Bronchiolitis Indonesia
Bronchiolitis Indonesia
GAMBARAN KLINIS
Bronkiolitis
Tempat Perawatan Elsevier (lihat detailnya)
Diperbarui 24 Maret 2021 . Hak Cipta Elsevier BV. Seluruh hak cipta.
Ringkasan
Poin Kunci
Tindakan Mendesak
Bronkiolitis adalah infeksi virus saluran pernapasan bawah yang melibatkan peningkatan
Pasien dengan gagal napas
produksi lendir dan peradangan bronkiolus, yang mengakibatkan obstruksi jalan napas
memerlukan dukungan
kecil, perangkap udara, dan atelektasis.
pernapasan lanjutan dan
masuk ke ICU untuk
Biasanya hadiah pada anak-anak muda dari 2 tahun sebagai mengi yang terjadi setelah
manajemen
gejala saluran pernapasan atas kemajuan untuk menurunkan keterlibatan saluran
pernapasan 1
Ciri khas penyakit adalah adanya perubahan temporal yang cepat dalam kerja pernapasan dan manifestasi paru dengan
menangis, batuk, dan agitasi.
Bronkiolitis adalah diagnosis klinis; pengujian tambahan memiliki peran terbatas untuk pasien dengan sindrom klinis khas dan
manifestasi penyakit
Tidak ada pengobatan yang diketahui memperpendek perjalanan penyakit atau mempercepat resolusi gejala
Modalitas pengobatan seperti bronkodilator, epinefrin, kortikosteroid, dan salin hipertonik nebulisasi umumnya tidak berguna
untuk sebagian besar pasien dengan manifestasi ringan sampai sedang.
Kebanyakan anak dengan penyakit ringan sampai sedang dapat dikelola sebagai pasien rawat jalan dengan perawatan suportif
dan pemantauan untuk manifestasi yang memburuk; perawatan rawat inap sebagian besar mendukung dengan oksigen
tambahan, cairan, dan dukungan pernapasan sesuai kebutuhan
Hindari penggunaan antibiotik, kecuali ada kecurigaan yang jelas atau kuat terhadap infeksi bakteri yang menyertai
Komplikasi selama penyakit akut mungkin termasuk dehidrasi, apnea, gangguan pernapasan berkembang menjadi gagal
pernapasan, otitis media akut, dan pneumonia bakteri sekunder.
Pencegahan untuk sebagian besar pasien melibatkan tindakan umum untuk mengurangi risiko penyakit menular (misalnya,
kebersihan tangan, imunisasi rutin, membatasi kontak dengan virus pernapasan), menyusui selama 6 bulan pertama kehidupan,
dan menghilangkan paparan asap tembakau.
Kelompok berisiko tinggi tertentu harus menerima profilaksis virus syncytial pernapasan pasif dengan palivizumab
Prognosis biasanya baik dengan resolusi lengkap gejala pada kebanyakan anak-anak dalam waktu 28 hari 2
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Jebakan
Pertahankan kesadaran yang tinggi tentang kondisi yang dapat mempengaruhi anak-anak dengan bronkiolitis ke perjalanan
penyakit yang lebih parah dan apnea; pertahankan ambang batas yang lebih rendah untuk observasi ketat pada pasien dengan
risiko lebih tinggi untuk perjalanan penyakit parah atau apnea
Risiko untuk apnea termasuk usia lebih muda dari 1 bulan untuk bayi cukup bulan, usia pascakonsepsi lebih muda dari 48
minggu untuk bayi prematur, dan riwayat kejadian apnea pada presentasi 3
Risiko perjalanan penyakit yang parah termasuk usia lebih muda dari 12 minggu, prematuritas, berat badan lahir rendah, dan
komorbiditas yang signifikan (misalnya, keadaan immunocompromised, penyakit pernapasan yang mendasari yang signifikan,
penyakit neuromuskular, penyakit jantung bawaan yang signifikan secara hemodinamik) 3
Hindari tes diagnostik rutin (misalnya, radiografi dada, tes viral) pada bayi dengan khas ringan sampai sedang bronchiolitis 3
Hindari godaan untuk hanya mengandalkan oksimetri nadi untuk memandu keputusan manajemen; 4 hipoksemia transien
jarang terjadi selama perjalanan penyakit pada banyak pasien
Hindari intervensi rutin dengan pengobatan yang belum terbukti meningkatkan hasil (misalnya, bronkodilator, epinefrin,
kortikosteroid) 5
Hindari penggunaan rutin oksimetri nadi terus menerus pada semua pasien yang membutuhkan rawat inap; penggunaan
pemantauan terus menerus untuk pasien yang stabil di rumah sakit dapat menyebabkan lama rawat inap yang tidak perlu
Pertahankan kecurigaan yang tinggi untuk diagnosis alternatif, terutama pada pasien yang tidak menanggapi terapi suportif atau
dengan perjalanan penyakit yang tidak khas
Terminologi
Klarifikasi Klinis
Bronchiolitis adalah infeksi saluran pernapasan load yang lebih rendah yang melibatkan peningkatan produksi lendir dan radang
bronkiolus, sehingga obstruksi jalan napas kecil, menjebak udara, dan atelektasis 3
Biasanya hadiah pada anak-anak muda dari 2 tahun sebagai mengi yang terjadi setelah gejala saluran pernapasan atas kemajuan
untuk menurunkan keterlibatan saluran pernapasan 6
Episode bronkiolitis berulang pada anak-anak yang lebih tua dari 12 bulan memiliki tumpang tindih klinis dengan mengi yang
diinduksi infeksi virus, asma, dan kondisi mengi lainnya 7
Penyebab paling umum dari rawat inap bayi; 20% bayi mengembangkan bronchiolitis pada tahun pertama kehidupan 3 8
Klasifikasi
Penyakit berat dapat didefinisikan sebagai termasuk salah satu dari berikut: 10
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apnea
Persyaratan untuk dukungan pernapasan tambahan (misalnya, CPAP, intubasi dan ventilasi mekanis)
Kebutuhan hidrasi IV
Diagnosa
Presentasi klinis
Sejarah
Perjalanan penyakit
Seringkali dimulai dengan prodromal saluran pernapasan bagian atas diikuti oleh perkembangan ke manifestasi saluran
napas bagian bawah selama beberapa hari
Bayi muda dapat hadir dengan kekhawatiran tentang apnea sementara, sering mendahului manifestasi saluran pernapasan
bawah 11
Distres pernapasan progresif dapat berkembang dari peningkatan obstruksi jalan napas bagian bawah
Sejarah paparan infeksi atas virus saluran pernapasan atau bronchiolitis mungkin ada 12
Gejala saluran pernapasan atas awal biasanya terjadi selama 2 sampai 3 hari 12
Demam 7
Gejala infeksi saluran pernapasan bawah dapat muncul setelah prodromal saluran pernapasan atas awal
Mengi
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Batuk
Relatif tidak ada pada neonatus; pematangan refleks batuk biasanya tidak terjadi sampai setelah usia 1 bulan 14
Makan yang buruk adalah umum selama 3 hingga 5 hari kerangka waktu ketika manifestasi saluran napas bagian bawah
yang paling parah 13
apnea
Gejala dehidrasi
Mulut kering
Pemeriksaan fisik
Tanda-tanda vital
Takipnea
Takipnea ringan (napas per Takipnea sedang (napas per Takipnea parah (napas per
Usia
menit) menit) menit)
Gambar: Kaji frekuensi pernapasan istirahat saat pasien tenang. Nilai laju pernapasan secara kasar sesuai dengan nilai
batas persentil ke-90 (ringan), persentil ke-95 (sedang), dan persentil ke-99 (berat) untuk laju pernapasan pada anak-anak
yang dirawat di rumah sakit.
Kutipan: Data dari Abaya R et al: Emergency Department Clinical Pathway for Evaluation/Treatment of Children with
Bronchiolitis. Situs web Rumah Sakit Anak Philadelphia. Diperbarui Desember 2019. Diakses pada 17 Februari 2021.
https://www.chop.edu/clinical-pathway/bronchiolitis-emergent-evaluation-clinical-pathway
Tingkat pernapasan yang rendah adalah temuan yang tidak menyenangkan yang mungkin mendahului henti napas pada
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Periode apnea
Presentasi yang sangat umum pada neonatus dan bayi yang sangat muda
Sering muncul tanpa alasan (yaitu, terlihat ketika anak tenang dan tidak terganggu)
Demam 7
Sering batuk
Sianosis perioral
Perubahan status mental (misalnya, tidak dapat dihibur, agitasi, interaksi yang berkurang, kelesuan)
Kasus ringan mungkin menunjukkan sedikit atau tidak ada kesusahan, retraksi ringan, atau pernafasan yang
berkepanjangan
Subkostal dalam dan interkostal, mungkin substernal, retraksi, dan penggunaan otot aksesori
Menggelengkan kepala
Pernafasan paksa
Tanda-tanda dehidrasi
ubun-ubun cekung
Auskultasi paru 16
Dada hiperekspansi
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Kerupuk halus atau kasar
Saturasi oksigen 8
Temuan tanda adalah variabilitas menit ke menit dalam kerja pernapasan dan temuan paru (misalnya, laju pernapasan,
oksigenasi, temuan auskultasi) 7
Obstruksi hidung dari sekret yang berlebihan dapat menyebabkan peningkatan kerja pernapasan yang hilang dengan
pengisapan nares
Kotoran sementara di jalan napas dapat menyebabkan peningkatan kerja pernapasan yang hilang dengan batuk
Demam dapat menyebabkan peningkatan takipnea dan penampilan sakit secara keseluruhan yang membaik dengan demam
Kerewelan atau agitasi sementara dapat mengakibatkan munculnya peningkatan kerja pernapasan yang hilang dengan
menenangkan atau selama tidur
Tingkat keparahan klinis berdasarkan temuan pemeriksaan; penilaian penilaian pernapasan 16 dapat membantu 17
Penyakit ringan
Retraksi minimal
Suara nafas jernih atau mengi dan krekels akhir ekspirasi ringan
tampan
Penyakit sedang
Penyakit parah
apnea
Takipnea yang jelas (laju pernapasan lebih dari 70 kali per menit)
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Mengi inspirasi dan ekspirasi difus
Penyebab
Sekitar 90% dari anak-anak yang terinfeksi pada usia 2 tahun dan sampai 40% akan mengembangkan penyakit saluran
pernapasan yang lebih rendah selama infeksi awal 3
Menyumbang 50% sampai 80% dari semua rawat inap untuk bronkiolitis di Amerika Utara 18
Puncak dan durasi dapat bervariasi secara global namun tetap tahun-ke-tahun konsisten dalam suatu negara 7
Wabah di Amerika Serikat biasanya dimulai pada bulan November atau Desember, puncaknya pada bulan Januari atau
Februari, dan berakhir pada akhir Maret atau April.
Sangat mudah menular melalui inokulasi sendiri setelah kontak dengan benda yang terkontaminasi sekresi dan melalui
kontak langsung dengan droplet pernapasan 20
Virus bertahan lebih lama pada permukaan keras dari permukaan berpori 3
Tetap menular pada jaringan atau gaun selama 20 hingga 30 menit dan pada kulit hingga 20 menit
Infeksi tidak menghasilkan kekebalan permanen atau jangka panjang; reinfections umum sepanjang hidup 11
Sebagian besar infeksi berikutnya berjalan lebih ringan dan tetap terbatas pada saluran pernapasan bagian atas
virus badak
18
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Aktivitas puncak di musim semi dan musim gugur 18
Dapat mengakibatkan kursus yang relatif lebih pendek dari penyakit dari penyebab virus lainnya 3
Virus parainfluenza 18
Aktivitas puncak adalah selama musim semi, musim panas, dan musim gugur di tahun ganjil
Metapneumovirus manusia
Virus corona
Adenovirus
Influensa
Dapat menyebabkan perjalanan penyakit yang tidak khas (misalnya, penyakit yang memburuk setelah periode perbaikan
dalam manifestasi)
Secara keseluruhan, tampaknya tidak secara signifikan mempengaruhi keparahan penyakit pada kebanyakan bayi
Dapat meningkatkan lama rawat inap pada pasien tertentu; Namun, faktor klinis lebih prediktif keparahan dari
penyebab virus atau adanya koinfeksi 21
Usia
Puncak kejadian secara keseluruhan terjadi di kalangan anak-anak usia 3 sampai 6 bulan 7
Dua-pertiga dari rawat inap untuk pernapasan bronkiolitis syncytial virus terjadi pada 5 bulan pertama kehidupan 23 24
Tingkat usia tertentu tertinggi rawat inap terjadi pada bayi berusia 30 sampai 90 hari 18
Seks
Risiko untuk penyakit yang parah mungkin lebih besar pada laki-laki 7 11
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Genetika
Predisposisi virus syncytial pernapasan parah ditunjukkan oleh beberapa hubungan antara polimorfisme pada gen yang terlibat
dalam respon imun dan alergi.
Polimorfisme nukleotida tunggal pada gen imun bawaan VDR , IFNA5 , dan NOS2 menunjukkan hubungan dengan
bronkiolitis 25
Peningkatan konkordansi infeksi RSV yang parah terlihat pada kembar identik dibandingkan dengan kembar fraternal 26
Infeksi rhinovirus dini dan peningkatan risiko asma masa kanak-kanak dikaitkan dengan variasi genetik pada kromosom 17q21
lokus 27
Suku/ras
Disparitas rasial ada dalam tingkat rawat inap untuk bronkiolitis yang disebabkan oleh virus syncytial pernapasan
Tingkat rawat inap di antara anak-anak Kanada asli tertentu dan anak-anak Penduduk Asli Alaska tertentu adalah 5 kali lebih
tinggi dari kontrol dengan usia yang sama 28 29
Tingkat rawat inap di antara anak-anak Navajo dan White Mountain Apache yang tinggal di reservasi 3 kali lebih tinggi dari
anak-anak lain di Amerika Serikat 30
Tidak jelas apakah perbedaan disebabkan oleh faktor-faktor seperti kepadatan rumah tangga, polusi udara dalam ruangan, dan
ambang batas yang lebih rendah untuk masuk
Kurang menyusui 31
Malnutrisi 31
Kehamilan ganda 31
Paritas tinggi 8
Penyakit jantung bawaan hemodinamik signifikan, terutama bila dikaitkan dengan gagal jantung kongestif atau hipertensi
pulmonal 18
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Penyakit paru kronis (misalnya, displasia bronkopulmonalis)
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Defisiensi imun
Temuan pemeriksaan pada presentasi: laju pernapasan kurang dari 39 napas per menit atau lebih dari 70 napas per menit dan
saturasi oksigen udara ruangan kurang dari 90% 32
Dari catatan, risiko apnea adalah tidak spesifik untuk patogen virus tertentu 32
Prosedur Diagnostik
Gunakan riwayat dan pemeriksaan fisik untuk mengevaluasi keparahan penyakit dan menilai risiko perburukan penyakit
parah 3
Evaluasi klinis untuk derajat distres pernapasan dan hipoksia dengan oksimetri nadi
Definisi konsensus penyakit parah tidak disepakati secara ketat; sering melibatkan pengamatan serial, yang mungkin
termasuk salah satu dari berikut: 8
Upaya pernapasan yang terus meningkat (misalnya, flaring, grunting, retraksi parah)
Hipoksemia persisten
Periode apnea
Kegagalan pernafasan
Evaluasi efek gejala pernapasan pada status mental, makan, dan hidrasi
Minat makan yang minimal atau ketidakmampuan untuk memberi makan dengan atau tanpa tanda-tanda dehidrasi
3
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Menilai untuk mendasari kondisi dan faktor-faktor risiko yang mempengaruhi penyakit parah 3
Tidak ada yang spesifik serangkaian faktor risiko andal memprediksi tingkat keparahan penyakit saja 33
Para ahli menyarankan bahwa sebagai aturan umum, pasien berikut mungkin lebih mungkin untuk mengalami
perjalanan penyakit yang parah: 33
Mereka dengan kemampuan batuk yang berkurang (misalnya, neonatus, pasien dengan gangguan neuromuskular
atau sindrom Down 31 )
Evaluasi kemampuan keluarga untuk merawat anak dan kembalikan jika anak layak untuk perawatan rawat jalan
Pengamatan serial
Ulangi pemeriksaan dari waktu ke waktu; periode pengamatan mungkin diperlukan untuk benar mencirikan keparahan
12
Penyedotan dan positioning dapat menurunkan kerja pernapasan dan meningkatkan kualitas pemeriksaan 3
Uji coba makan mungkin diperlukan pada pasien dengan riwayat intoleransi makan
Dapat dipertimbangkan jika gambaran klinis tidak sesuai dengan bronkiolitis tipikal, jika dicurigai adanya infeksi
sekunder, atau jika terdapat penyakit berat dan gejala toksik dengan tidak adanya gejala saluran pernapasan atas 34 35
Juga direkomendasikan di demam bayi lebih muda dari 56 hari yang memiliki gejala pernafasan 36
Ultrasonografi paru-paru adalah teknik yang muncul untuk mengecualikan pneumonia sambil menghindari paparan
radiasi pengion 37 38
Darah atau urin tidak secara rutin diindikasikan kecuali dibenarkan oleh usia bayi, penampilan umum, atau faktor risiko 12
13
Bayi demam dengan gejala pernapasan yang lebih muda dari 56 hari memerlukan pemeriksaan sepsis dengan CBC, kultur
darah, urinalisis dan kultur, dan panel virus pernapasan; bayi yang lebih muda dari 28 hari juga membutuhkan lumbal
pungsi dan CSF analisis 36
Pengujian gas darah kapiler atau arteri hanya diperlukan jika diindikasikan secara klinis (misalnya, kekhawatiran akan
kegagalan pernapasan yang akan datang) 7 13
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Pengujian lain untuk mengevaluasi infeksi bakteri serius pada bayi muda yang secara klinis menunjukkan bronkiolitis dan
demam mungkin diperlukan tergantung pada usia bayi, penampilan umum, dan faktor risiko.
Pemeriksaan darah dan urin mungkin diperlukan untuk menyingkirkan komorbiditas atau infeksi bakteri sekunder
Kultur darah yang tidak rutin diindikasikan pada bayi yang tidak sakit-muncul pada usia 60 hari atau lebih 39
Abnormal hasil CBC tidak membantu membedakan dari infeksi bakteri serius bersamaan 3
Bayi demam dengan bronkiolitis berada pada risiko yang sangat rendah (kurang dari 1%) untuk bakteremia 3 40
Sebagian besar kasus bakteremia terjadi terkait dengan infeksi saluran kemih
Kejadian mutlak infeksi saluran kemih tidak diketahui secara tepat namun diperkirakan sekitar 1% sampai 7% 3 7
21 40
Studi cairan serebrospinal yang tidak rutin diindikasikan pada bayi yang tidak sakit-muncul 3 18
Risiko infeksi bakteri serius mungkin mirip dengan 30- untuk kelompok usia 90-hari tetapi tidak definitif dikenal 2 3
41 42
Kebanyakan ahli saat ini merekomendasikan evaluasi sepsis lengkap untuk neonatus demam dengan bronkiolitis,
diikuti dengan antibiotik, tergantung pada hasil kultur 35 36
Bayi demam dengan risiko infeksi saluran kemih (Related: Infeksi saluran kemih pada anak-anak ) 7
Faktor risiko untuk anak perempuan demam termasuk usia di bawah 12 bulan, ras kulit putih, suhu 39 °C atau lebih
tinggi, demam yang berlangsung setidaknya 2 hari, tidak adanya sumber demam lain, dan riwayat infeksi saluran
kemih 43
Faktor risiko anak laki-laki demam termasuk penis yang tidak disunat, usia 2 hingga 24 bulan, ras non-kulit hitam,
suhu 39 °C atau lebih tinggi, demam yang berlangsung lebih dari 24 jam, tidak adanya sumber demam lain, dan
riwayat infeksi saluran kemih 43
Pertimbangkan urinalisis dengan mikroskop dan kultur untuk menyingkirkan infeksi saluran kemih bersamaan
Algoritma tersedia untuk membantu memandu keputusan untuk mendapatkan spesimen urin untuk pengujian 43 44
Laboratorium
Pencitraan
Radiografi dada
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Radiografi dada yang diperoleh tanpa indikasi definitif sering mengakibatkan penggunaan antibiotik yang tidak perlu
Secara keseluruhan, temuan tidak berkorelasi baik dengan tingkat keparahan penyakit
Indikasi definitif 3
Kecurigaan komplikasi (misalnya, pneumotoraks, pneumonia bakteri sekunder) atau kelainan struktural lainnya
Pertimbangkan untuk menggunakan untuk mengecualikan diagnosis alternatif pada pasien dengan presentasi nonclassic
atau kursus atipikal penyakit 7 12
Hiperinflasi 7
Penebalan peribronkial 7
Temuan kemungkinan besar tidak konsisten dengan bronchiolitis meliputi lobar konsolidasi dan kardiomegali 47
Pengujian fungsional
Oksimetri nadi
Pulse oximetry memberikan nilai prediktif miskin untuk gangguan pernapasan atau keparahan penyakit pada pasien
dengan bronkiolitis 48
Hipoksemia persisten dengan saturasi oksigen kurang dari 90% ke 92% membutuhkan administrasi tambahan oksigen 3
13
Banyak sistem objektif telah dikembangkan untuk mengkorelasikan dengan keparahan penyakit dan menilai perubahan
setelah intervensi (misalnya, sistem skor Tal dan Modified-Tal, Instrumen Penilaian Gangguan Pernafasan, Skor
Perubahan Penilaian Pernafasan) 7
Sebagian besar jalur regional dan pedoman perawatan mencakup alat penilaian objektif 15 16 34
Tidak ada sistem yang mencapai penerimaan luas atau validitas prediksi yang signifikan 3 12 18 49
Variabilitas temporal dalam temuan pemeriksaan kemungkinan bertanggung jawab atas kinerja prediksi yang buruk
dari banyak sistem penilaian bronkiolitis dalam penggunaan klinis 3
Tren skor berulang (misalnya, dengan waktu, sebelum dan sesudah intervensi) lebih membantu daripada skor individu
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Perbedaan diagnosa
Paling umum
Pneumonia bakteri yang didapat dari Pneumonia yang disebabkan oleh bakteri patogen tipikal dan patogen atipikal
komunitas (Terkait: Pneumonia yang dapat muncul dengan cara yang sama dengan takipnea dan demam
didapat dari komunitas pada anak-
anak (berusia lebih dari 3 bulan) ) Patogen umum yang menyebabkan pneumonia bervariasi berdasarkan usia
(misalnya, streptokokus grup B pada neonatus, Chlamydia trachomatis pada
kelompok usia 3 minggu hingga 3 bulan, Haemophilus influenzae pada kelompok
usia 4 bulan hingga 4 tahun) 50
Penyebab virus untuk pneumonia adalah patogen paling umum pada anak-anak
di bawah 2 tahun, yang merupakan kelompok usia yang paling banyak terkena
bronkiolitis.
Pneumonia radiografi jarang terjadi pada anak-anak dengan mengi; terjadi pada
sekitar 5% anak demam dengan mengi dan pada 2% anak tidak demam dengan
mengi 51
Hipoksia (saturasi oksigen kurang dari 92%), terus-menerus crackles fokus, dan
demam tinggi (lebih dari 39 ° C) lebih sering dikaitkan dengan pneumonia dari
bronchiolitis 7
Asma (Terkait: Asma pada anak ) Sama halnya dengan mengi, retraksi, sesak napas, ekspirasi memanjang,
hiperinflasi dada, dan berpotensi hipoksia.
Eksaserbasi asma sering dipicu oleh infeksi virus (misalnya, infeksi saluran
pernapasan atas), olahraga, dan alergen, dan dikaitkan dengan riwayat keluarga
asma dan/atau riwayat pribadi penyakit atopik (misalnya, rinitis alergi, eksim)
Eksaserbasi asma pertama, bila dipicu oleh infeksi virus pernapasan, mungkin
sangat sulit dibedakan dari bronkiolitis, terutama bila muncul pada anak di bawah
2 tahun.
Bedakan dari bronkiolitis dengan riwayat mengi berulang dengan respons terhadap
bronkodilator
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Diagnosis definitif asma memerlukan dokumentasi obstruksi jalan napas reversibel
dan perjalanan klinis yang konsisten dengan obstruksi aliran udara episodik dan
hiperresponsif jalan napas yang responsif terhadap bronkodilator
Mengi akibat infeksi virus berulang Manifestasi klinis mengi akibat infeksi virus berulang pada balita sangat mirip
dengan bayi dengan episode pertama bronkiolitis
Perbedaan utama adalah pada riwayat manifestasi berulang dan usia anak yang
terkena (yaitu, balita dan anak-anak prasekolah dibandingkan dengan bayi dengan
bronkiolitis)
Seperti bronkiolitis, mengi yang disebabkan oleh infeksi virus berulang pada anak
usia dini mungkin atau mungkin tidak terkait dengan perkembangan asma
selanjutnya; banyak anak dengan mengi berulang di awal kehidupan tidak terus
mengi pada usia sekolah 6
Mengi akibat infeksi virus berulang adalah gangguan heterogen; respon terhadap
pengobatan dengan bronkodilator inhalasi adalah variabel 6
Bedakan dari bronkiolitis berdasarkan sifat berulang dari manifestasi dan usia anak
Aspirasi benda asing Muncul dengan tiba-tiba mengi, stridor, dan kesulitan bernapas setelah tersedak,
tersedak, atau batuk
Insiden puncak terjadi pada anak usia 1 sampai 2 tahun; 53 biasanya didahului
dengan makan makanan atau menelan benda yang berisiko tersedak pada anak
kecil (misalnya balon lateks, koin, baterai kancing, permen keras, kacang tanah, hot
dog)
Aspirasi benda asing, terutama pada anak dengan infeksi saluran pernapasan atas
yang tidak disengaja, dapat disalahartikan sebagai bronkiolitis
Temuan pemeriksaan mungkin fokal dengan mengi unilateral atau suara napas
berkurang; demam dan prodromal saluran pernapasan bagian atas sering tidak ada,
kecuali jika anak memiliki infeksi saluran pernapasan bagian atas yang tidak terkait
Radiografi dada dapat mengungkapkan area hiperinflasi fokal atau area atelektasis,
tetapi temuan sering normal pada pasien dengan aspirasi benda asing.
Penyakit refluks gastroesofageal 54 Dapat hadir dengan manifestasi pernapasan berulang pada anak kecil; gejala
mungkin sementara terkait dengan makan atau lebih buruk dengan posisi
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Gejala terkait lainnya mungkin termasuk lekas marah, regurgitasi, penolakan untuk
makan, dan penambahan berat badan yang buruk
Bedakan dari bronkiolitis dengan presentasi klinis (misalnya, tidak adanya rinore
dan demam pada pasien dengan refluks) dan perjalanan klinis
Pertusis 53
Infeksi saluran pernapasan yang disebabkan oleh Bordetella pertussis pada awalnya
dan serupa dapat muncul dengan rinitis akut dan batuk pada bayi; Infeksi pertusis
biasanya bermanifestasi dalam 3 fase:
Fase catarrhal akut pertusis berlangsung sekitar 1 sampai 2 minggu dan secara
khas melibatkan konjungtivitis; konjungtivitis tidak khas untuk bayi dengan
bronkiolitis
Fase pemulihan akhir infeksi pertusis dapat berlangsung beberapa minggu dan
ditandai dengan batuk kronis
Jika rontgen dada diperoleh, hasilnya biasanya normal atau mungkin menunjukkan
batas jantung yang tidak rata di sisi kanan; leukositosis dengan dominasi limfosit
adalah klasik, tetapi mungkin tidak ada pada bayi di bawah 6 bulan
Diagnosis pertusis dengan reaksi berantai polimerase pada swab nasofaring jika
diagnosis masih diragukan
Gagal jantung kongestif Dapat muncul dengan cara yang sama dengan mengi, sesak napas, dan takipnea
Sering disertai dengan diaphoresis dan kelelahan saat makan, gagal tumbuh,
takikardia, murmur jantung dan/atau gallop, perfusi perifer yang buruk, dan
hepatomegali.
Gagal jantung simtomatik yang disebabkan oleh penyakit jantung bawaan yang
sebelumnya tidak terdiagnosis dapat dipicu oleh stres yang mendasari infeksi
saluran pernapasan atas atau bronkiolitis pada anak kecil.
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Perlakuan
Sasaran
Hindari penggunaan rutin terapi yang tidak perlu yang tidak memiliki bukti manfaat fungsional (misalnya, bronkodilator,
kortikosteroid)
Promosikan penatagunaan antibiotik dengan menghindari penggunaan antibiotik kecuali infeksi bakteri sekunder jelas atau
diduga kuat
Watak
Kriteria penerimaan
Pasien dengan penyakit sedang atau berat yang membutuhkan masuk untuk perawatan suportif dan pemantauan untuk
memburuknya penyakit termasuk orang-orang dengan: 17
Hipotensi
Sianosis sentral
apnea
Takipnea parah, mengi, atau retraksi yang bertahan setelah observasi dan awal pengobatan 2 34
Kesulitan makan
Pertimbangkan pasien untuk masuk jika ada risiko tinggi untuk perjalanan penyakit yang parah 12 , terutama jika awal perjalanan
penyakit sebelum puncak keparahan yang diharapkan (yaitu, 3-5 hari dari onset penyakit); mungkin termasuk: 13
Bayi dengan riwayat prematuritas, terutama usia kehamilan kurang dari 32 minggu
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Gangguan neuromuskular
Defisiensi imun
Catatan: Usia muda atau adanya komorbiditas dalam isolasi bukanlah indikasi definitif untuk masuk menurut sebagian besar
pedoman
Kurangnya kemampuan pengasuh untuk merawat anak dengan tepat, termasuk kekhawatiran tentang: 13
Kurangnya keterampilan dan kepercayaan diri dalam kemampuan merawat anak di rumah
Gangguan pernapasan parah memerlukan invasif atau non-invasif tekanan positif ventilasi 2
Frekuensi pernapasan lebih dari 80 kali per menit, atau kurang dari 20 napas per menit dan pasien dalam kesusahan 2
Kebutuhan oksigen lebih besar dari 40% 2 atau hipoksemia persisten meskipun pengiriman oksigen tambahan dengan kanula
hidung 56
Impending respiratory failure with hypercarbia and acidosis (pH less than 7.25) 57
Treatment Options
Overview of treatment options
Recommend general supportive care (eg, encourage hydration, relief of nasal congestion/obstruction)
Provide anticipatory guidance for home management and monitoring; arrange follow-up
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Provide respiratory support in a stepwise fashion when necessary
Begin with nasal suctioning with saline drops to relieve nasal congestion and obstruction
Use least invasive suctioning technique first (ie, superficial nasal suctioning) 21
Attempt trial of adjunct noninvasive respiratory support (eg, high-flow nasal cannula, CPAP) when indicated
Intubation and mechanical ventilation are last resort when above measures fail
Nasogastric or parenteral fluids are indicated if infants cannot maintain hydration orally 3
Many clinical guidelines focus on what not to include in routine treatment during first episode of bronchiolitis,
owing to paucity of evidence to support change in clinical outcome 3 59
Avoid routine use of a therapeutic trial of bronchodilator for mild to moderate disease 3
A recognized caveat is that a small subset of patients may have reversible airway obstruction responsive to
bronchodilator therapy; however, effects are very short-lived and do not improve overall outcome 3
Caregiver misconception that child requires bronchodilator use with future respiratory infections or
carries the diagnosis of asthma, leading to unnecessary bronchodilator use
Nebulized hypertonic saline in outpatient and emergency department settings, and in hospitals where mean
length of stay is shorter than 72 hours 3
Chest physiotherapy 63
Antibiotics, unless there is an apparent or strong suspicion of concomitant bacterial infection 3 Privacy - Terms
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Administration may be justified for infants developing respiratory failure because of concern for secondary
bacterial pneumonia 64
Recommended for infants with concern for concomitant urinary tract infection, pending culture results
Most experts recommend administration in febrile neonates with bronchiolitis, pending culture results 34
36
Deep suctioning
Rescue therapy for patients with severe respiratory distress or impending respiratory failure is not well
delineated in evidence or guidelines
Consider the following rescue treatments for patients with severe disease in effort to avoid intubation and
mechanical ventilation; document response to any trial intervention:
Deep suctioning
Nebulized epinephrine 3
Nebulized bronchodilator 3
Optional for infants hospitalized in institutions where mean length of stay is longer than 72 hours 3
Recommendation is weak and data are conflicting; may reduce length of hospitalization (by about half a day)
and improve clinical severity score 3 4 7 70
Not currently recommended by most experts for routine use in the outpatient and emergency department
setting, or in hospitals with mean length of stay shorter than 72 hours 3 71 72 73 74 75
Disinfect hands before and after contact with patient, after contact with inanimate objects in the direct
vicinity of patient, and after removing gloves 3
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No consensus pathways for management exist; however, several well-developed, evidence-based clinical pathways are
available to assist with management:
Children's Hospital of Philadelphia pathways for evaluation and treatment of children with bronchiolitis 34 77
Some regional organizations have guidelines available to assist with treatment options, including: 58
South African Thoracic Society, South African Society of Paediatric Infectious Diseases, United South African
Neonatal Association (2010) 57
Note: Most treatment recommendations in available guidelines include patients aged 1 month to 2 years and
exclude patients with significant comorbidity (eg, immunocompromised state, underlying significant respiratory
disease, neuromuscular disease, hemodynamically significant congenital heart disease) 33
Drug therapy
Nebulized 3% saline (hypertonic saline)
May be of benefit to decrease length of hospitalization and improve symptoms when started early after
admission to hospitals where mean length of stay is longer than 72 hours (weak recommendation) 3
Not recommended for use in emergency department, outpatient setting, or for most inpatients hospitalized in
North American settings (as average length of stay is shorter than 72 hours) 3
Regimen used in most trials is 3% saline with or without bronchodilator by jet nebulizer 12
Sodium Chloride Nebulizer solution; Infants and Children 1 to 2 years: 4 mL/dose via oral inhalation every 2
hours for 3 doses, then every 4 hours for 5 doses, and finally every 6 hours until discharge. To prevent
bronchospasm, administer after a bronchodilator (e.g., albuterol).
Supportive care measures (eg, nasal suctioning, fever management, encouraging fluids)
Arrange follow-up
Fever management
Use acetaminophen to treat fever over 39 °C that appears to be causing distress (eg, increased respiratory rate,
refusal to feed, irritability) 52
Start either nasogastric or IV fluids for patients who cannot maintain oral hydration owing to respiratory
distress 3 12
Respiratory rates exceeding 60 to 70 breaths per minute may compromise feeding, especially with copious
nasal secretions; aspiration risk is higher for infants with significant respiratory distress 3 20
May use bolus feedings; trial of continuous slow feeding may be appropriate if bolus feedings are not
tolerated 12
Administer parenteral isotonic fluids with glucose if patient is unable to maintain hydration by enteral route
or when severity of respiratory distress mandates NPO status 11
Ideal rate of initial parenteral or enteral fluid administration is not rigorously agreed upon
Individualize rate based on clinical hydration status and urine output; avoid overhydration 8
Suctioning technique
Gentle superficial nasal suctioning (eg, bulb suction, superficial wall suctioning attachment device) 52
Preferred technique to clear nasal secretions when nasal obstruction appears to be resulting in
worsening respiratory distress, diminishing oxygen saturation, or impaired feeling 7 21
Deep suctioning
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Most experts recommend avoidance of routine deep suctioning because of potential risk for harm (eg,
vagal response, airway trauma) 20 79
More invasive means of nasopharyngeal suctioning may be required for patients with continued severe
respiratory distress despite superficial nasal suctioning techniques
Timing of suctioning
Scheduled superficial suctioning may be preferred for inpatients over as-needed superficial suctioning 12
Absence of or lapse in scheduled superficial suctioning for over 4 hours may result in longer lengths of
hospitalization 3
Frequent deep suctioning has been associated with longer lengths of hospitalization 3
No consensus regarding absolute threshold to initiate supplemental oxygen; guideline recommendations vary
7
Supplemental oxygen is not indicated if oxyhemoglobin saturation is greater than 90%, according to
some guidelines 3 12 52
Supplemental oxygen may be recommended when oxygen saturation is persistently less than 90% to
maintain oxygen saturation at 90% or higher 12
Some guidelines recommend supplemental oxygen when oxygen saturation is persistently less than 92%
13 79
Target oxygen saturation level for patients requiring supplemental oxygen is not rigorously established
Established indications for weaning of oxygen are not universally agreed upon
In general, oxygen may be weaned to keep saturation at 90% or higher when clinical improvement is
evident and patient is free of significant respiratory distress 85
May benefit infants with significant respiratory distress or hypoxemia refractory to supplemental oxygen via
nasal cannula 11
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Presence of higher levels of pretherapy hypercapnia at onset of therapy may be associated with noninvasive
respiratory support treatment failure 86
Involves administration of heated, humidified, high-flow blended oxygen/air mixture via nasal cannula at
flow rates higher than comfortably delivered using standard nasal cannula setup
Ideal flow rate is controversial and varies across studies and institutions (2-10 L/minute 89); appears to be
ideal between 1 and 2 L/kg/minute 88
May generate incidental continuous positive airway pressure, reduce work of breathing, improve
oxygenation, and reduce need for intubation 3 90
However, despite short-term improvements in respiratory status, was not shown to reduce need for
escalation of care in patients with moderate bronchiolitis 91
In-hospital site of treatment is largely institution dependent; may require intermediate or ICU level of
care
Limited data suggest modality may be safe for use on general ward (with escalated clinical monitoring) 4
89 90
Positive response often occurs within the first hour of treatment, as indicated by improvement in heart rate
and respiratory rate, and reduced work of breathing 89 90
Reported serious complications are rare and include abdominal distention, nasal bleeding and ulceration,
and pneumothorax 89
CPAP 13
May be used as a step up from high-flow nasal cannula or in lieu of high-flow nasal cannula therapy to
avoid intubation
Involves administration of humidified blended oxygen/air mixture via nasal tube to provide continuous,
controlled positive end-expiratory pressure, 92 usually from 4 to 8 cm of H₂O 8
Limited data suggest that respiratory rate may improve with CPAP; 93 respiratory rate and hypoxia may
improve more rapidly with CPAP compared with high-flow nasal cannula 94
11
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11
Progressive respiratory failure despite other measures
ICU rescue therapy for infants failing conventional ventilator support include:
Special populations
Infants receiving palivizumab prophylaxis requiring hospitalization for respiratory syncytial virus–positive
bronchiolitis
Immunocompromised patients
Inhaled ribavirin may be considered for select patients in consultation with specialist recommendations (eg,
oncologist, infectious disease specialist) 11
Children with comorbidities associated with difficulty clearing secretions (eg, neuromuscular disorders)
Monitoring
Serial assessment of physical examination and clinical course depend on severity of illness
Assess vital signs and clinical examination for worsening signs of respiratory distress
In general, adjust intensity of oxygen saturation monitoring according to individual patient status
Stable patients not requiring supplemental oxygen and lower risk patients 12
Continuous pulse oximetry is potentially problematic, especially for patients not requiring oxygen,
and is not recommended for routine use in most otherwise healthy patients at low risk for severe
disease progression 3 21 Privacy - Terms
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Transient hypoxemia is not unusual for otherwise stable infants with bronchiolitis 7
Patients who require supplemental oxygen, who are unstable, or who are high risk 12
Diminished intensity of monitoring to intermittent spot checks may be appropriate after patient
stabilizes and begins improving and weaning from supplemental oxygen 7
Consider early in course of illness, especially for young and premature infants with increased risk of apnea
and bradycardia 12
Some guidelines recommend monitoring sodium if IV fluids are required for any significant length of time 12
Document pre- and postexamination findings after any intervention to any attempted respiratory treatment (eg,
hypertonic saline) or support (eg, initiation of high-flow nasal cannula)
Response to intervention scoring systems are in clinical use; however, there is no rigorous validation 15 77 85
Scoring systems often take into account examination findings to characterize disease severity
Work of breathing
Auscultatory findings
Discharge criteria are not standardized and are often institution-dependent; may include:
Improving tachypnea
No evidence of hypoxemia (ie, stable on room air or stable oxygen therapy that is at a level considered consistent
with being able to effectively continue the therapy at home) 13
No evidence of apnea
No requirement for deep suctioning for more than 8 hours 77 Privacy - Terms
13
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13
Caregiver is comfortable and able to care for patient at home
Monitoring outpatients
Timing and mode of follow-up is individualized based on initial severity of illness, duration of symptoms, and
underlying risk factors for progression to severe disease course
Complications
Acute complications
Dehydration
Apnea
May be initial presenting manifestation before development of lower respiratory tract manifestations
More common among neonates and young premature infants than older infants 3
Infants presenting with severe illness or concerning historical features are at increased risk 32
Independent risk factors include low birth weight (less than 2.3 kg), caretaker report of previous apnea at
presentation, preadmission respiratory rates of less than 39 breaths per minute or more than 70 breaths
per minute, and preadmission room air oxygen saturation below 90% 32
Apnea is self-limited in most infants and does not recur with subsequent infections 11
Some smaller studies suggest about 50% will develop acute otitis media clinically 99 100
Most disease is attributable to viral cause; precise incidence of bacterial cause or secondary infection remains
elusive 3
Bacterial cause may be more likely when concordant with appearance of new fever
Follow established guidelines for management of acute otitis media (Related: Acute otitis media)
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Secondary bacterial pneumonia
New-onset fever (ie, after a period of not having a fever) and worsening of clinical status (ie, after period of
gradual improvement) increases suspicion for development of secondary bacterial pneumonia
Patients requiring intubation or admission to ICU are at much higher risk than other patient populations
Respiratory failure
Need for intensive respiratory support varies based on risk factors for severe disease (eg, neonates, patients
with comorbidity); children with these risk factors are at increased risk of respiratory failure
Pneumothorax
Sudden worsening of respiratory status and worsening hypoxia may indicate development of pneumothorax
Usually associated with complication related to advanced respiratory support (eg, high-flow nasal cannula,
mechanical ventilation)
Aspiration
Infants who develop significant increase in work of breathing with feeding may be at increased risk 3
Hyponatremia
Administration of hypotonic fluid replacement increases risk for development of significant hyponatremia
Death
Chronic complications
Bronchiolitis is associated with development of recurrent wheezing in childhood and eventual development of
asthma in some patients 6
Many continue to wheeze only when triggered by viral upper respiratory tract infection and experience
minimal symptoms between these episodes 6
Most children who wheeze during early life do not continue to wheeze at school age 6
However, transient wheezing with viral respiratory infections early in life can progress to asthma; type of
asthma is typically characterized by infection-induced asthma exacerbations 6 102
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Asthma (Related: Asthma in children)
It is not known whether early bronchiolitis predisposes to asthma or if early severe bronchiolitis is a
marker for asthma susceptibility in children with a predisposition for asthma 6
Risk for recurrent wheezing and asthma after bronchiolitis is directly related to initial illness severity 6
Infants with bronchiolitis requiring hospitalization are at higher risk of future wheezing and asthma than
infants with bronchiolitis with milder disease not requiring hospitalization 103
Risk for asthma remains high until age 18 years for infants requiring hospitalization for respiratory
syncytial virus bronchiolitis 104
About 21% to 50% of patients are eventually diagnosed with asthma by age 6 to 7 years compared with
5% of general population 105 106
Risk for recurrent wheezing diminishes with increasing age for infants who do not require hospitalization;
risk may abate completely by age 13 years for many 104
About 9% of patients experience protracted course of cough after acute bronchiolitis episode 2
Recommended evaluation and management mirrors CHEST pediatric chronic cough guidelines 19 107
Prognosis
Usual course of illness
Typically depends on a number of factors including patient age, severity of disease, presence of underlying
comorbidity, and type of virus causing disease
Prolonged course of illness may occur more frequently in the youngest age groups affected, in patients with
underlying comorbidity, and in severely affected patients who develop complications
Respiratory syncytial virus infection may result in a relatively longer disease course and hospital length of stay
than infection with rhinovirus alone 3 108
Coinfection with more than 1 virus may result in an atypical course (eg, worsening of symptoms after
period of improvement) in some patients; does not seem to be associated with a greater disease severity in
most patients 7 8 18 21
Acute disease in children not requiring hospitalization without underlying comorbidity is generally self-limited,
resolving completely within 28 days 2
Includes initial upper respiratory tract manifestations for 1 to 3 days, followed by lower respiratory tract
manifestations that often peak in severity between days 3 and 5, followed by gradual resolution of
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Pulmonary manifestations of wheezing and increased work of breathing tend to resolve before cough
Up to 18% remain symptomatic, mainly with persistent cough, after 21 days 2 107
Morbidity
About 2% to 3% of children in the first year of life are hospitalized in developed countries annually 8
Median length of hospital stay for most otherwise healthy infants requiring hospitalization is about 2 days 108
Mortality
Less than 100 deaths occur annually in the United States from respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis 18
Respiratory syncytial virus disease accounted for up to an estimated 41,100 deaths in young children globally
in 2013 4
Prevention
General measures to diminish risk of disease 3
Careful hand hygiene with alcohol-based rubs or washing with soap and water in all settings
Limiting exposure to contagious siblings and settings (eg, crowded environments, day care)
Passive respiratory syncytial virus prophylaxis (Related: Respiratory syncytial virus infection)109
Palivizumab 3
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Duration is a maximum of 5 monthly doses or monthly dosing until the end of season, whichever comes
first 18
Decreases risk of hospitalization for respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis among some patients at high risk
for severe disease 18
Certain high-risk groups who are younger than 12 months at the onset of respiratory syncytial virus
season 3
Infants born at less than 32 weeks of gestation with chronic lung disease of prematurity (defined as
supplemental oxygen requirement in the first 28 days of life beginning at birth) 18
Children with chronic lung disease of prematurity who are younger than 24 months and who
continue to require medical therapy (ie, oxygen, diuretic, or glucocorticoid) within 6 months of virus
season 18
Consider for the following patients who are younger than 12 months at the onset of virus season in
consultation with appropriate subspecialist: 3
Infants with disease or congenital anomaly (eg, neuromuscular disorder, airway malformation,
pulmonary abnormality) that impairs cough and ability to clear upper airway secretions
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2: Teshome G et al: Acute bronchiolitis. Pediatr Clin North Am. 60(5):1019-34, 2013
View In Article | Cross Reference (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24093893)
3: Ralston SL et al: Clinical practice guideline: the diagnosis, management, and prevention of bronchiolitis. Pediatrics.
134(5):e1474-502, 2014
View In Article | Cross Reference (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25349312)
4: Mazur NI et al: Lower respiratory tract infection caused by respiratory syncytial virus: current management and new
therapeutics. Lancet Respir Med. 3(11):888-900, 2015
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