STUDY NOTE ON ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD

LEVEL I

INDUSTRIAL NDT CONSULTANCY AND TRAINING

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1. INTRODUCTION

Ultrasonic inspection is a non-destructive method in which beams of high frequency sound

waves are introduced into materials mainly for the detection of flaws in dept. Ultrasonic test
method is also capable to identify surface defects with special arrangement.

The sound waves travel through the material and gradually loss its energy. On the way of its
travel if it interacts with some other media (might be inclusion, crack, porosity) then one part of
the transmitted energy reflects from the second media and the reflected beam is displayed and
then analyzed to define the presence and location of flaws or discontinuity.

The degree of reflection depends largely on the physical state of the materials forming the
interface and to a lesser extent on the specific physical properties of the material.

Cracks, laminations, shrinkage cavities, bursts, flakes, pores, disbonds and other discontinuities
that produce reflective interfaces can be easily detected. Inclusions and other inhomogeneities
can also be detected by causing partial reflection or scattering of the ultrasonic waves or by
producing some other detectable effect on the ultrasonic waves.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The primary advantages of ultrasonic inspection as compare to other methods are

• Superior penetrating power which allows the detection of flaws deep in the part. UT can
be possible to high thickness of about 6 meter in the axial inspection of parts such as long
steel shafts or rotor forgings.
• High sensitivity, permitting the detection of entirely small discontinuity.
• Greater accuracy in compare to other NDT methods in determining the position of internal
flaws, estimating their size and characterizing their orientation, shape and nature.
• Only one surface needs to be accessible.
• Operation is electronic which provide instant result.
• Volumetric scan is possible.
• Non-hazardous to operator.
• Provide an output that can be processed digitally by a computer to characterize defects
and to determine material properties.
The disadvantages of ultrasonic inspection include the following

• Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians.

• Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of inspection procedure.
• Parts those are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin, or not homogeneous are
difficult to inspect.
• Discontinuities those are present in a shallow layer immediately beneath the surface may
not be detectable.
• Couplants are needed to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic wave energy between
transducer and parts being inspected.
• Ultrasonic instruments are to be calibrated properly.

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 2. Different type of waves

a. Sub-sonic – frequency less than 20 Hz

b. Sonic- Frequency in between 20 to 20000 Hz
c. Supersonic- Frequency above 20000 Hz

The frequency of ultrasound is in the range of 200 KHz up t 35 MHz

1 KHz = 1000 Hz =103 Hz

1MHz = 1000000 Hz = 106 Hz

Frequency (f): The number of full cycles completed in a second by a sound wave in a media
is called frequency

Wave Length (λ): The distance travelled by a sound wave in a media during completion of
one cycle is called wave length.

Velocity (v) of sound in a media = Wave Length (λ) X Frequency (f)

The unit of frequency is cycle per second (cps) or hertz.

The unit of wave length is mm.

Different wave propagation

a. Longitudinal wave
b. Transverse wave
c. Surface wave or Raleigh wave
d. Plate wave or Lamb wave

a. Longitudinal wave

The propagation of wave is parallel to the direction of the vibration of the atoms of the test item. The wave
travels perpendicular to the plane of the test surface. Longitudinal or compressional or normal beam wave
can travel through both solid and liquid.

Velocity of normal beam wave in steel is = 5600 meter per second to 6000 meter per second
or
5.6 km per second to 6.0 km per second
or
5.6 X 106 mm per second to 6.0 X 106 mm per second

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Normal beam is used for the following purposes in minimum

a. thickness gauging
b. lamination check
c. bond check
d. corrosion and pitting check
e. weld check from the top of the weld with ground flush

Normal Beam Probe Direction of vibration of

atoms

Direction of propagation of
longitudinal wave parallel to
the direction of the vibration
of the atoms

b. Shear Wave

Shear wave travels perpendicular to the direction of vibration of atoms of the travelling media. Shear wave
can travel only in solid. The velocity of shear wave is almost half to the velocity of normal beam.
Shear wave travels in certain angle to the perpendicular axis of the test surface. The shear wave can
travel in between 350 to 800 in steel material.
The angle beam shear wave is generally used for weld scanning.

Angle beam probe Angle beam probe The direction of

vibration of atom

Job under angle The direction of

beam inspection propagation of shear
wave at perpendicular
to the direction of
atom’s vibration
Θ

Angle beam propagation

c. Surface Wave

Surface wave travels through the surface of the test item. It can travel maximum one wavelength depth
inside the material. The wave propagation is elliptical in nature. The velocity of surface wave is 0.9 Vshear.
Surface wave or Raleigh wave is used for the inspection of thin materials.

d. Lamb Wave

Lamb waves are known as plate waves, are another type of ultrasonic wave used in the nondestructive
inspection of materials. Lamb waves can propagate in plates only a few wavelengths thick. A lamb wave

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consists of a complex vibration that occurs throughout the thickness of the material. The propagation
characteristics of lamb waves depend on density, elastic properties, and structure of the material as well
as the thickness of the test piece and the frequency.

What is lamination?

Lamination is very thin slag or air gap. Lamination produces at the time of rolling of the billets to plate.
Lamination is parallel to the surface of the plate.

Lamination is checked by normal beam probe. Angle beam probe can not check lamination.

How to determine the sensitivity of a normal beam test method?

The half of the wave length is called sensitivity of a ultrasonic test method.

Example: Normal beam scanning is carried out on steel material with 4 MHz probe. Calculate the
sensitivity? Normal beam wave velocity in steel is 6 X 106 mm per second.

Velocity = wave length X frequency

Or, wave length = velocity

Frequency

= 6 X 106
4 X 106 1 MHz = 106 Hz

= 1.5 mm

so, sensitivity = wave length

2

= 1.5 mm = 0.75 mm
2

Requirements for ultrasonic testing

1. ultrasonic flaw detector

2. search unit
3. cables
4. couplant

1. Ultrasonic flaw detector

Ultrasonic flaw detector consist of the following circuits

1. battery
2. pulsar circuit
3. Timer circuit/ Electronic Clock
4. Amplifier-Receiver circuit
5. Delay-control circuit
6. Oscilloscope

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Types of Ultrasonic Testing

a. Direct contact method pulse-echo system

b. Through Transmission Technique
c. Immersion Technique

UT Image Presentation

a. A-scan presentation
b. B-scan Presentation
c. C-scan Presentation

Direct Contact Method Pulse-echo Technique with A-Scan Presentation

Gate
Battery
PRR Delay control
Vertical Plate

Pulsar Clock
100%

Receiver-
Probe Amplifier

Reflected Horizontal Plate

of CRT
Job Beam 0 10
Gain control
Attenuator
One part of the transmitted energy Oscilloscope Scale
Returned form the flaw depth

Transmitted beam Back Wall Echo

Here, we are discussing about the ultrasonic testing principle of a direct-contact method A-scan
presentation system in minimum. Many instruments includes electronic equipment for signal conditioning,
gating automatic interpretation and integration with a mechanical or electronic scanning system.
Moreover, data acquisition and signal-processing systems are also incorporated in recently developed
equipments

Power Supply circuits are supplying current for all the functions of the instrument.
The power supply is usually controlled by switches and fuses.

Pulsar Circuit –When electronically triggered, the pulser circuit generates a burst of alternating voltage.
The performance of search unit (probe) is influenced by the frequency, duration and repetition rate of the
burst generates by the pulsar circuit.

Search Unit - The transducer is the basic part of any search unit. A sending transducer is one to which
the voltage burst is applied, and it mechanically vibrates in response to the applied voltage. When
coupled to the test object through couplant, the ultrasonic wave delivers in the test object. In the way of
traveling inside the material, when ultrasound encounters any acoustic impedance difference due to the
presence of foreign material or porosity or lack of fusion or when reflected back from the back surface
(normal beam) of the test object, it reached to the receiving transducer where the ultrasound converts to

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the electric pulse. In the pulse echo mode a single generator alternately serves both the purpose.
However, the pitch catch method uses individual transducers for both transmission and receiving purpose.

Jacks are there to connect the search units with the instrument.

Receiver- amplifier Circuit- Electronically amplify the return signals from the receiving transducer and
modify the signal into a form suitable for display. The output from the receiver amplifier circuit is a signal
directly related to the intensity of the ultrasonic wave impinging on the receiving transducer. The output is
fed into vertical plate an oscilloscope or other display device.
Gain control of receiver-amplifier circuit usually consists of fine and coarse sensitivity selectors.

Electronic Clock- The electronic clock or timer serves as a source of logic pulses, reference voltage and
reference waveform. The clock coordinates operation of the entire electronic system.

Depending upon specific type of instrument, the other useful control is often available in the instrument for
electronically compensating for a drop in the amplitude of signals reflected from flaws located deep in the
testpiece. This circuit may be known as distance-amplitude-correction (DAC), sensitivity-time-control,
time-corrected-gain or time-varied-gain.

Pulse Repetition Rate (PRR) circuit controls the pulse rate. It may be a separate circuit or it may be a
part of the clock circuit.

Gate Circuit is connected to the Delay circuit which is connected to the horizontal plate of the CRT.

• Whenever UT flaw detector is switched on, the electrical pulse is generated in pulsar circuit. The
rate of pulse is controlled by clock.
• The clock circuit synchronizing the activities of all circuits
• The pulsation rate can be controlled by PRR circuit
• Pulsar send electric pulse to search unit. Before reaching the pulse to search unit, one part is
directly go to the amplifier-receiver circuit. The pat of the electric pulse exist in the CRT tube as
initial echo. Another part of the electric pulse activates the transducer of the search unit. The
frequency of the transducer should match to the frequency of the electric pulse send to it by the
pulsar.
• By the time, the timer circuit activates delay control. Delay circuit is connected to horizontal plates
of the CRT tube.
• The CRT tube continuously discharging electron which are continuously flowing from left horizontal
plate to right horizontal plate.
• The range of any test system is adjusted by adjusting the speed of flow of this electron beam.
Therefore, the range of a system is adjusted by the time needed for travelling the electron beam
from left to right plate. This is the reason, the horizontal base is called Time Base.
• When electric pulse form pulsar circuit reaches the transducer, the transducer converts the
transducer to mechanical vi

Search Unit Type

1. Normal Beam Search Unit

1a. Single Crystal
2b. Double Crystal
2. Angle Beam
3. Wheel Probe

Construction of probe

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 Co axial cable

Housing
Crystal/
Backing Transducer
Material

Hard face

Membrane

Single Crystal Normal Beam Probe

Double Crystal Normal Beam Probe

Application of different type of probes

Normal beam single crystal probe is used for thickness gauging, lamination check of high thickness
plate

Normal Beam Double Crystal probe is used for thickness gauging and corrosion monitoring, lamination
check and bond check of thin material for avoiding dead zone. Double crystal probe also called as TR
probe. With TR probe minimum 4 mm thick plate can be tested. TR probe can be used for testing up top
50 mm. Above 50 mm, error percentage of thickness reading is high.
θ
Two thicknesses near the lower and upper value of the thickness measurement range shall be selected
for the adjustment of range for thickness gauging using normal beam TR probe.

ANGLE BEAM PROBE

Angle Beam Probe

Crystal

Angle beam probe is used for the inspection of weld. Planner type defect such as lamination can not
be tested by angle beam. Shear wave at 450, 600, and 700 are generally used for angle beam inspection.
450 is useful for root inspection whereas 600 is useful for the inspection of lack of side wall fusion. For the
inspection of steel material, minimum 350 probe can be used. There is a chance of presence of
longitudinal mode, if less than 350 probe is used. For lower thickness high angle of probe is used.

COUPLANT

Cellulose paste mixed in water shall be used as couplant. For rough surfaces, machine grease mixed in
oil mixed shall provide better transmission of beam energy to the test object.

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NORMAL BEAM TEST METHOD

1. Selection of probe
- Frequency- High frequency for low thickness. Generally 4 MHz is used for thickness up to 100 mm
- Diameter – Depends upon the job dimension and curvature. 10 mm diameter search unit good for
curved surface
- Single / Double crystal – For low thickness, TR probe is to be used for avoiding the dead zone. TR probe
can be used up to 100 mm thickness.

2. After turn on the flaw detector, check the status of “Attenuator” button. It always to be kept “off”
while the machine is on.

3. Set the range

4. After range adjustment, set the back wall echo at 80% of the full scale height (FSH)

Gain Adjustment

dB = 20 log10 (A2/ A1)

Example: Suppose initial echo is 50% of FSH. Gain increased by 6 dB. What will be the echo height?

dB = 6 dB increased

A1 = 50% of FSH

Suppose echo height is A2

Then, dB = 20 log10 A2/A1

OR, 6 = 20 log10 A2/ 50

Or, A2/50 = anti log of (6/20)

Or, A2 = 50 X 2 %

Or, A2 = 100%

Note that

Gain Increase Echo height increase Note

1 dB 1.12 times Similarly if dB is decreased, the echo height shall be
2 dB 1.25 times decreased by the same way. So that if 6 dB is
6 dB 2 times decreased, the initial echo height is to be divided by 2.
20 db 10 times

Example: Initial echo height is 20% of FSH. If dB is increased by 8. What will be new echo height?

8 dB = 6 + 2

so new echo height is = 20 X2X1.25% = 50%

DEFECT SIZE MEASUREMENT

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Defect size shall be measured by

1. 6 dB drop method

When defect size is bigger than the crystal size, 6 db drop method shall be used.

2. 20dB drop method

When defect size is smaller than crystal size, 20 dB drop method shall be used.

EXTEN OF TEST AND ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA AS PER VARIOUS PDO SPECIFICATIONS

Ref. Std Type of check and area Acceptance criteria

SP-1173 & Lamination over a zone of 50 mm back The maximum dimension of minor axis of
SP-1096 from new bevel edge and a zone of 50 lamination shall not exceed 6.3 mm and the
mm around the proposed cut hole for maximum product of the major and minor
branch connection axes shall not exceed 50 mm.

SP-1096 Lamination over a zone of 50 mm in all

preparation in pipe of 273 mm OD and -Do -
above and/or wall thickness of 12.7
mm and above.
SP-1173, Thickness check of arc strike ground Unacceptable if the thickness is below the
SP-1096 area minimum specified value
SP-1174 Thickness check of arc strike ground Unacceptable if the thickness is below the
area minimum specified value

SP-1177 & Thickness check of arc strike ground Unacceptable if the thickness is below the
SP-1097 area minimum specified value
SP-1177 Full pipe lamination check following the Entire pipe portion containing any
removal of full joint due to the lamination shall be removed
discovery of any lamination or split end

SEARCH UNIT CHARACTERISTIC

NF TRANSITION ZONE FAR FIELD

Near Field(NF) = D2 N / 4V D= Crystal diameter

Far Field starts after three near field distance. N= Frequency of search unit
Transition zone is twice the near field distance V= Velocity of ultrasonic beam in the
material
Ø= Half beam angle

Sin Ø = 1.22 X (V/ N* D)

Resolution

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The capability of ultrasonic testing system to distinguish between the discontinuities which are very nearer
to each other is called resolution power

Good Resolution
Poor Resolution

Dead Zone

Due to the pulse duration, transducer can not response the reflection from any reflector which is very
nearer to the surface. The depth up to which can not be detected by a ultrasonic test system is called the
dead zone.

Dead
Zone

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Higher the damping lower the dead zone
Higher the frequency lower the dead zone

For axial scanning of long shaft, bigger diameter search unit shall be recommended because bigger the
diameter, lower the beam spread so that the beam can hit the bottom of the shaft without touching the
side wall.

IMPORTANT CONCEPT REGARDING ULTRASONIC TESTING

E λ P R S DZ N BS Speed
Frequency (f)

Probe Dia
(D)

ANGLE BEAM TEST METHOD

Angle beam is discussed in page 7 of this book. Few important points are again discussed in this clause.

Angle beam search unit is to be calibrated with IIW V2 block.

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