parameters)

Sequence represents the order in which the message is called. The sequence
is redundant on sequence diagrams, but required on collaboration diagrams

Iteration – an asterix (*) is shown to represent iteration if the message is

called repeatedly.

Guard – an optional boolean expression (the result is either true or false) that
determines if the message is called.

Name represents the operation being called.

Parameters represent the parameters on the operation being called.

B) Sequence Diagrams

Sequence diagrams emphasize the order in which things happen, while

collaboration diagrams give more flexibility in their layout. You can use
whichever you prefer when drawing interactions, as both show the same
information.

An example sequence diagram for our logon collaboration is shown:

Things to Note:

· The flow of time is shown from top to bottom, that is messages higher on
the diagram happen before those lower down

· The blue boxes are instances of the represented classes, and the vertical
bars below are timelines

· The arrows (links) are messages – operation calls and returns from
operations

· The hide and show messages use guards to determine which to call.
Guards are always shown in square braces [ ] and represent constraints on
the message (the message is sent only if the constraint is satisfied)

· The messages are labeled with the operation being called and parameters
are shown. You can choose to enter the parameters or not – this is
dependent upon their importance to the collaboration being shown

· The sequence numbers are not shown on the messages as the sequence is
intrinsic to the diagram

Asynchronous Messages

You can specify a message as asynchronous if processing can continue

while the message is being executed. In the example below, the
asynchronous call does not block processing for the regular call right below.
This is useful if the operation being called is run remotely, or in another
thread.

C) Collaboration Diagrams
Collaborations are more complex to follow than sequence diagrams, but they
do provide the added benefit of more flexibility in terms of spatial layout.

Above is our logon interaction shown as a collaboration diagram. Notice that

each message is numbered in sequence, because it is not obvious from the
diagram, the order of the messages.

Lollipop Interfaces

Another advantage over the sequence diagram is that collaboration

diagrams allow you to show lollipop interfaces.

Suppose that our Database Access class implemented an interface called

Queryable. If the logon manager only has access to the interface, we can
show that the message is called through the interface by including a lollipop
interface on the diagram. The stick of the lollipop indicates that the class
Databas Access realizes Queryable.