Vector Geometry1

The subject of Vector Geometry deals with vector representations of point,

lines, planes, and surfaces in three-dimensions, and calculations of various
geometric properties associated with them, for example geometric distances
and angles.

1 Vector Representations
1.1 Basis Unit Vectors
A vector is a quantity that has both a magnitude and a direction. Vectors of
magnitude 1 (i.e. unit magnitude) are called unit vectors. Any vector in
3-Dimensional space can be represented using the three basis unit vectors
along the three axes x, y, and z respectively, which are defined as follows:

• The vector î is a vector of unit magnitude with direction along the

positive x-axis.
• The vector ĵ is a vector of unit magnitude with direction along the
positive y-axis.
• The vector k̂ is a vector of unit magnitude with direction along the
positive z-axis.

All these basis unit vectors point away from O. The unit vectors î, ĵ , and k̂
can be thought of as being unit steps along the x, y, and z axes respectively.

1.1.1 Representation of Points - Position Vectors

Using these three vectors, a vector going from the origin to any particular
point in space can be constructed. Points in space are represented using
position vectors, which are vectors from the origin, O, to the particular
point in space.

Consider the point in 3-space, with the (x, y, z) coordinates (1, 2, 4). Recalling
the interpretation of the basis unit vectors as being unit steps along their
respective axes, the required vector goes from O to the point (1, 2, 4). We need
a step of 1 along the x-axis, a step of 2 along the y-axis, and a step of 4 along
the z-axis. Therefore, the required position vector will be:

a = 1î + 2ĵ + 4k̂

1 by Saeed Khan, McGill University student

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The position vector is a vector from O to the point, say P, and so can also be
−−→
labelled as OP . It is clear that to obtain the representation of a point in
3-space as a position vector, the coordinate relative to the respective axes is
multiplied by the corresponding unit vector for that axis. So, for example, to
obtain the position vector of the point A = (6, −4, 3),
−→
a = OA = 6 · î + (−4) · ĵ + 3 · k̂

−→
a = OA = 6î − 4ĵ + 3k̂
Writing down the î, ĵ, k̂ representation of a vector is called as writing the
vector down in terms of its î, ĵ, k̂ components.

These vectors are called position vectors since their position is fixed relative to
the origin, because a point in space has a fixed position relative to the origin O.

1.1.2 Magnitude of Position Vectors

For a position vector, the length or magnitude of this vector is simply the
distance of the point from the origin. Therefore, the magnitude of the position
vector of a point A = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is just going to be the distance of this point
from the origin, given by the distance formula:
q
d = x20 + y02 + z02

and the position vector in terms of î, ĵ, k̂ is:

−→
a = OA = x0 î + y0 ĵ + z0 k̂
Therefore, for any position vector, its direction is given in 3-space by the
representation in terms of the basis unit vectors, and its magnitude is given by
by the square root of the sum of the squares of its components:
−→ q
|a| = OA = x20 + y02 + z02
 

1.1.3 Displacement or Space Vectors

If we have a vector parallel to any position vector (i.e. having the same
direction) and also the same length (i.e. having the same magnitude), but not
bound to the any points O and A, then such a vector is still a valid vector; it
just not bound to a specific position in space. This vector is an example of a
displacement or space vector.

A displacement or space vector is a vector quantity, that is it has

magnitude and direction, but is not geometrically bound to two points. These

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vectors can also be represented in terms of the unit basis vectors, since any
vector in 3-space can be represented in terms of these basis unit vectors.

1.2 Addition of Vectors

It is simple to add vectors that are either parallel or anti parallel. With a
geometric picture of two vectors, in general the vectors will not be parallel or
antiparallel and so adding them geometrically is difficult. However, if they are
represented in terms of the basis unit vectors, then the addition becomes
simple, because the various î, ĵ, k̂ components of the two vectors are parallel or
antiparallel and can be added directly to produce the resultant vector.

Consider, for example two points P = (1, 0, 3) and Q = (−2, 3, 1). Suppose we
require the vector that goes from P to Q. It is clear that such a vector can be
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
obtained by vector addition of the form P Q = −OP + OQ = OQ − OP .

To calculate this, we need the position vectors of P and Q,

−−→
OQ = −2î + 3ĵ + 1k̂ = −2î + 3ĵ + k̂

−−→
OP = 1î + 0ĵ + 3k̂ = î + 3k̂
Now, we have:
−−→ −−→ −−→
P Q = OQ − OP = −2î + 3ĵ + k̂ − (î + 3k̂)
The corresponding components can be added directly as they are parallel (or
antparallel) vectors, so we have:
−−→
P Q = (−2 − 1)î + (3 + 0)ĵ + (1 − 3)k̂
−−→
P Q = −3î + 3ĵ − 2k̂
In this way, any number of vectors can be added (or subtraced) if they are
decomposed in terms of their î, ĵ, k̂ components.

1.3 ‘Products’ of Vectors

Vectors written in terms of the basis unit vectors can be added or subtracted
simply by the respective addition or subtraction of their corresponding î, ĵ, k̂
components. However, the products of two vectors are not defined as simply.
Two products of vectors exist, each with their own definition and use- the dot
product and cross product. The dot product of two vectors return a scalar,
while the cross product of two vectors returns another vector.

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1.3.1 Vector Dot Product
The dot product of two vectors, a and b, is defined as:

a · b = |a||b| cos θ (1)

where θ is the angle between the two vectors when they are joined tail-to-tail,
i.e. they are placed so that they have the same starting point.

Note that:

• The right hand side has no vectors, only scalars, and so the result of the
dot product of two vectors is a scalar.
• The definition of the dot product of two vectors does not depend on
whether the vectors are written in terms of î, ĵ, k̂ or not; it is
independent of the representation of the vectors, just like vector addition
can be carried out by joining vectors tail-to-tail, without representing
them in terms of î, ĵ, k̂ or some other form.
• The dot product depends on the cosine of the angle between the two
vectors. Therefore, if two vectors are at 90◦ to each other, i.e. they are
orthogonal, then as cos 90◦ = 0, the dot product of two orthogonal
vectors is zero.

• If the dot product of two vectors is zero, and both vectors themselves are
not zero vectors (i.e. |a| =
6 0 and |b| =6 0), then the dot product can only
be zero if cos θ is zero, which implies that the two vectors are at 90◦ to
each other- they are orthogonal. This implies that if the dot product
of two non-zero vectors is zero, the vectors are orthogonal.

A couple of other useful facts are:

• The dot product is distributive over vector addition, which simply

means: (a + b) · c = a · c + b · c.2
• The dot product is commutative, i.e. a · b = b · a. This is obvious from
the definition of the dot product, which is independent of any order of
placement of a or b.

The above definition (1) seems to imply that to calculate the dot product of
two vectors, one must have their magnitudes and the angle between them.
However, this is not always possible. However, it is possible to obtain the dot
product in a much easier way if the vectors involved are first decomposed in
terms of the basis unit vectors.
2 For proof, see: http://www.citycollegiate.com/vectorXIi.htm

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Example
Consider a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂, and b = b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂. Now, the dot product
of the two vectors, a · b, is given by:

a · b = (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) · (b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂)

By distributivity of the dot product, we can expand this as:

a·b=
a1 b1 î· î+a1 b2 î· ĵ+a1 b3 î· k̂+a2 b1 ĵ· î+a2 b2 ĵ· ĵ+a2 b3 ĵ· k̂+a3 b1 k̂· î+a3 b2 k̂· ĵ+a3 b3 k̂· k̂

Now, the basis unit vectors, î, ĵ, k̂ are directed along the x, y, and z axes
respectively. These axes are orthogonal to each other, and this implies that
the the various vectors î, ĵ, k̂ are all mutually orthogonal. Therefore, from
the definition of the dot product we must have the dot product of the basis
unit vectors with each other being zero, i.e. î · ĵ = 0, î · k̂ = 0, and ĵ · k̂ = 0.

Using this property and also the property for the dot product of a vector with
itself, we can simplify the above to get:

a · b = a1 b1 (1) + a2 b2 (1) + a3 b3 (1) = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3

Therefore, for any two vectors in î, ĵ, k̂ representation, a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂,
and b = b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂, the dot product can be calculated as:

a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
which is simply the sum of the products of the corresponding î, ĵ, k̂
components. Remember, this is not the definition of the dot product of two
vectors, it is a means of calculating the dot product of two vectors if their î, ĵ,
k̂ representation is known.

The definition of the dot product is still given by (1).

The primary use of the dot product is in calculating angles between vectors by
applying the definition of the dot product (eq (1)) in reverse, and also to
determine orthogonality of two vectors (by requiring their dot product to be
zero).