MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
in
ENERGY STUDIES
by
K. LAKSHMANA RAO
2007JES2855
i
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the present work entitled "CONTROL OF SOLID OXIDE FUEL
CELL (SOFC) SYSTEMS IN STAND-ALONE AND GRID CONNECTED MODES",
submitted by Mr. K. LAKSHMANA RAO (2007JES2855) in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of degree of Master of Technology, is a record of his original work
carried out by him. He has worked under my supervision and has fulfilled the requirement for the
submission of this report. The results presented in this work have not been submitted in part or
full to any other university for award of degree/diploma.
Date: 27-05-2009.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
iii
ABSTRACT
As energy consumption rises, one must find suitable alternative means of generation to
supplement conventional existing generation facilities. In this regard, distributed generation
(DG) will continue to play a critical role in the energy supply demand realm. The common
technologies available as DG are micro-turbines, solar, photovoltaic systems, fuel cells stack and
wind energy systems.
In this project, dynamic model of solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) is done. Fuel cells operate
at low voltages and hence fuel cells need to be boosted and inverted in order to connect to the
utility grid. A DC-DC converter and a DC-AC inverter were used for interfacing SOFC with the
grid. These models are built in MATLAB/SIMULINK.
The power characteristics of the fuel cell, DC-DC converter, DC-AC inverter are plotted
for reference real power of 50kW for standalone applications. The power characteristics of the
DC-AC inverter are plotted for 30kW, 50kW, 70kW of load and also for step change in load for
grid connected applications.
iv
CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE ............................................................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iv
CHAPTER I .................................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER II ................................................................................................................................. 13
LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................................................................. 13
v
CHAPTER IV ............................................................................................................................... 18
CHAPTER V................................................................................................................................. 33
vi
5.4.3. SIMULATION MODEL OF CURRENT REGULATOR .......................................... 41
CHAPTER VI ............................................................................................................................... 54
REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................. 56
APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................... 59
BIODATA ..................................................................................................................................... 61
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1. SCHEMATIC OF AN INDIVIDUAL FUEL CELL................................................... 2
FIGURE 2. COMPONENTS OF FUEL CELL STACK ................................................................ 3
FIGURE 3. VOLT-AMP CHARACTERISTICS SOFC ................................................................ 6
FIGURE 4. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A FUEL CELL POWER SYSTEM .................................. 10
FIGURE 5. POWER CONDITIONING SYSTEM ...................................................................... 15
FIGURE 6. DC/DC CONVERTER CONTROL LOOP ............................................................... 16
FIGURE 7. DC/AC CONVERTER CONTROL LOOP ............................................................... 17
FIGURE 8. BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR DYNAMIC MODEL OF SOFC .................................... 20
FIGURE 9. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF DC/DC CONVERTER ................................................... 21
FIGURE 10. SIMULATION CIRCUIT OF SOFC ...................................................................... 22
FIGURE 11. SIMULATION MODEL OF DC/DC CONVERTER ............................................. 23
FIGURE 12. SIMULATION CIRCUIT FOR STANDALONE APPLICATIONS ..................... 24
FIGURE 13. HYDROGEN FLOW OF SOFC ............................................................................. 25
FIGURE 14. OXYGEN FLOW OF SOFC ................................................................................... 26
FIGURE 15. VOLTAGE WAVEFORM OF SOFC ..................................................................... 27
FIGURE 16. OUTPUT VOLTAGE WAVEFORM OF DC/DC CONVERTER ......................... 28
FIGURE 17. DUTY RATIO OF DC/DC CONVERTER............................................................. 29
FIGURE 18. OUTPUT CURRENT WAVEFORM OF INVERTER ........................................... 30
FIGURE 19. OUTPUT VOLTAGE WAVEFORM ACROSS THE LOAD ................................ 31
FIGURE 20. OUTPUT CURRENT WAVEFORM THROUGH THE LOAD ............................ 32
FIGURE 21. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DG CONNECTED TO GRID ........................................ 33
FIGURE 22. INVERTER SWITCHING MODEL WITH RL LOAD AND GRID ..................... 36
FIGURE 23. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CONSTANT CURRENT-CONTROL INVERTER ...... 37
FIGURE 24. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CONSTANT-POWER-CONTROLLED INVERTER ... 38
FIGURE 25 SIMULATION MODEL FOR GRID CONNECTED APPLICATIONS ................ 39
FIGURE 26 SIMULATION MODEL OF POWER REGULATOR ............................................ 40
FIGURE 27. SIMULATION MODEL OF CURRENT REGULATOR ...................................... 41
FIGURE 28. POWER RESPONSE FOR 50KW OF LOAD........................................................ 42
FIGURE 29. CURRENT RESPONSE FOR 50KW OF LOAD ................................................... 43
FIGURE 30. POWER RESPONSE FOR 50KW OF LOAD........................................................ 44
viii
FIGURE 31. CURRENT RESPONSE FOR 30KW OF LOAD ................................................... 45
FIGURE 32. POWER RESPONSE FOR 70KW OF LOAD........................................................ 46
FIGURE 33. CURRENT RESPONSE FOR 70KW OF LOAD ................................................... 47
FIGURE 34. RESPONSE OF POWER FOR STEP CHANGE IN LOAD .................................. 48
FIGURE 35. RESPONSE OF CURRENT FOR STEP CHANGE IN LOAD ............................. 49
FIGURE 36. RESPONSE OF POWER FLOW DURING FAULTS IN LOAD .......................... 50
FIGURE 37. RESPONSE OF CURRENT FLOW DURING FAULTS IN LOAD ..................... 51
FIGURE 38. RESPONSE OF REACTIVE POWER FLOW OF 200 VAR ................................ 52
FIGURE 39. RESPONSE OF REACTIVE POWER FLOW FOR STEP CHANGE ................. 53
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. SUMMARY OF FUEL CELLS ........................................................................................ 4
Table 2. DATA FOR THE INVERTER/RL LOAD/GRID .......................................................... 34
Table 3. PARAMETERS IN SOFC MODEL ............................................................................... 59
Table 4. PARAMETERS IN BOOST DC-DC CONVERTER .................................................... 60
Table 5. Kp & Ki VALUES OF DC-DC CONVERTER ............................................................. 60
Table 6. Kp & Ki VALUES OF DC-AC CONVERTER FOR STANDALONE ......................... 60
Table 7. Kp & Ki VALUES OF DC-AC CONVERTER FOR GRID .......................................... 60
x
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1
1.2.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLE:
The structure and the functioning of a fuel cell is similar to that of a battery except that
the fuel can be continuously fed into the cell. The cell consists of two electrodes, anode (negative
electrode) and cathode (positive electrode) separated by an electrolyte. Fuel is fed into the anode
where electrochemical oxidation takes place and the oxidant is fed into the cathode where
electrochemical reduction takes place to produce electric current and water is the primary
product of the cell reaction.
2
anode, cathode, electrolyte and a bipolar separator plate. The number of cells depends on the
desired power output [5].
3
efficiency. Table 1 gives a basic summary of the characteristics and requirements of the fuel cell
types mentioned above.
Table 1. SUMMARY OF FUEL CELLS
Fuel Cell
PEMFC AFC PAFC MCFC SOFC
Type
Lithium and Solid oxide
Solid polymer Phosphoric
Electrolyte KOH potassium electrolyte (yttria,
(Nafion) acid
carbonate zirconia)
Charge
H+ OH- H+ CO32- O2-
Carrier
H2, CO, CH4,
Pure H2 H2, CO, CH4,
Pure H2 other
(tolerates CO2, other
Fuel (tolerates Pure H2 hydrocarbons
approx. 1% hydrocarbons
CO2) (tolerates
CO) (tolerates CO2)
CO2)
Catalyst Platinum Platinum Platinum Nickel Perovskites
Operation
50–100°C 60–120°C ~220°C ~650°C ~1000°C
Temperature
External
Reformer Yes Yes Yes No No
For CH4
Product
Gaseous
Water Evaporative Evaporative Evaporative Gaseous Product
Product
Management
Process Gas + Process Gas +
Process Gas + Internal Internal
Product Heat Independent Independent
Electrolyte Reforming + Reforming +
Management Cooling Cooling
Circulation Process Gas Process Gas
Medium Medium
Automotive, 200 kW–MW
<5 kW, 2 kW–MW range,
Power Range CHP (5– CHP (200 range, CHP
military, CHP and
/Application 250kW), kW) and
space standalone
portable standalone
4
1.2.3. SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL (SOFC)
The SOFC is a high-temperature operating fuel cell which has high potential in stationary
applications. The efficiency of SOFC is in the range of 45-50% and when integrated with a gas
turbine, it reaches a high efficiency of 70-75%. It is a solid-state device that uses an oxide ion-
conducting non-porous ceramic material as an electrolyte. Since the electrolyte is a solid, the
cells do not have to be constructed in the plate-like configuration typical of other fuel cell types.
Corrosion is less compared to MCFC and no water management problems as in PEMFCs due to
the solid electrolyte. High temperature operation removes the need for a precious-metal catalyst,
thereby reducing the cost. It also allows SOFCs to reform fuels internally, which enables the use
of a variety of fuels and reduces the cost associated with adding a reformer to the system.
The electrolyte used is a ceramic oxide (yttria stabilized zirconia). The anode used is
nickel-zirconia cermets and the cathode is a strontium doped lanthanum manganite. The use of
ceramic materials increases the cost of SOFCs. High operating temperature requires stringent
materials to be used which further drives up the cost. Research is being carried out to reduce the
operating temperature and use less stringent materials Reduction of temperature improves the
starting time, cheaper materials can be used, durability and robustness can be increased.
Intermediate-temperature SOFCs cannot be used for all applications. Higher temperature is
required for fuel cell micro-turbine hybrid systems. However, for smaller systems intermediate
temperature SOFCs would be ideal [9].
Since SOFCs have fuel-flexibility, the input to the anode can be hydrogen, carbon
monoxide or methane. Hydrogen or carbon monoxide may enter the anode. At the cathode,
electrochemical reduction takes place to obtain oxide ions. These ions pass through the
electrolyte layer to the anode where hydrogen is oxidized to obtain water. In case of carbon
monoxide, it is oxidized to carbon dioxide.
5
In this analysis, a reduced model of the fuel cell has been taken into account, neglecting
the activation and concentration losses as well as the double charging effect. The loss due to
internal resistance of the stack is basically due to the resistance to the flow of ions in the
electrolyte as well as the material of the electrode.
In general, it is mainly caused by the electrolyte. Figure shows the typical volt-amp
characteristics of SOFC. Fuel cells have drooping voltage characteristics: an increase in the load
current causes a decrease in the stack voltage. The number of cells is taken to be 450 and the
standard cell potential is 1.18V. Hence the open circuit voltage (OCV) is 531V which decreases
as the load current increases as seen in Figure. The drop is fairly linear in the middle region,
known as region of ohmic polarization. This is the operating region for the fuel cell. The voltage
varies rapidly at lower and higher currents
550
500
450
400
Voltage [Volts]
350
300
250
200
150
100
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Current [Amp]
6
1.2.4. ADVANTAGES – DISADVANTAGES OF FUEL CELL:
Fuel cells have various advantages compared to conventional power sources, such as
internal combustion engines or batteries. Although some of the fuel cells’ attributes are only
valid for some applications, most advantages are more general. However, there are some
disadvantages facing developers and the commercialization of fuel cells as well.
Advantages
Fuel cells eliminate pollution caused by burning fossil fuels; the only byproduct is water.
Since hydrogen can be produced anywhere where there is water and electricity,
production of potential fuel can be distributed.
Installation of smaller stationary fuel cells leads to a more stabilized and decentralized
power grid.
Fuel cells have a higher efficiency than diesel or gas engines.
Most fuel cells operate noise less, compared to internal combustion engines.
Low temperature fuel cells (PEM, DMFC) have low heat transmission which makes them
ideal for military applications.
Earning of carbon credits by using this fuel-cell technology.
Disadvantages
Fuelling fuel cells is still a problem since the production, transportation, distribution and
storage of hydrogen is difficult.
Reforming hydrocarbons via reformer to produce hydrogen is technically
challenging and not clearly environmentally friendly.
Fuel cells are in general slightly bigger than comparable batteries or engines. However,
the size of the units is decreasing.
Some fuel cells use expensive materials.
7
1.3. FUEL CELL APPLICATIONS
Presently there are many uses for fuel cells; for example all of the major automakers are
working to commercialize a fuel cell car. Fuel cells are powering buses, boats, trains, plains,
scooters, and even bicycles. There is a variety of commonly used machines powered by fuel
cells, such as vending machines, vacuum cleaners, and high road signs. Miniature fuel cells for
cellular phones, laptop computers and portable electronics are on their way to the market.
Hospitals, credit card centers, police stations, and banks are all using fuel cells to provide power
for their facilities. Wastewater treatment plants and landfills are using fuel cells to convert the
methane gas they produce into electricity. The possibilities are endless. Main fuel cells
applications can be divided into the following categories:
- stationary,
- residential,
- transportation,
- portable power,
- landfill/wastewater treatment.
More than 2500 fuel cell stationary systems have been installed all over the world — in
hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, office buildings, schools, utility power plants, and airport
terminals, providing primary power or backup. In has been estimated that in large-scale building
systems, fuel cells can reduce facility energy service costs by 20% to 40% over conventional
energy service.
Fuel cells are ideal for residential power generation, either connected to the electric grid to
provide supplemental power and backup assurance for critical areas, or installed as grid-
independent generators for on-site service in areas that are inaccessible by power lines. Since
fuel cells operate silently, they reduce noise pollution as well as air pollution and the waste heat
from a fuel cell can be used to provide hot water or space heating for a house. Many of the
prototypes being tested and demonstrated for residential use extract hydrogen from propane or
natural gas.
All major automotive manufacturers have a fuel cell vehicle either in development or in
testing right now, and Honda and Toyota have already begun leasing vehicles in California and
Japan. Automakers and experts speculate that the fuel cell vehicle will not be commercialized
8
until at least 2010; nevertheless, manufacturers started incorporating fuel cells into buses,
locomotives, airplanes, scooters and golf carts.
Miniature fuel cells, once available to the commercial market, will help consumers talk for
up to a month on a cellular phone without recharging. Fuel cells will change the telecommuting
world, powering laptops and palm pilots hours longer than present day batteries. Other
applications for micro fuel cells include pagers, video recorders, portable power tools, and low
power remote devices such as hearing aids, smoke detectors, burglary alarms, hotel locks, and
meter readers. These miniature fuel cells generally run on methanol, an inexpensive wood
alcohol.
Fuel cells currently operate at landfills and wastewater treatment plants across the country,
proving to be the valid technology for reducing pollution emission and generating power from
the methane gas they produce.
cell to produce hydrogen, CO is also a co-product. Reactions in fuel cells depend substantially
2
on the temperature and pressure inside the cell. A system must be built around the fuel cell to
supply air and clean fuel, convert the energy to a more usable form such as grid quality ac
power, and remove the depleted reactants and heat that are produced by the reactions in the
cells. Figure 4 shows the basic structure of a fuel cell power plant.
9
Figure 4. Block diagram of a fuel cell power system
First stage of a fuel cell power system plant is a fuel processing unit where a conventional
fuel (natural gas, methanol, coil, naphtha, or other gaseous hydrocarbon) is purified into a gas
containing hydrogen. The following stage converts chemical energy to DC electricity using the
stacks of individual fuel cells. Number of stacks used in the power producing section unit
depends on the specific power application. Finally, power conditioner converts DC power
generated by the fuel cell stacks into the regulated AC or DC power suitable for customer usage.
10
1.5. OBJECTIVE
High-temperature fuel cells such as solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) have potential for
centralized power generation as well as combined heat and power. Compared to other fuel cells,
SOFC’s are capable of handling more convenient forms of hydro carbons fuels where they are
highly efficient and tolerant to impurities and its high temperature enables internal reforming
[1].This thesis employs a dynamic model of SOFC presented in[2]
The DC-DC converter boosts the low voltage of the fuel cell as well as regulates the
voltage. The boost converter with a conventional PI controller has been used for the converter
control [6]. In this thesis, boost converter with a PWM closed loop control has been employed.
The DC-AC inverter plays a key role in making the fuel cell DC power available for
standalone applications as well as grid connected applications. This thesis focuses on the
interfacing of the fuel cell system with the utility grid. The duty cycles given to the inverter is
controlled by constant power control scheme for grid connected applications.
In this thesis, MATLAB/SIMULINK has been used to model the dynamic system of
SOFC, DC-DC converter, DC-AC inverter with controllers.
11
1.6 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS
Chapter I of the thesis devoted to an in depth explanation of different fuel cell technologies and
their most important characteristics overview of the fuel cell systems and applications. It briefly
describes typical fuel cell plants and their constituent parts such as fuel processors, power
conversion stages, and conditioners. A comparison between the various fuel cell types is made.
Chapter II presents an overview of the literature review for standalone and grid connected
systems.
Chapter III presents power conditioning system and detailed explanation on closed loop control
of DC-DC Converter and closed loop control of DC-AC converter.
Chapter IV involves the design and modeling of fuel cell, DC-DC converter, DC-AC converter
and constant voltage control strategy for standalone applications. Power, voltage, current
characteristics of fuel cell &DC/DC converter &DC/AC converter are plotted for reference real
power of 50kW.
Chapter V presents constant power control strategy for DC-AC converter for grid connected
applications and it also presents the simulation results of voltage, current, power for DC-AC
converter, for grid and for load at different loading conditions.
Chapter VI presents detailed conclusions on results for standalone and grid connected
applications and also presents future scope of work.
12
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
The fuel cell is a fast growing technology and much research has been going on in this
decade. Fuel cells are gaining much attention because of their light weight, compact size, low
maintenance, and low acoustic and chemical emissions. They can serve as a potential source for
electric power generation for stand-alone as well as for grid-tied applications. Reference [1]
provides a basic approach for fuel cell modeling suitable for distributed generation. A model for
the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) has been developed by various researchers in
[2]-[4] taking its thermodynamic effect into consideration.
Simulation Model of the SOFC is developed using the Reference [5]-[7]. SOFC based
fuel cells for load following stationary applications and control of fuel cell power is studied
elaborately with the References [8]-[10]. buck-boost DC-DC converter with a closed loop PWM
(pulse width Modulation) control strategy as described in Reference [11]-[12] has been
employed. Control Strategy for Grid-Connected DC-AC Converters with Load Power Factor
Correction and A New Power Inverter for Fuel Cells has been studied from [13]-[15].
DC-AC inverter converts the DC power of the fuel cell system into AC power for stand
alone as well as grid connected applications. The voltage source inverter (VSI) plays a vital role
in interfacing the fuel cell-DC-DC system with the utility grid is studied from [16]-[17].
Dynamic model of solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) developed & this model is used to
investigate the short-time overloading capability of the SOFC. Then, the application of this
model in distributed generation (DG) system studies is explored. Controller design
methodologies are also presented for grid-connected SOFC (DG) power conditioning units to
control power flow from the SOFC (DG) to the utility grid [18].
A grid connected fuel-cell plant consists of the fuel cell and the voltage source inverter.
The flux-vector control is used very effectively for the control of this inverter, where the space-
vector pulse width modulation is implemented by artificial neural networks [19].
Control of inverters in distributed source environments such as in isolated ac systems,
large and distributed uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems are explained in [20].
Maximizing performance of a grid-connected PV-fuel cell hybrid system by use of a two-
loop controller was discussed. One loop is a neural network controller for maximum power point
tracking, which extracts maximum available solar power from PV arrays under varying
13
conditions of isolation, Temperature, and system load. A real/reactive power controller (RRPC)
is the other loop. The RRPC meets the system’s requirement for real and reactive powers by
controlling incoming fuel to fuel cell stacks as well as switching control signals to a power
conditioning subsystem was studied in [21].
Distributed resources (DR) include a variety of energy sources, such as micro-turbines,
photovoltaic’s, fuel cells, and storage devices, with capacities in the 1 kW to 10 MW range.
Deployment of DR on distribution networks could potentially increase their reliability and lower
the cost of power delivery by placing energy sources nearer to the demand centers. By providing
a way to by-pass conventional power delivery systems, DR could also offer additional supply
flexibility is explained in detail in [22].
The overall configuration of the PEMFC DG system is given, dynamic models for the
PEMFC power plant and its power electronic interfacing are briefly described, and controller
design methodologies for the power conditioning units to control the power flow from the fuel
cell power plant to the utility grid are presented in [23].
Three-phase grid-connected inverter modeling is done and these models include average
and switching models, and this demonstrates that the schemes work for any multi-phase
inverters, including three-phase and single-phase inverters and it evaluates and validates the
proposed schemes under conditions of practical applications are explained in detail [24].
Distributed Generation will play an increasing role in the electric power system of the
near future. It includes a variety of technologies, such as fuel cells, wind turbines etc in the
power range between 10kW and 100 MW. Control system for the integration of a fuel cell and a
wind turbine generating system has been proposed in this paper [25].
The physical model of the fuel cell stack is described, to properly represent the slow
dynamics associated with the gas flows and the fuel processor operation. Then, suitable control
architecture is presented for the overall system, its objective being to regulate the input fuel flow
in order to meet a desirable output power demand. Then, the power conditioning system,
including the DC/DC and DC/AC converters are presented in [26].
14
CHAPTER III
POWER CONDITIONING UNIT
POWER
FUEL CELL LOAD
CONDITIONING
(SOFC)
UNIT
The power conditioning system provides regulated dc or ac power appropriate for the
application. It is the major component of an FC system. The output of the FC is an unregulated
dc voltage and it needs to be conditioned in order to be of practical use. The power conditioner
section converts the raw power into useable power for different applications. The power
conditioning unit also controls electricity’s frequency and maintains harmonics to an acceptable
level. The purpose of conditioners is to adapt the electrical current from FC to suit the electrical
needs of the application.
The general configuration of the system will be the FC followed by a boost converter
followed by an inverter. In general, the load for the boost stage is a filter and the inverter system
(for stand-alone purpose a purely resistive and a reactive load might be considered). The boost
converters for the FC will be operated in the voltage control mode. The boost converter is ideally
suited for interfacing the inverter system with the FC.
Based on the load conditions, the boost stage can be commanded to draw a specific
amount of current from the FC with a ripple well defined by the frequency, size of the inductor,
and duty ratio. Similarly, the inverter is used for the interfacing of the FC system to the load to
provide the load with voltage/current with proper frequency phase and magnitude where the
input for the inverter comes from the boost converter stage and the inverter (with the filter)
becomes the load for the boost converter. The power conditioner is also used for the grid
connection of the FC. An electrical power-generating system that uses FC as the primary source
of electricity generation and is intended to operate synchronously, and in parallel with the
electric utility network is a grid-connected FC system [3–5].
15
3.1 DC-DC CONVERTER CONTROL LOOP:
PWM
GENERATOR
PI CONTROLLER
The output voltage of FC at the series of the stacks is uncontrolled dc voltage which
fluctuates with load variations. This raw voltage, which is unregulated and uncontrolled, is
regulated to an average value with help of dc/dc converter. The controlled voltage thus obtained
is fed to the dc/ac inverter after it is filtered. The power obtained from this inverter is added to
the grid. This system can be used as a standalone after the dc/dc converter stage if dc power is
needed or after the dc/ac stage if ac power is needed.
This unregulated voltage has to be adjusted to a constant average value (regulated dc
voltage) by adjusting the duty ratio to the required value. The voltage is boosted depending upon
the duty ratio. The duty ratio of the boost converter is adjusted with the help of a PI controller
The duty ratio is set at a particular value for the converter to provide desired average value of
voltage at the output, and any fluctuation in the FC voltage due to change in fuel flow, in the
load or in the characteristics of FC due to the chemistry involved takes the output voltage away
from the desired average value of the voltage.
The PI controller changes the duty ratio properly to get the desired average value. The
duty ratio of the converter is changed by changing the pulses fed to the switch in the dc/dc
converter circuit by the PWM generator.
16
3.2 DC/AC CONVERTER (INVERTER) CONTROL LOOP:
DC/DC DC/AC
CONVERER CONVERER
LC LOAD
FILTER /GRID
PWM
GENERATOR
PI
CONTROLLER
17
CHAPTER IV
SOFC SYSTEM IN STANDALONE MODE
By Nernst’s equation dc voltage V fc across stack of the fuel cell at current I is given by the
following equation.
RT pH2 pO20.5
Vfc = N0E0 + ln −rIfc
(3)
2F pH o
2
18
The main equations describing the slow dynamics of a SOFC can be written as follows.
(5)
!$%
"#! & (6)
'()
*
, "#! 2. / (7)
+ $
*0
+ 1 $ 2 "#! 2. 3 (8)
0 0 0
* 4 !$%
+ 5
$ (9)
4 4
19
τe – Electrical response time (s)
τf– Fuel response time (s)
Uopt – Optimum fuel utilization
rHO – Ratio of hydrogen to oxygen
Kr – Constant (kmol/s A)
Pref – Reference power (kW)
The block diagram representation of the SOFC dynamic model is shown in the Fig
20
4.2 MODELLING OF DC/DC CONVERTER
" 6 (11)
9'
7 1 (12)
9
(9 <)
; (=)
(14)
(9 <)
> (?=9
'
(15)
@)
21
4.3. SIMULATION MODEL OF FUEL CELL (SOFC)
By taking the dynamic model equations of the SOFC and relative data (in appendix) and
simulated it in MATLAB/SIMULINK which was shown in Figure10.
22
4.4. SIMULATION MODEL OF DC/DC CONVERTER
The DC/DC converter boosts the low unregulated voltage to a desired regulated
voltage. The input for the DC/DC converter is the fuel cell voltage and output of the DC/DC
converter is connected to the inverter circuit which was shown in Figure 11.
Chopper
Duty Cycle
L
+ FC +
<IGBT 2>
i t17 t16
3 + 1
- A + t15
-
+ 1
UBus
- v 0.001s+1 Ec Ec dc
+v t13 Uref
- t14 Transfer Fcn
t18
- FC
-
4
2
23
4.5. SIMULATION MODEL OF SOFC IN STANDALONE MODE
Continuous
powergui t
Clock
Vabc
[PWM] t3
t4
PQ t5
t1
Iabc
Inverter
g t2
Vabc [Vabc] Vabc_grid
A
Conn1 +
Iabc Vabc
Goto7 A
Vabc
A Vabc
A A A A A A
a
B a a Iabc
B
B B B B B b B a
b b
B
C b
Conn2 - c C C C c C C C c
C
c
C
t6
Infinite Bus
Subsystem
t7
A B C
Vabc Vabc
A
Iabc
B a
PQ t8
A B C
b
Iabc
C
c
meas FC
A a
B b
C c
Three-Phase Breaker
A B C
A B C
Three-Phase Three-Phase
R Load R Load
Scope6
[Vabc]
Freq From2
abc [Vd] Scope10
Sin_Cos [sin] dq0 Goto8
wt Goto1 [sin] sin_cos
[Vq]
Discrete From3 abc_to_dq0 Terminator1 Goto9
Virtual PLL Transformation
Scope
[Vd_grid] Scope11
Vabc_grid abc
dq0
From8 Goto12
[sin] sin_cos
[Vq_grid]
From5 abc_to_dq0
Terminator4 Goto13
Transformation2
[Vd]
From9 PI
[Vd_grid] Discrete
PI Controller1 t19
From6
[Vq] Discrete
PWM Generator
PI dq0
From12 1
abc Uref Pulses [PWM]
sin_cos z
Discrete
Goto18
[Vq_grid] PI Controller2 dq0_to_abc
Transformation
From7
0
[sin]
From16
24
4.6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
0.65
0.6
H Y D R O G E N F L O W (m o l/ s )
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
TIME (S)
25
4.6.2. OXYGEN FLOW OF SOFC:
Figure 14 shows the oxygen flow of SOFC,The oxygen flow can be obtained
by dividing the hydrogen flow with hydrogen to oxygen ratio. In the data the ratio has been taken
as 1.145. At t=0 the required oxygen flow rate is found to be 0.2395 (mol/s) obtained by
theoretically calculations.
0.6
O X Y G E N F L O W (m o l/ s )
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
TIME (S)
26
4.6.3. VOLTAGE WAVE FORM OF SOFC:
From the equation (3) the fuel cell voltage can be obtained, here the
number of cells connected in series is taken as 450 from the data (appendix). Initially for a
50 kW of load the calculated SOFC voltage is 403V,while increasing the load its value is
coming down to 385V due to the drop in the internal resistance when the load is increased
from 50 kW to 100 kW which was shown in Figure 15.
400
350
V O L T A G E (V )
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
TIME (S)
Figure 15. Voltage waveform of SOFC
27
4.6.4 OUTPUT VOLTAGE WAVE FORM OF DC/DC CONVERTER:
The output voltage of the DC/DC converter is maintained almost constant at 700V
throughout the loading conditions. This is achieved by using a PI controller along with the
DC/DC converter. The function of the PI controller is to reduce the change in error obtained
during the loading. This error will be minimized by choosing the appropriate KP and KI values of
the PI controller. The appropriate values of the KP and KI are 0.0005 and 0.15 respectively which
was shown in Figure 16.
900
800
700
600
v o lta g e (v )
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time (s)
28
4.6.5. DUTY RATIO OF DC/DC CONVERTER:
During the loading conditions output voltage will be changed due to the change in
current according to the equation (3). But we require a desired constant output voltage and this is
possible by changing the duty ratio (DR) of the converter appropriately. Initially DR=0.4242 for
50 kW load and it is increased to 0.4514 in order to make the output voltage constant. According
to this DR, the gate pulses will be generated and the output voltage will be controlled which was
shown in Figure 17.
0.6
0.5
D U T Y R A T IO
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
TIME
29
4.6.6. OUTPUT CURRENT WAVE FORM OF INVERTER
The current is get inverted from DC to AC by an inverter. The three phase instantaneous
line-line current is 96.42 Ampere’s for 50 kW of load and it is increased to 192.45 Ampere’s for
100 kW of load. This current waveform contains some odd harmonics which can be filtered by
using a LC filter which was shown in Figure 18.
INVERTER CURRENT
500
400
300
200
100
CURRENT
-100
-200
-300
-400
-500
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
TIME
30
4.6.7. OUTPUT VOLTAGE WAVE FORM ACROSS THE LOAD:
The voltage across the load is maintained constant and ripple free for varying loading
conditions by the action of the PI controller. This three phase voltage waveform is first converted
into dq0 form, where the controlling is much easier due to the constant values obtained in dq0
form. These dq0 components of voltage compared with the grid voltage and the error is given to
the PI controller and these PI controller output is then given to the PWM generator which in turn
generates the pulses and these pulses given to the inverter which in turn produces a constant
voltage for all loading conditions. The instantaneous L-L voltage value is 615V and the RMS
value is around 434.8V which was shown in Figure 19.
600
400
200
V O LTA G E
-200
-400
-600
-800
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
TIME
31
4.6.8 OUTPUT CURRENT WAVEFORM THROUGH THE LOAD:
The three phase instantaneous L-L current wave form through the load is having the
value of 96.22 and 192.45 Ampere’s for 50 kW and 100 kW of load respectively. This smooth
increment is achieved by tuning the parameters of the PI controller which was shown in Figure
20.
150
100
50
CURRENT
-50
-100
-150
-200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
TIME
32
CHAPTER V
GRID CONNECTED APPLICATIONS:
Figure 21 shows the block diagram of DG connected to load and grid. Although there are
many types of DG, including traditional reciprocating engines, small gas turbines, as well as
emerging technologies such as fuel cells, micro turbines, sterling engines, PV, wind turbines,
etc., basically there are two interfaces for grid interconnection: One is rotating machines,
including synchronous machines and induction machines and the other is inverters—as part of
the overall power conditioning system, inverters convert variable frequency, variable voltage AC
sources or DC sources to regulated frequency/voltage AC sources that can be interconnected to
the grid.
The specifications of the three-phase inverter being modeled are listed in Table 2. The
inverter is based on a GE (General Electrical) Grid-Connected Inverter product platform used for
sterling engines and fuel cells. The majority of grid-connected inverters were single-phase,
mainly for PV applications, more and more new DGs tend to use three-phase inverters as grid
interface. Therefore, the technology for three-phase inverter is gaining more and more practical
value.
33
Table 2. DATA FOR THE INVERTER/RL LOAD/GRID
INVERTER
fs 8000 HZ Switching frequency
Vdc 700 V Dc voltage
Lf 2.1E-3 H Filter inductance
Vl-l 440 V Line-line voltage
Vl-n 254 V Line-neutral voltage
P 50000 W Rated power
PF 1 power factor
P 50000 W Active power output
Q 0 VAR Reactive power output
RL LOAD
R 2.304 Ohm Resistance
L 3.395E-3 H Inductance
fload 50 HZ Load frequency
GRID
f 50 HZ Grid frequency
Vl-l 440 V Line-line voltage
Vl-n 254 V Line-neutral voltage
Lgrid 3.056E-4 H Grid Inductance
Rgrid 0.012 Ohm Grid Resistance
34
Generally, the overall power-conditioning system includes front-end conversion and
regulation, for example, DC/DC conversion for prime movers with DC output (e.g., fuel cell,
PV, Battery), or AC/DC conversion for prime movers with AC output (e.g. micro turbines,
sterling engines). They may have an energy-management system, such as a battery charger, at
the DC bus. In either case, the input to the inverter is a regulated DC source.
In this model, the input to the inverter is simplified as a DC voltage source. Another
simplification is the inverter output filters, which could have different variations in practical
applications; for example, the output filter could include L, or LCL, or LC plus a transformer,
with or without harmonic filters, etc. To simplify the analysis here, only an L (inductor) filter is
considered.
35
Figure 22. Inverter Switching Model with RL Load and Grid
36
practical issues are not modeled, e.g. negative sequence regulation, DQ decoupling, device
protection, etc.
37
Figure 24. Block diagram of constant-power-controlled inverter
Here the inverter output power is compared with the reference power and the error is
given to the PI controller, the output of the PI controller represents direct axis current component
(D-axis), similarly by comparing the reactive powers, quadrature axis current component (Q-
axis) component is obtained. These current components is compared with the inverter output
currents and the error is given to the PI controllers, the output of the PI controller is current
signals which in turn given to the PWM generator and generate the pulses at switching frequency
and then fed to the inverter switches.
38
5.4 SIMULATION MODELS:
The SIMULINK model of inverter, current regulator, and power regulator for grid
connected applications and its results are presented below.
39
5.4.2. SIMULATION MODEL OF POWER REGULATOR
40
5.4.3. SIMULATION MODEL OF CURRENT REGULATOR
41
5.5. SIMULATION RESULTS FOR GRID CONNECTED APPLICATIONS:
In this grid connected application, SOFC will produce constant (reference) power of
50kW at all loading conditions. Depends upon any particular loading condition for this
centralized application, grid will take power from the fuel cell (SOFC) or it will give power to
the load.
0
-1000
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
4
x 10
5
P inv (W)
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
4
x 10
P load(W)
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
4
x 10
6
P grid(W)
4
2
0
-2
-4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time
42
For 50kW of load the current flowing through the load is 92.78 amps which is coming
from the fuel cell system (i.e. from inverter) and the current flowing through the grid is zero at
steady state. In this simulation for grid connected application, the voltage is maintained constant
value L-L 440Vrms (440√2 =622V peak value) for all loading conditions which was shown in
Figure 29.
-1000
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
200
Iin v (A )
-200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
100
Ilo a d (A )
-100
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
200
I g r id (A )
0
-200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time
43
5.5.2 RESPONSE FOR 30KW OF LOAD:
by the grid, then F" is considered as positive otherwise negative. The positive value of F"
in the below plot indicates that grid is taking the remaining power from the fuel cell system (i.e.
from inverter) after supplying to the load. At this loading condition also voltage at the inverter,
load is maintained constant which was shown in Figure 30.
-1000
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
4
x 10
5
P in v (W )
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
4
x 10
4
P lo a d (W )
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
4
x 10
6
P g r id (W )
4
2
0
-2
-4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time
44
The current flowing from the inverter is 92.78 amps (peak) which is constant for the
reference power of 50kW. For 30kW of loading condition, the current flowing through the load
is 55.67(peak) amps which is coming from the fuel cell system (i.e. from inverter) and the
remaining current 37.11 amps (peak) flowing through the grid which is shown in Figure 31.
-1000
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
200
I in v (A )
-200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
100
I lo a d (A )
-100
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
200
I g r id (A )
0
-200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time
Figure 31. Current response for 30kW of load
45
5.5.3 RESPONSE FOR 70KW OF LOAD:
negative value i.e. grid (F" ) is supplying the power to the load according to its requirement.
For 70kW of load, fuel cell system is supplying 50kW (reference power) and remaining 20kW is
supplied from the grid which is shown in Figure 32.
0
-1000
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
4
x 10
5
P inv (W )
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
4
x 10
10
P load (W )
5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
4
x 10
6
P grid (W )
4
2
0
-2
-4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time
46
For 70kW of loading condition, the current flowing through the load is 129.89 (peak)
amps and the current coming from the fuel cell system (i.e. from inverter) is 92.78 amps (peak)
which is constant for the reference power of 50kW and the remaining current 37.11 amps (peak)
is coming from the grid which is shown in Figure 33.
-1000
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
200
Iin v (A )
-200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
200
Ilo a d (A )
-200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
200
Ig r id (A )
0
-200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time
47
5.5.4 RESPONSE FOR STEP CHANGE IN LOAD:
When there is a sudden change in the load from 40kw to 80kw, both the power taken by
the grid and power given to the grid is possible. Up to 0.5 sec the load is 40kW so remaining
10kW of power is given to the grid. After 0.5 sec the load is 80kW, so the grid will supply
30kWof power to the load which was shown in Figure 34.
-1000
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
4
x 10
5
P in v (W )
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
4
x 10
10
P lo a d (W )
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
4
x 10
6
P g r id (W )
4
2
0
-2
-4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time
48
For step change in load, the current flowing through the load below 0.5sec is 74.22 (peak)
amps and the current coming from the fuel cell system (i.e. from inverter) is 92.78 amps (peak)
which is constant for the reference power of 50kW and the remaining current 18.55 amps (peak)
is going to the grid. After 0.5 sec load is 80kW ,so the current flowing through the load is
148.45 (peak) amps and the current coming from the fuel cell system (i.e. from inverter) is 92.78
amps (peak) and the remaining current 55.69 amps (peak) is coming from the grid which is
shown in Figure 35.
-1000
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
200
Iinv (A )
-200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
200
Iload (A )
-200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
200
Igrid (A )
0
-200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time
49
5.5.5 RESPONSE FOR OCCURRENCE OF FAULT IN LOAD:
-1000
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
4
x 10
5
P inv (W )
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
4
x 10
P load (W )
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
4
x 10
6
P grid (W )
4
2
0
-2
-4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time
50
In Fig 37, the current flow through the load upto 0.2 sec is zero i.e. all the phases are switched
off and between 0.2 and 0.4 sec, only one phase current is flowing in the load and between 0.4
and 0.6sec, current flow takes place in two phases and after 0.6 sec current flow through load
will be in all the three phases i.e. load became healthy at 0.6 sec. and after 0.7 sec load is
increased from 40kW to 80kW and respective current flows are shown in Figure 37.
-1000
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
200
Iinv (A)
-200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
200
Iload(A)
-200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
200
Igrid(A)
0
-200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time
51
5.5.6. RESPONSE OF REACTIVE POWER FLOW:
Fig 38 shows the reactive power flow in the load and grid. Q ref injected into the grid from
the inverter is taken as zero, if load demand 200 VAR inductive reactive power then it will be
supplied by the grid which is shown in Figure 38. Negative sign in the grid plot indicates that
grid is supplying inductive reactive power to the load.
-0.1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
200
Q LOA D (V A R)
-200
-500
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time
52
For a step change in inductive reactive power flow, the load inductive reactive power is
200 VAR until 0.5 sec and after 0.5 sec, it increases to 400 VAR. Grid supplies this increased
inductive reactive power which is shown in Figure 39. Q ref injected into the grid is zero for all
loading conditions.
0.1
0
-0.1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Q L O A D (V A R )
400
200
0
-200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Q GRID (V A R )
500
0
-500
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
4
P L OA D (W A T T S )
x 10
10
5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time
53
CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
6.1. CONCLUSIONS
A dynamic model of the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) was developed in this project in
MATLAB environment setup.
A DC-DC boost converter topology and its closed loop control feedback system have been built.
A three phase inverter has been modeled and connected between the SOFC-DC-DC system on
the one side and the utility grid on the other side. A control strategy for the inverter switching
signals has been discussed and modeled successfully.
The fuel cell, the converter and the inverter characteristics were obtained for a reference
real power of 50kW.The slow response of the fuel cell is due to the slow and gradual change in
the fuel flow which is proportional to the stack current. The interconnection of the fuel cell with
the converter boosts the stack voltages and also regulates it for varying load current conditions.
The fuel cell stack voltage drops to zero for discontinuous current and the system shuts down.
The fuel cell unit shuts off for real power above the maximum limit. Additional power at the
converter is provided by the inductor, connected in series with the equivalent load which acts as
an energy storage. The inductor can be replaced by any energy storage device such as a capacitor
or a battery for providing additional power during load transients.
The inverter control scheme uses a constant power control strategy for grid connected
applications and a constant voltage control strategy for standalone applications to control the
voltage across inverter and current flowing through the load. The characteristics for the system
have been obtained. The inverter voltage, current, power waveform have been plotted. The real
power injection into the grid takes less than 0.1s to reach the commanded value of 50kW. The
reactive power injection has been assumed to be zero and was evident from the simulation
results. The maximum power limit on the fuel cell is 400kW. For any reference power beyond
this limit, the fuel cell loses stability and drops to zero. This limit has been set by the parameters
considered for the fuel cell data. Higher power can be commanded by either increasing the
number of the cells, increasing the reversible standard potential or by decreasing the fuel cell
resistance.
54
The system was then subjected to a step change in the reference real power from 40 to
80kW.The fuel cell, the converter and the inverter responses were obtained. The characteristics
of the fuel cell (voltage, current and power) have a slower gradual change at the instant of step
change. The DC link voltage was maintained at the reference value by the closed loop control
system. Step change in the reference power from 40 to 80kW has been considered in order to
observe the sharing of power from inverter to grid and from grid to the load of the fuel cell. The
reactive power was zero until the step change and after the step change, oscillations were
observed in the reactive power as well. Voltage, current, power characteristics of inverter, load
and grid as been plotted for various conditions of load.
55
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58
APPENDIX
59
SYSTEM DATA
L 0.0005H
C 7500µF
rc 0.2ohm
Kp 0.0005
Ki 0.15
Kp 0.4
Ki 500
Kp 0.4 1.5
Ki 3000 4000
60
BIODATA
EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS:
QUALIFICATION INSTITUTE
M.TECH (ENERGY STUDIES) IIT DELHI
B.TECH (ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS) GAYATRI VIDYA PARISHAD
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
VISAKHAPATNAM.
PRESENT ADDRESS:
KOSURU LAKSHMANA RAO,
ROOM N0: A-46,
NLGIRI HOSTEL,
IIT DELHI
HAUZ KHAS,
NEW DELHI -110016.
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61
62